NOTES
Introduction
1. Ramachandran describes his research in his excellent book Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries of the Human Mind (New York, 1998).
2. There is one word designated for the happiness that gives one a pleasant feeling (sukha), another for the satisfaction one gets from an accomplishment (krtarthata), others yet for joy (ananda) and for the pleasant physical feeling after yoga exercises (sampad). There’s even a word for the excited happiness one experiences after the fear that comes from having seen the Divinity.
3. The experiment was conducted by the American cultural psychologist Paul Rozin. He used the classical Indian treatise on dramaturgy, the Natyashashtra. Written more than 2000 years ago, it contains the oldest transmitted discussion of acting and feelings in drama. While the negative feelings described in the Natyashashtra largely correspond to our own, the Indian text contains many more kinds of happiness than exist in Western culture. See Hejmadi, Davidson and Rozin 2000.
4. These are conservative estimates. See Kessler et al. 2005 and references cited therein.
5. The fewest number of reported suicides are in South America, Africa and some Asian countries. Argentina, for example, has, relative to the size of its population, half as many suicides as Germany. In some countries like Egypt, there are hardly any suicides at all. See Demographic Yearbook of the United Nations, editions from 1981 to 1997.
6. The risk that a Parisian, for example, who was born between 1945 and 1954 suffered a serious depression before the age of 15 was barely 4 percent. For those born in the following ten years, the risk increased to 12 percent. The figures for American cities are similar. See Cross-National Collaborative Group, “The Changing Rate of Major Depression,” JAMA 268 (v. 21), pp. 3,098–3,105 (1992).
7. No one knows just what it is that causes this psychological suffering. Possible reasons: urbanization, work-related stress, divorce rates, or the decline of physical labor. One thing, however, is certain: the alarming increase in depression cannot be explained simply by asserting that more people are seeking and receiving psychological help earlier.
8. Currently the consequences of serious depression (major unipolar depression) rank fourth on the World Health Organization’s list of leading causes of disability worldwide. See Murray and Lopez 1997.
9. Isen 1987; Isen and Daubmann 1984; Murray et al. 1990; Frederickson 1998.
10. Isen 2001; Basso 1996; Baron 1987; Myers 1987.
Chapter 1: The Secret of Smiling
1. There are good summaries of Ekman’s studies in Ekman 1999, Ekman 1993.
2. Ito and Cacioppo 2000.
3. Ekman et al 1990.
4. Duchenne 1991.
5. Birnbaumer and Schmidt 1999.
6. Damasio 1995.
7. Bechera et al. 1997.
8. Pascal 1980.
9. An extensive discussion of the differences between feelings and emotion is found in Damasio 2000.
10. Damasio et al. 2000.
11. Damasio 2000.
12. Critchley, Mathias and Dolan 2001; Damasio 2000.
13. Tatarkiewicz 1976.
14. Ekman and Davidson 1993.
Chapter 2: Positive Feelings as a Compass
1. Damasio 1995.
2. Bechara et al. 1994.
3. Ito et al. 1998; Crites et al. 1995.
4. Aristotle 1998.
Chapter 3: The Happiness System
1. Birnbaumer and Schmidt 1999.
2. Ramachandran 2001.
3. Right hemispheric neurons that respond to unpleasant stimuli: Kawasaki H. et al. 2001. On left hemispheric counterparts see Damasio 2001.
4. Davidson et al. 2000.
5. Fox and Davidson 1984.
6. This applies to right-handed people. Because there are fewer left-handed people, they are almost never considered in this kind of study. So we don’t know what the effects of right brain dominance (left-handedness) are on the processing of feelings. But there are indications that a somewhat higher frequency of emotional troubles occurs among left-handers than in the general population.
7. Damasio 1995.
8. Ekman 1990.
9. For the underlying neurobiology, see Zieglgänsberger and Spanagel 1999.
10. See, for example, Horn 1998, Russell 1946.
11. PET scans and functional MRIs show that the activity in the left prefrontal cortex is in inverse relation to the activity in the amygdala. As activity in the left prefrontal cortex increases, activity decreases in the amygdala, and vice versa. See Abercrombie et al. 1996.
12. Jackson et al. 2000.
13. Mallick and McCandless 1966; Travis 1989.
14. Wheeler, Davidson and Tomarken 1993; Davidson and Tomarken 1993.
15. R. Davidson, personal communication with the author; Davidson et al. 1999.
16. Davidson and Fox 1989.
17. Lykken and Tellegen 1996.
18. Lykken 1999.
19. Francis et al. 2000.
20. R. Davidson: personal communication.
Chapter 4: The Malleable Brain
1. Naj 1992.
2. For summaries see Rozin 1990; Bayens at al. 1996; Stevenson and Yeomans 1995.
3. Rozin 1990.
4. Kleist 1985.
5. Klein 2000.
6. Cited in Horn 1998.
7. Horn 1998.
8. O’Craven and Kanwisher 2000.
9. Ovid: Metamorphoses, XV, 147–151.
10. Bonhoeffer used a so-called two-photon fluorescence microscope, which enables one to see the changes in the neurons three-dimensionally and in real time.
11. Engert and Bonheoffer 1999.
12. This description is fundamentally correct, but somewhat simplified. The direct connection between stimulus and emotional reaction is due primarily to the connection between the subcortical regions, which release the emotions, and the prefrontal cortex, which suppresses the formation of strong emotions.
13. There are good reasons why the plasticity of the areas of the cerebrum that are responsible for perception and the body’s movement have been studied more than other parts of the brain. The so-called somatosensory cortex (“soma” is classical Greek for “body”) is immediately beneath the top of the skull and can therefore be viewed relatively easily with probes and scanners. But it’s very likely that similar neuroplastic processes (as researchers in gray-cell reprogramming call them) occur in many other regions. Since these changes in the brain have been studied only relatively recently, much research still needs to be done.
14. Pascual-Leone and Torres 1993; Pascual-Leone et al. 1995.
15. Similar observations were made in cellists, whose brain areas for the fingers of the left hand, which plays on the fingerboard, are clearly larger than those of the right hand, which simply holds the bow. When neurologists examined the brains of secretaries and mechanics with fine-motor skills, they found an unusually large number of neuron branches for the sense of touch and finger control. Ebert et al 1995; Scheibel et al. 1990.
16. Maguire et al. 2000.
17. The molecular processes of short and long-term potentiation are described extensively in Kandel et al. 1996.
18. Cohen-Cory and Fraser 1995; McAllister et al. 1995.
19. Duman, Heninger and Nestler 1997.
20. Bailey and Chen 1983.
21. A change of this kind could not be found in a comparison group that was not treated. Baxter et al. 1992; Schwartz et al. 1996.
22. Brody et al. 2001.
23. Bench et al. 1995.
24. Kandel, Schwartz and Jessell 1995.
25. Wurtz and Goldberg 1989.
26. Radhakrishnan 2000.
27. Flor 2002.
28. Thich Nhat Hanh 1995.
29. Dalai Lama and Cutler 1998.
Chapter 5: Origins in the Animal Kingdom
1. LeDoux 1996.
2. de Waal 1996.
3. Nesse and Berridge 1997.
4. Pedersen et al. 1982.
5. Blaffer Hrdy 1999.
6. Descartes 1984.
Chapter 6: Desire
1. All citations are taken from Sacks 1973, which also includes a detailed report of Leonard’s illness.
2. More precisely, L-Dopa is the precursor substance that the brain itself naturally transforms into dopamine. There would be little sense in giving dopamine directly to a patient: since it can’t pass the blood-brain barrier, it would be filtered out of the blood on its way to the brain.
3. The recipients of the flow of dopamine are the centers of the cerebral cortex that are responsible for our pursuing our goals, as well as controlling the voluntary muscles. Other dopamine branches reach the nucleus accumbens in the prefrontal cortex, which plays an important role in the memory of good experiences, and the amygdala, which releases emotions and stores them in memory. As one goes through this listing, it’s notable how many parts of the brain receive dopamine signals. That is why this transmitter has such an impact on the functioning of the brain, influencing our thoughts and feelings, how we see the world and act in it.
4. People suffering from Parkinson’s disease, who also suffer from dopamine deficiency, now receive L-Dopa regularly. There are side effects, but they’re minor. Nonetheless, L-Dopa (also called Lovodopa) and similar medications are not a cure-all for Parkinson’s. Their effectiveness diminishes over time because increasing numbers of cells in the substantia negra degenerate.
5. Dopamine can also have an inhibiting effect on some neurons. See Zieglgänsberger and Spanagel 1999.
6. Wickelgren 1997.
7. Schultz, Apicella and Ljungberg 1992 and 1993; Schultz, Dayan and Montague 1997; Wickelgren 1997.
8. Schultz 2000.
9. Montague, Dayan, Person and Sejnowski 1995.
10. This process has been shown to occur in living rats’ brains. After ten minutes, the coupling strength of the neurons in the midbrain, which control behavior, changed.
11. This does not mean, however, that the bees experience something similar to human pleasure when they discover an especially rich blossom. A bee doesn’t need feelings, which serve to steer complex beings through their intricate lives. A bee lives only in the present. Unlike humans, it can’t mentally juggle the possibilities presented by the future and ask itself, for example, whether it wouldn’t rather watch television than go out and gather honey.
12. Elliott, Friston and Dolan 2000.
13. Koepp et al. 1998.
14. Fiorino, Coury and Phillips 1997.
15. Rodriguez-Manzo and Fernandez-Guasti 1994; 1995.
16. Rolls 1999; Hamer 1998.
17. Baker and Bellis 1995.
18. Marina Maria Morsini, the daughter of one of Venice’s foremost patrician families, is identified in Casanova’s memoirs only as M.M. But there is no question as to her identity. See Casanova 1964.
19. Vincent 1990.
20. Aristotle 1998.
21. Turning off curiosity is difficult and requires strong measures. People who suffer from schizophrenia can temporarily lose their curiosity when doctors give them halperidol, a drug that blocks dopamine’s natural effect. Sometimes there’s no alternative but to give a strong dose of this medication to patients suffering from major attacks in order to protect them from their own fantasies. Halperidol moderates the insanity, but it also hampers one’s ability to move, and it diminishes desire and curiosity. It’s sad to see such people shuffling stiffly in hospital corridors as if they were automatons, interested in nothing.
22. It’s different with aspects of one’s personality such as fearfulness or being prone to anger, when the particular circumstances are much more important in determining how someone responds. It’s usually not justifiable to label someone “fearful” or “anger-prone”—but there are certainly people who are innately more curious, or less so. See Spielberger 1975; Panskepp 1990.
23. Blum 1996.
24. In the Berlin edition of 1964.
25. Isen, personal communication, and Isen et al. 1991.
26. Ashby et al. 2001; Ashby et al. 1999.
27. The particular impact of dopamine on the gyrus cinguli is noteworthy. Parkinson patients, who suffer from dopamine deficiency, can retain new impressions and control their attention only with difficulty.
28. On dopamine and schizophrenia, see Feldman et al. 1997.
Chapter 7: Enjoyment
1. McInerney, 2000.
2. Breiter conducted his experiments on addicts taking cocaine—a particularly drastic example.
3. Murphy et al. 1990.
4. Pfeiffer 1996.
5. Cromwell and Berridge 1993.
6. Cooper and Kirkham 1993.
8. This is shown by the example of rat mothers who were willing to care for completely unknown rat babies when opiates were artificially released in their brains. See Thompson and Kristal, 1996.
8. Odyssey, 1996
9. Lewin 1964.
10. Loomis et al. 1898, cited in Panksepp 1998.
11. In a letter to Theodor Storm, cited in Randow 2001.
12. Montmayeur et al. 2001; Max et al. 2001.
13. Vincent 1996.
14. Kurihara and Kashiwayanagi 1998; Rolls 1999.
15. Kerverne et al. 1989.
16. Panksepp et al. 1980.
17. Panksepp 1998.
18. Herz and Spanagel 1995.
19. Nuñez et al. 1998.
20. Sapolsky 1998.
21. Namely in the hypothalamus and the striatum, two centers under the cerebral cortex that are responsible for arousal, movement, and desire. See Persky 1987; Panksepp 1998.
22. Kohelet 2; 11, 17.
Chapter 8: The Dark Side of Desire
1. Olds and Milner 1954; Olds 1977.
2. Reynolds et al. 2001.
3. Reynolds et al. 2001.
4. Smith 1971.
5. Breiter et al. 2001.
6. Zeiglgänsberger and Spanagel 1999.
7. Sell et al. 1999.
8. This is especially valid for addiction to alcohol and nicotine addictions, by far the most widespread of dependencies. By contrast, many people (and, it seems, also lab animals) perceive cocaine and heroine as pleasant the first time they take it.
9. Linsky et al. 1985.
10. Grinspoon and Bakalar 1986.
11. Marlatt et al. 1975.
12. Charles O’Brien, University of Pennsylvania, personal communication with the author.
13. Piazza et al. 1989.
14. Thanos et al. 2001.
15. Wecker 1998.
16. “Die Kokain-Gesellschaft.” In: Der Spiegel 44/2000.
Chapter 9: Love
1. Moss 1978; Vincent 1996.
2. Ferguson et al. 2000; 2001.
3. Young et al. 1999.
4. Insel and Young 2000.
5. Insel and Young 2001.
6. Imperato-McGinley 1974.
7. Kandel et al. 1996.
8. Carter 1998.
9. Oomura et al. 1988.
10. Nonetheless, these mechanisms of sexual desire utilize the all-purpose system for desire, as described in chapters 6 and 8. In animal experiments, if dopamine’s effect is blocked, sexual desire vanishes entirely.
11. LeVay 1993.
12. LeVay 1991.
13. Kandel 1996.
14. Murphy et al. 1987.
15. Landgraf et al. 1992.
16. This was demonstrated in a strain of rats in which a genetic defect caused a vasopressin deficiency. Panskepp 1998.
17. Sodersten et al. 1983.
18. Carmichael et al. 1994.
19. Goldfoot et al. 1980.
20. Bartels and Zeki 2001.
21. Panksepp 1998.
22. Krican et al. 1995.
23. Lorberbaum et al. 1999.
24. McCarthy 1990.
25. Insel and Young 2001.
26. Uvnäs-Mosberg et al. 1990.
27. Argyle 1987.
28. Kobrin and Hendershot 1977.
29. Psychologie Heute 03/2001.
Chapter 10: Friendship
1. Sapolsky et al. 1997.
2. Sapolsky 2001.
3. Argyle and Lu 1990; Okun et al. 1984.
4. House et al. 1989; Argyle 2000.
5. Spiegel et al. 1989; Spiegel 1991.
6. For comprehensive, current and clearly presented information, see the homepages of the National Cancer Institute (http://www.cancer.gov), the University of Pennsylvania’s OncoLink (http://www.oncolink.upenn.edu), and the American Cancer Society (http://www.cancer.org).
7. Berkman 1983; House et al. 1988.
8. Sapolsky 2000.
9. Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 1984.
10. Coe et al. 1989.
11. Riley 1981.
12. Rosengren et al. 1993.
13. Panskepp 1998.
14. Panskepp 1998.
15. Field et al. 1986.
16. The medieval chronicler Salimbene of Parma, quoted in Montagu 1974.
17. Winslow and Insel 1991.
18. Surprisingly, addictive drugs calm restlessness caused by loneliness better than standard tranquilizers, which are otherwise effective against anxiety. Panskepp sees this as further proof for his thesis that we have a dedicated brain circuit that causes people in isolation to panic, and therefore makes us seek closeness to others. If fear of spiders and elevators is treated most effectively with Valium and similar medications (so-called benzodiazepines), and loneliness, on the other hand, with opiates, so these two variants of fear must be fundamentally different and come about in different ways. See Panskepp 1998.
19. Cocteau 1998.
20. On ecstasy and dopamine, see, for example, Liechti and Vollenweider 2000, Obradovic et al. 1996.
21. A. Shulgin: personal communication with the author. This passage should not be misunderstood as a recommendation to take Ecstasy. Although this drug probably does not result in addiction, there are indications that it damages the brain when used repeatedly. Furthermore, the pills that are normally available are almost never pure Ecstasy (chemically MDMA) but almost always a mixture that includes other substances. This makes it difficult to predict its effect on the user and thus riskier. But in spite of the danger of misuse, the effects of drugs have brought valuable insights to science.
22. de Waal 1997.
23. de Waal and Berger 2000.
24. de Waal 1997.
25. Damasio 2000.
Chapter 11: Passion—A User’s Manual
1. For further information, see chapter 14.
2. Biddle and Mutrie 1991.
3. Scully et al. 1998.
4. Biddle and Mutrie 1991.
5. Moses et al. 1989.
6. Rolls 1999; O’Doherty et al. 2000.
7. Tagore 1976.
8. Zajonc 1968; Frederick and Loewenstein 2000.
9. Naipaul 1991.
10. Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 1987; Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 1994.
11. Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 1994.
12. Montaigne 2001.
13. The experiments that Jaak Panksepp undertook on young rats are interesting in this connection. Playful fighting is their primary expression of social contact. Rats that are given a small dose of morphium win these fights. Apparently a kind of social confidence is enhanced that enables the animal to easily win the upper hand. See Panskepp et al. 1985.
14. Meyers 1992.
15. Robins and Rieger 1991.
16. House et al. 1988. Corresponding differences are evident even in mortality rates. The life expectancy of people who live alone is much lower in all age brackets than among people who live with a partner or in a family. See Stroebe and Stroebe 1991.
17. Argyle 2000. A relationship with a long-term partner gives life stability. This seems to be another explanation for the greater well-being of people who are in such relationships. Happiness and health force us to look after ourselves, even if it’s sometimes inconvenient, and our partners make sure we stick with it. Thus, the lack of freedom in a committed relationship has its advantages.
18. Panksepp 1998.
Chapter 12: Conquering Our Shadows
1. According to the internationally recognized DSM-IV criteria, a suspicion of serious depression is warranted when on every day (or almost every day) within two weeks a person experiences at least five of the following symptoms: sadness; a sharply diminished interest, or no interest, in all or almost all activities; significant weight loss or weight gain, or decreased or increased appetite; sleeplessness or too much sleep; physical restlessness; tiredness or loss of energy; feelings of worthlessness or guilt; recurring thoughts of death or suicide.
Further information and resources can be found at the Institute of Mental Health, http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/depression.cfm.
2. Lindner 1968.
3. Hiroto 1974.
4. Bench et al. 1995. Rogers et al. 1998 give an overview of the many brain scan studies on depression.
5. Henriques and Davidson 2000.
6. Baker et al. 1997.
7. Wenzlaff 1993.
8. Matt et al. 1992.
9. Sapolsky 1998.
10. Solomon 2001 gives an impressive firsthand account in conjunction with research results and a literature review.
11. Rogers et al. 1998.
12. Vogel 2000.
13. Rajkowska 2000.
14. Wayne Drevets, a University of Pittsburgh psychiatrist, found certain parts of the prefrontal cortex diminished by 40 percent. Not only the neurons but the so-called glia cells, which support and clean the actual nerve cells, also atrophy.
That depression has an effect on the brain structure is a new discovery, though it’s not yet universally accepted. It has been found that depression change brain structure not only in humans but also in monkeys and rats. See Duman et al. 2000.
15. Vogel 2000.
16. Lopez et al. 1999; Lopez et al. 1998.
17. Malberg et al. 2000.
18. Duman et al. 1997.
19. Baker et al. 1997.
20. R. Davidson, personal communication; Robbins 2000.
21. Kempermann et al. 1997.
22. Chaouloff 1997.
23. Blumental et al. 1999; Babyak et al. 2000; Steptoe et al. 1996.
24. Elkin et al. 1989.
25. Comer 2001.
26. Berk and Efran 1983; Svartberg and Stiles 1991.
27. For recommended guides to this method see Seligman 1991; Schwartz 1998.
Chapter 13: The Power of Perspective
1. Brickman, Coates and Janoff-Bulman 1978. 11 paraplegics, 18 quadraplegics and 22 lottery winners were interviewed. Subsequent studies, in which several hundred patients were interviewed, produced the same results.
2. Frederick and Loewenstein 2000.
3. N. Schwarz, personal communication with the author.
4. Kahneman 2000.
5. Medvec et al. 1995.
6. Parducci 1968.
7. Seligman 1991 gives a good overview.
8. Smith, Diener and Garonzik 1990.
9. Montaigne 2001.
10. Schwarz et al. 1988.
11. Strack et al. 1990.
12. Russell 1977.
13. Brown 1978.
14. Epictetus 1995.
15. Diener 1985.
16. Löwer 2000.
17. Diener et al. 1993; Haring et al. 1984.
18. Brickman and Campbell 1971.
19. Schmuck et al. 2000; Kasser and Ryan 1996; Kasser and Ryan 1993; Ryan et al. 1999.
20. The effects were similar to those in a standard cognitive behavioral therapy. Fava et al. 1998; Fava 1999.
Chapter 14: Rapturous Moments
1. Luxemburg 2000.
2. Matthew 14: 28–31.
3. Rees et al. 1997.
4. Although the primate researcher Jane Goodall reports observing chimpanzees in the wild dancing joyfully under waterfalls, other primatologists are skeptical of an interpretation according to which the chimps’ happiness derives from their perception of water as a life-giving force. It’s much more likely that they simply enjoyed playing in the water.
5. Konsalik and Goetsche 1998.
6. Czikszentmihalyi 1992.
7. Lavie 1995.
8. Caplan et al. 1975.
9. Further research is required to confirm this theory. It would be expensive but absolutely doable with current techniques. One could, for example, experimentally give people who are engaged in intellectually demanding activities medication that blocks particular neurotransmitters. Another possibility would be to use scanning to observe the brains of experimental subjects while they’re engaged in a given activity.
10. Durstewitz et al. 1999.
11. Wallace and Benson 1972.
12. Begley 2001.
13. Acts 9: 4.
14. On the mystical experiences of historical figures see Engel 1989; LaPlante 1993.
15. Newberg et al. 2001; Saver and Rabin 1997.
16. The firsthand accounts are reported in Begley 2001.
17. Newberg’s findings are consistent with other studies. See Lazar et al. 2000.
18. Cook and Persinger 1997.
Chapter 15: The Magic Triangle
1. Incomes have risen about eightfold since the 1950s, and purchasing power is at least three times what it was. The difference in the two figures is a result of inflation.
2. Brecht 1979.
3. In the United States, the average purchasing power has increased enormously in the past fifty years, while the proportion of the population that describes itself as happy remains stubbornly at 33 percent. See Myers and Diener 1995.
4. This relationship still holds when one removes the formerly communist countries, which have undergone a difficult political and social transformation, from consideration.
5. Diener and Suhk 2000.
6. Sen 1999.
7. Wilkinson 1996.
8. Adler 2001.
9. Source: OECD-Document DEELSA/ELSA/WD (2000) 3.
10. Kawachi et al. 1997; Kaplan et al. 1996.
11. Measured against the proportion of total income earned by the poorest 20 percent of the population. Source: Economic Policy Institute, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. There are other indicators for income distribution, but the correlation between inequality of income and mortality remains independent of whatever indicator is used. See Kennedy, Kawachi and Prothrow-Stith 1996; Kawachi and Kennedy 1997.
12. Wilkinson 1996.
13. For a good overview, see the World Bank: www.worldbank.org/poverty/inequality/intro.htm.
14. Kopp 2000; Kopp et al. 2000; WHO Regional Office for Europe: Atlas of Mortality in Europe 1980/81 and 1990/91. WHO Regional Publications, European Series, No. 75. Copenhagen 1997
15. Egolf et al. 1992; Bruhn and Wolf 1979
16. On the relation between cancer and the mind, see chapter 10, including endnote 6.
17. One of the earliest and still one of the best studies is the so-called Alameda Study, in which social researchers followed the lives of the inhabitants of Alameda County, California, in minute detail for a decade. See Berkman and Syme 1979. An analysis of the development of life expectations in England during the two world wars shows the enormous significance of an equitable distribution of goods, a sense of community, and a shared interest in society. From the worker up to the Peers of the Realm, food rationing was at the same low level across the board. Although economic productivity fell, from 1914 to 1918 and from 1940 to 1945, life expectancy in England was much higher than in the decades before or afterward. See Wilkinson 1996; Sen 1999.
18. The thesis that the egalitarian society of the Netherlands can be traced back to the constant threats from the sea stems from the English social historian Simon Schama. Cf. Shermer 2000.
19. All these quotations can be found in Blomberg 2001. The quotation from Perelman also comes from this book.
20. Argyle 1996.
21. Putnam 1993.
22. Putnam 2000; Kawachi et al. 1997; Kawachi and Kennedy 1997; Kaplan et al. 1996.
23. Frey 2001.
24. Clark and Oswald 2002.
25. Argyle 2000; Frey 2001; Argyle 1989; Ingelhart 1990; Lahelma 1989.
26. Kahlweit 2002.
27. B. McEwen: Stree and Health. Lecture at the annual conference of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, February 12, 2001, San Francisco.
28. Sapolsky 2000; Sapolsky 1998; Sapolsky 1993.
29. Oettingen and Seligman 1990.
30. The lower the government employees were on the social ladder, the greater was the negative effect on resistance to insulin and clotting factors in the blood. Resistance to insulin can have an impact on obesity and heart and circulatory problems. Too many clotting factors in the blood increase the risk of stroke. Both values deteriorate when someone is subject to constant stress. See Marmot et al. 1997; Brunner 1997; Marmot et al. 1991.
31. Sapolsky 1998.
32. Rodin 1986; Rowe and Kahn 1987.
33. Frey and Stutzer 2002; Frey 2001.
34. As the social psychologist Ed Diener determined, the countries whose citizens are at the top of the life satisfaction rankings all have long democratic traditions. These countries have enjoyed free elections, freedom of the press, and the rule of law since at least 1920, interrupted only by German occupation. On the other hand, the citizens in all industrial countries whose current democracies were founded only after World War II or later (e.g., Germany, Poland, Spain) are less satisfied than in the traditionally democratic countries. It seems that the “civic sense” takes several generations to establish itself. Democracy has to seep into the mind.
35. Sen 1999; Sen 1982.
36. Sen 1999. On education’s effect on well-being see Frey 2001; Ostrove et al. 2000.