Chapter 5

Confusing Words and Homonyms

Many words in English sound or look alike, causing confusion and not a few headaches. This chapter lists some of these words, and other troublemakers.

A

Use a when the first letter of the word following has the sound of a consonant. Keep in mind that some vowels can sound like consonants, such as when they're sounded out as individual letters. Also, some letters, notably h and u, sometimes act as consonants (home, usual), other times as vowels (honest, unusual).

Examples:	a yearning
	a hotel
	a U-turn (pronounced “yoo”)
	a NASA study

Use an when the first letter of the word following has the sound of a vowel.

Examples:	an unfair charge
	an honor (the h is silent)
	an HMO plan (H is pronounced “aitch”)
	an NAACP convention (the N is pronounced “en”)

ABBREVIATION, ACRONYM

This is a fine distinction that some consider nitpicking. Terms such as FBI, HMO, and NAACP, although widely called acronyms, are actually abbreviations. The difference is in how they are spoken. An abbreviation, also called an initialism, is pronounced letter by letter. An acronym is pronounced as if it were a word. The abbreviation FBI is pronounced “eff-bee-eye.” The acronym NASA is pronounced “nassa.”

ACCEPT, EXCEPT

Accept means “to acknowledge” or “to agree to.”

Except is usually a preposition used to specify what isn't included: I like all fruits except apples.

See abbreviation, acronym.

Ad: short for “advertisement.”

Add: to include; to perform addition.

ADAPT, ADOPT

To adapt is to take something and change it for a special purpose. A screenwriter adapts a book to make it work as a movie. An organism adapts (itself) to a new environment.

To adopt is to take something and use it or make it your own. A government adopts a different policy. A family adopts an orphan.

ADVERSE, AVERSE

Adverse: unfavorable: an adverse reaction to the medication.

Averse: not fond of; seeking to avoid: averse to risk.

ADVICE, ADVISE

Advice: guidance.

Advise: to suggest; to recommend.

AFFECT, EFFECT

Affect as a verb means “to influence”: It affected me strangely. As a noun, it is a technical term used in psychology to describe someone's emotional state.

Effect as a noun means “result”: It had a strange effect on me. As a verb, it means “to bring about” or “to cause”: He's trying to effect change in government.

This word is not a synonym for annoy or irritate. To aggravate is to make something worse: He started running too soon and aggravated his sprained ankle.

You can get hold of something, and you can get a hold of it. But in formal writing, “ahold” is not a real word.

An aid is a thing that helps.

An aide is a living helper or assistant: His aide brought first aid.

Ail: to be ill.

Ale: an alcoholic beverage.

AISLE, ISLE

Aisle: a corridor.

Isle: an island.

ALL READY, ALREADY

All ready means that everything or everyone is now ready.

Already refers to something accomplished earlier: We already ate.

Two words. Someday, alright may finally prevail, but it hasn't yet.

ALL-TIME RECORD

The team set an all-time record for consecutive games won. Delete all-time. All records are “all-time” records.

Similarly, avoid “new record.” The team set a record, not a new record.

ALL TOGETHER, ALTOGETHER

All together: in a group: We're all together in this.

Altogether: entirely: It is not altogether his fault.

ALLUDE, ELUDE, REFER

Allude means “to mention indirectly.” Do not confuse allude with refer. If we say, “Good old Joe is here,” we refer to Joe. If we say, “That man with the ready laugh is here,” we allude to Joe, but we never mention his name.

Allude is also sometimes confused with elude, which means “to escape” or “avoid capture.”

ALLUSION, ILLUSION

Allusion, the noun form of allude, is an indirect, sometimes sly, way of talking about something or someone.

An illusion is a false perception.

ALLOWED, ALOUD

Allowed: permitted.

Aloud: said out loud.

ALTAR, ALTER

Altar: a pedestal, usually religious.

Alter: to modify; to change.

AMBIGUOUS, AMBIVALENT

Something is ambiguous if it is unclear or has more than one meaning.

Ambivalent describes a mixed or undecided state of mind: Her ambiguous remark left him feeling ambivalent about her.

AMIABLE, AMICABLE

Both words mean “friendly,” but amiable generally describes a pleasant person; amicable generally describes a cordial situation: The amiable couple had an amicable divorce.

AMID, AMIDST

Either is acceptable, but many writers prefer the more concise amid.

AMOUNT, NUMBER

Use amount for things that cannot be counted and number for things that can be counted: This amount of water is enough to fill a number of bottles.

The culprit is amount. Some might incorrectly say “a large amount of bottles,” but no one would say “a large number of water.”

The abbreviation a.m. refers to the hours from midnight to noon, and p.m. refers to the hours from noon to midnight. Careful writers avoid such redundancies as three a.m. in the morning (delete in the morning) or eight p.m. this evening (make it eight o'clock this evening).

To avoid confusion, use midnight instead of twelve a.m. and noon instead of twelve p.m.

The terms also are frequently written as a.m., p.m.; am, pm; and am, pm.

“Objectionable to many, who regard it as a legalism,” says Roy H. Copperud in A Dictionary of Usage and Style. Either say and or say or.

ANECDOTE, ANTIDOTE

An anecdote is a brief, amusing tale.

An antidote counteracts or reduces the effects of something unpleasant or even lethal. There are antidotes for snakebites, but there is no known antidote for boring anecdotes.

AN HISTORIC

Some speakers and writers use an with certain words starting with an audible h—the word historic heads the list. But why do those who say an historic occasion say a hotel, a hospital, a happy home? There is no valid reason to ever say an historic, an heroic, an horrific, etc., and anyone who does so is flirting with pomposity.

ANXIOUS, EAGER

In casual usage, anxious has become a synonym for eager, but the words are different. Whereas eager means “excited” or “enthusiastic,” anxious, like anxiety, denotes uneasiness.

ANY MORE, ANYMORE

Use the two-word form to mean “any additional”: I don't need any more help.

Use anymore to mean “any longer”: I don't need help anymore.

ANY TIME, ANYTIME

Traditionalists do not accept the one-word form, anytime. But it is everywhere, and there's no turning back.

There does seem to be a difference between You may call anytime and Do you have any time? Always use the two-word form with a preposition: You may call at any time.

APPRAISE, APPRISE

A school district official was quoted as saying, “We have been appraised of all the relevant issues.” Bad choice. The word appraise means “to decide the value of.” The gentleman clearly meant apprised, which means “informed.”

ASCENT, ASSENT

Ascent: a climb; movement upward.

Assent: an agreement (noun); to agree (verb).

See in regard(s) to, with regard(s) to.

ASSUME, PRESUME

Assume: to take for granted without evidence.

Presume: to believe based on evidence.

ASSURE, ENSURE, INSURE

To assure is to promise or say with confidence. It is more about saying than doing: I assure you that you'll be warm enough.

To ensure is to do or have what is necessary for success: These blankets ensure that you'll be warm enough.

To insure is to cover with an insurance policy.

What you insure you entrust to a business. What you ensure results from your personal efforts.

AURAL, ORAL

Since the two words are pronounced the same, be careful not to write oral (having to do with the mouth) if you mean aural (having to do with hearing).

See adverse, averse.

A WHILE, AWHILE

The two-word phrase a while is getting pushed aside by awhile. But awhile should only be used to mean “for a while.” It's a distinction worth preserving: It took a while, but I was convinced after thinking it over awhile.

Always use a while with prepositions: After a while, she arrived.

B

BACKWARD, BACKWARDS

Both forms are acceptable, although the Associated Press Stylebook instructs journalists to always use backward.

Staphylococcus is a virulent form of bacteria. No problem there. But in a sentence like It's a virulent bacteria, well, now we have a problem. Bacteria is a plural noun; the singular is bacterium. So don't write The bacteria in the cut was infecting it, because the bacteria were infecting it.

Both words do double duty as noun and verb. As a noun, bail commonly refers to money deposited to gain a prisoner's freedom, or bail that prisoner out.

A bale is a large, bound or wrapped package of unprocessed material. To bale is to make into a bale.

BAITED BREATH, BATED BREATH

Don't write “baited breath.” The word bated, a variant of abated, means “lessened in intensity,” “restrained.”

Ball: a round object; a gala event.

Bawl: to cry; howl.

Bare as an adjective means “unconcealed”: bare arms. As a verb it means “expose”: to bare one's feelings.

Bear as a noun refers to a wild animal. As a verb it has many meanings, from “carry” (bear arms) to “tolerate” (I can't bear it) to “steer” (bear right at the corner).

This word, especially when it starts a sentence, is probably unnecessary.

BEACH, BEECH

The beech tree was close to the windy beach.

You can't beat my recipe for beets.

BECAUSE, SINCE

Because and since can be used just about interchangeably to explain the reason for something. But since can also refer to a time in the past: I have waited since yesterday.

BELL, BELLE

Bell: a chime or alarm.

Belle: a lovely woman.

He was a benighted soul in an enlightened time. Many people associate it with knighted and think benighted is a good thing to be. Far from it. Note the lack of a k; don't think knight, think night. To be benighted is to be “in a state of moral or intellectual darkness.”

BERTH, BIRTH

Berth: a built-in bed on a train or boat; a space for a boat to dock.

Birth: being born; a beginning.

BESIDE, BESIDESBesides as an adverb means “in addition” or “moreover”: It's Albert's birthday, and besides, you promised. Besides is also a preposition meaning “other than” or “except”: Who besides me is hungry?

Compare that with The person beside me is hungry. Beside is a preposition that means “next to,” “near,” “alongside.”

A lot of people say something is “besides the point.” They mean beside the point. When a statement is beside the point, it misses the mark and settles nothing.

BETTER, BETTOR

Better: of higher quality.

Bettor: a gambler.

BIANNUAL, BIENNIAL, SEMIANNUAL

These words do not all mean the same thing. Biannual means “twice a year,” as does semiannual, whereas biennial means “occurring every two years.”

Don't confuse what your teeth do with byte, a computer term for eight bits of information. Adding to the confusion, sound bite—a brief excerpt from a longer work—is sometimes mistakenly written “sound byte.”

BLOC, BLOCK

The more familiar word is block, which can refer to many things: a toy, a cube-shaped object, a city street. Not as versatile is bloc: a group united for a particular purpose.

BOAR, BOOR, BORE

Boar: a wild pig.

Boor: a vulgar brute.

Bore: a compulsive chatterbox.

BOARD, BORED

When the board called the roll, he was too bored to speak up.

BOLDER, BOULDER

Bolder: more daring.

Boulder: a large rock.

BORN, BORNE

To be born is to be given birth to, as babies are born. Or it can mean “to be created”: ideas are born the moment we think of them. It also means “to arise from”: Timmy's stomachache was born of wolfing his food.

Borne is the past tense of bear, in the sense of “carry.” To be borne is to be carried: a mosquito-borne disease; or to be endured: Timmy's stomachache had to be borne until it finally went away.

Few if any would write boy instead of buoy, a nautical beacon or marker. Nonetheless, both words are traditionally pronounced the same. In Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words, author Bill Bryson says, “Unless you would say ‘boo-ee-ant’ for buoyant, please return to pronouncing it ‘boy.’ ”

BRAKE, BREAK

Use your brake before you break something.

BRIDAL, BRIDLE

Bridal: relating to brides and weddings.

A bridle is a head harness, usually for a horse. Not surprisingly, the verb bridle means “to control” or “to restrain.” But it also means “to pull back the head quickly in anger.”

BRING, TAKE

They're not interchangeable. You bring something here; you take something there. The locations of “here” and “there” are from the perspective of the speaker or writer. Your friend asks you to bring her a book, so you take the book to her home.

BROACH, BROOCH

To broach a topic is to bring it up for discussion: Now is the time to broach the subject. As a verb, broach also means “to open or enlarge a hole.” The noun broach refers to a pointed tool which performs that operation.

A brooch, a decorative pin or clip, is nothing like a broach. But since they're often pronounced alike, and because ignorance never rests, some dictionaries accept broach as an alternative spelling of brooch.

BUOY

See boy, buoy.

BYTE

See bite, byte.

C

CACHE, CASH

As a noun, cache refers to a hidden supply of valuables, such as food, jewels, and cash. But it can also refer to the hiding place where you keep those items. The verb cache means “to hide treasure in a secret place”: He cached all his cash in a cache.

I can go means I have the ability and freedom to go.

I may go means I have either an option or permission to go.

CANNON, CANON

Cannon: a large, mounted gun.

Canon: a body of writings; a principle or set of principles.

One word; avoid “can not.”

CANVAS, CANVASS

Canvas is a durable fabric.

Canvass as a noun or a verb refers to the door-to-door gathering of votes or opinions.

CAPITAL, CAPITOL

Just remember: the o means it's a building. A capitol is a government building where a state legislature meets, and the Capitol is the building where the U.S. Congress meets.

A capital is a city that serves as the seat of government. We got a tour of the capitol when we went to the capital.

CARAT, CARET, KARAT

Most of the confusion is caused by carat and karat because both are associated with jewelry. The purity of gold is measured in karats. Twenty-four-karat gold is 99.9 percent pure, but so soft that it is considered impractical for most jewelry.

A carat is a weight measurement for gemstones: a two-carat diamond set in an eighteen-karat gold ring.

A caret has nothing to do with any of this. It is a mark an editor makes in a document to show where additional material should be inserted.

CAREEN, CAREER

Grammar sticklers are a stubborn lot. They use career the way everyone else uses careen. It is career, not careen, that means “to veer out of control”: The car careered wildly across three lanes. Careen means “to lean or tip over,” and strictly speaking, it's more suitable for describing boats than cars.

CAST, CASTE

Cast: a group of actors or individuals.

Caste: a social class; a rigid system of social distinctions.

CEMENT, CONCRETE

People constantly refer to “cement” sidewalks, driveways, walls, etc. However, cement is a powder that, when mixed with sand or gravel and water, becomes concrete.

CENSOR, CENSURE

They sound similar, and both words deal with negative criticism. Censor as a verb means “to remove unacceptable material.” As a noun, it means “someone who censors.”

Censure as a verb means “to disapprove of” or “to criticize strongly.” As a noun, it means “disapproval,” even “scorn.”

CENTER AROUND

The lecture will center around the economy. The center is the middle point. Would you say “point around”? This common, muddleheaded expression results from scrambling center on and revolve around. Because those idioms are roughly synonymous, if you use them both enough, they merge in the mind.

CEREAL, SERIAL

Cereal: a breakfast food.

Serial: a story told in regular installments (noun); ongoing, in a series (adjectives).

CHAISE LOUNGE

This example of cultural dyslexia should be avoided at all costs. The correct term is chaise longue, meaning “long chair” in French.

CHILDISH, CHILDLIKE

Both are comparisons with children. The difference is that childish is unflattering; it's equivalent to infantile and only a small improvement on babyish. Someone is childish when acting unreasonable or bratty.

Not so with childlike, a word that extols youthful virtues, such as sweetness, purity, and innocence.

CHILE, CHILI

If life were fair, Chile with an e would refer only to a country in South America, and chili with a second i would refer to a type of pepper, and also to a spicy stew. These spellings are recommended, but with the caveat that not everyone agrees. In New Mexico, the stew they eat is chile, not chili. The stylebook of the Los Angeles Times says the dish is chili, but the pepper is a chile. And there are even some who spell the pepper or the dish chilli.

CHOMPING AT THE BIT

It started out as champing at the bit, which is still preferred by most dictionaries.

CHORAL, CORAL

Choral: relating to or sung by a choir.

Coral: an underwater organism that makes up reefs; a shade of orange.

CHORALE, CORRAL

A chorale can be both a piece of music and a singing group.

A corral is an enclosure for horses or other livestock.

CHORD, CORD

When two or more musical tones are sounded simultaneously, the result is a chord.

A cord is a rope or strand of flexible material.

CITE, SIGHT, SITE

Cite: to quote; to praise; to mention; to order to appear in court.

Sight: the ability to see; a scene or view.

Site: a location or position.

CLASSIC, CLASSICAL

Classic, adjective or noun, is a term of high praise: “of the finest quality” or “a prime example of”: a classic play, a classic pizza.

The adjective classical applies to traditions going back to the ancient Greeks and Romans: The house featured an array of classical influences.

Classical music is marked by formal, sophisticated, extended compositions.

It's a noun, not an adjective. Yet more and more you see or hear things like I know it sounds cliché, but…Make it I know it sounds like a cliché.

CLICK, CLIQUE

A click is a brief percussive noise, but some mistakenly write it when they mean clique, a close, exclusive group of people.

CLIMACTIC, CLIMATIC

Climactic—note that middle c—means “exciting” or “decisive.” It is often confused with climatic, which means “resulting from or influenced by climate.”

CLOSE PROXIMITY

This phrase is a pompous and redundant way of saying “near.” Proximity does not mean “distance”; it means “nearness,” so close proximity means “close nearness.”

COARSE, COURSE

Coarse means “rough, lacking in fineness of texture” or “crude, lacking in sensitivity.”

Course is usually a noun and has several meanings, mostly having to do with movement or progress, whether it be a course taken in school or the course of a river.

Your friend is a crony, confidant, or collaborator, but not a cohort. In ancient Rome, a cohort was a division of three hundred to six hundred soldiers. So careful speakers and writers avoid cohort when referring to one person. Your cohort is not your comrade, ally, teammate, or assistant. It's a whole group, gang, team, posse: A cohort of laborers went on strike.

COIN A PHRASE

To coin a phrase is to make one up. But many misuse it when citing or quoting familiar expressions: His bright idea was, to coin a phrase, dead on arrival. Since dead on arrival is a well-known idiom, the writer didn't “coin” it; he merely repeated it.

COINCIDENCE

COLLECTABLE, COLLECTIBLE

Both are acceptable, but collectible has a slight edge in popularity, especially as a noun.

COLLIDE, CRASH

A collision involves two moving objects. A car does not collide with a lamppost; it crashes into a lamppost.

COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT

As both noun and verb, complement refers to an added element that enhances, rounds out, or puts a final touch on something.

Compliment, noun and verb, is about nice words or gestures. Try this perfect complement to your order, with our compliments.

COMPLETE, COMPLETELY

These words are often unnecessary. What is the difference between a complete meltdown and a meltdown? How is completely exhausted different from exhausted?

Possibly the most abused two-syllable word in English. It means “contain,” “consist of,” “be composed of.” Most problems could be avoided by remembering this mantra: The whole comprises its parts.

Consider this misuse: Vegetables comprise 80 percent of my diet. The correct sentence is Eighty percent of my diet comprises vegetables. My diet consists of vegetables; vegetables do not consist of my diet.

This sentence looks right to most people: Joe, John, and Bob comprise the committee. But it's the other way around: The committee comprises Joe, John, and Bob.

Another common misuse is the phrase comprised of, which is never correct. Most people use comprised of as an elegant-seeming alternative to composed of. An ad for a cleaning service states, “Our team is comprised of skilled housekeepers.” Make it “Our team comprises skilled housekeepers,” “Our team is composed of skilled housekeepers,” or, perhaps the best choice, “Our team consists of skilled housekeepers.”

Since comprise already means “composed of,” anyone using comprised of is actually saying “composed of of.”

One person cannot make a concerted effort. A concert implies an orchestra. As Paul Brians points out in his Common Errors in English Usage, “To work ‘in concert’ is to work together with others. One can, however, make a concentrated effort.”

See cement, concrete.

CONFIDANT, CONFIDENT

Confidant: a trusted adviser.

Confident: certain, self-assured.

CONNIVE, CONSPIRE

One who connives pretends not to know while others are collaborating on something sneaky, wrong, or illegal.

To conspire is to work together on a secret scheme.

CONNOTE, DENOTE

Denote is used for descriptions that stick to the facts. The word “dog” denotes a domesticated animal.

Connote reveals additional meanings beyond what is clinical or objective. It is used when expressing what a word implies or reminds us of. The word “dog” connotes loyalty.

CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS

The difference between continual and continuous is the subtle difference between regular and nonstop. If your car continually breaks down, it also runs some of the time.

A faucet that drips continuously never stops dripping, twenty-four hours a day. If a faucet drips continually, there are interludes when it's not dripping.

CONVINCE, PERSUADE

To many, these two are synonyms, but there are shades of difference. Someone might be persuaded, while at the same time, not convinced: She persuaded me to do it, but I'm still not convinced it was right. When something or someone persuades us to act, it might be by using reason or logic, but it could also be by using force, lies, or guilt.

Convince refers to an unforced change of mind and heart that precedes action. We consider the evidence, and if it is strong enough, it convinces us and changes our perspective.

In formal writing, convince never takes an infinitive, but persuade almost always does. You cannot be convinced to do something; you can only be convinced that something, or be convinced of something.

See choral, coral.

CORD

See chord, cord.

See chorale, corral.

COUNCIL, COUNSEL

Council: a group of people meeting for a purpose.

Counsel: advice (noun); an attorney (noun); to give advice or guidance (verb).

COUPLE (OF)

The of stays. These days, even veteran communicators are saying and writing “couple miles from here” or “costs a couple bucks.” That used to be the jargon of tough guys in gangster movies.

See coarse, course.

See collide, crash.

To many people, a craven scoundrel is a flagrant or shameless rogue, not a spineless one. But craven means “cowardly,” “weak.”

Criteria is the plural of criterion, a standard used for judging, deciding, or acting. The sentence Honesty is our chief criteria is ungrammatical; there can't be only one criteria. Make it Honesty is our chief criterion or Honesty is one of our chief criteria. Your criteria are your standards, plural.

Those who know that criteria is plural aren't out of the woods yet either: many believe the singular is “criterium.” And there are some who will reveal to you their “criterias.”

Often unnecessary. What is the difference between I'm currently writing a book and I'm writing a book?

D

DAILY BASIS

I run five miles on a daily basis. In most cases, the windy and unwieldy on a daily basis can be replaced with daily or every day.

DATA

John B. Bremner, in Words on Words, states unequivocally, “The word is plural.” This one is thorny, because the singular, datum, is virtually nonexistent in English. Many people see data as a synonym for “information,” and to them, These data are very interesting sounds downright bizarre. Maybe, but it's also correct. Theodore M. Bernstein, in The Careful Writer, says, “Some respected and learned writers have used data as a singular. But a great many more have not.”

DEFINITE, DEFINITIVE

Something definite is exact, clearly defined, with no ambiguity. But definite does not necessarily mean “correct”: George has a definite belief that two and two are five.

Something definitive is authoritative, the best, the last word: This is the definitive biography of Lincoln.

See connote, denote.

DESERT, DESSERT

The noun desert refers to a desolate area. As a verb, it means “to abandon.”

A dessert is the final course of a meal.

Many misspell the phrase just deserts, meaning “proper punishment.” In that usage, deserts is derived from deserve.

“Syme despised him and slightly disliked him,” wrote George Orwell in the novel 1984. Orwell knew that, strictly speaking, despise means “to look down on” but not necessarily “to dislike,” although that's usually part of the deal.

DEVICE, DEVISE

Device: an invention.

Devise: to invent.

DIFFERENT FROM, DIFFERENT THAN

Different from is the standard phrase. Traditionalists obstinately avoid different than, especially in simple comparisons, such as You are different from me.

More-liberal linguists point out that a sentence like It is no different for men than it is for women is clear and concise, and rewriting it with different from could result in a clumsy clunker like It is no different for men from the way it is for women.

They may have a point, but many fine writers have had no problem steering clear of different than for their entire careers.

Be careful when using dilemma as a synonym for predicament. The di- in dilemma (like that in dichotomy or dioxide) indicates two: if you have a dilemma, it means you're facing two tough choices.

DISBURSE, DISPERSE

To disburse is to distribute or pay out money or other financial assets.

Use disperse when something other than money is being distributed: The agency dispersed pamphlets after the meeting.

Disperse also means “to scatter” or “make disappear”: The police dispersed the unruly mob.

DISCOMFIT, DISCOMFORT

The two are often confused. Discomfit originally meant “to defeat utterly.” It has come to mean “to fluster,” “to embarrass.”

Discomfort is usually used as a noun meaning “anxiety,” “nervousness.”

DISCREET, DISCRETE

Discreet: careful not to attract attention, tactful.

Discrete: separate, detached.

People often write discrete when they mean discreet. The situation is not helped by discretion, the noun form of discreet.

DISINTERESTED, UNINTERESTED

You can be both uninterested and disinterested, or one but not the other. Disinterested means “impartial”; uninterested means “unconcerned” or “apathetic.”

Many would interpret The judge was disinterested to mean that the judge didn't care. But the sentence actually means that the judge was unbiased. Huge difference there. Would you rather have a judge who's fair or one who wants to go home?

DOCK

What is often thought of as a dock is actually a pier or wharf. The book Modern American Usage (edited by Jacques Barzun, et al.) defines a dock as “the water-filled space in which the ship comes to rest. The pier is the structure on which the passengers stand or alight.” Would Otis Redding's song still be a masterpiece if he'd called it Sittin' on the Pier of the Bay?

DRUG (DRAGGED)

She drug Joe out of his office at midnight. When did “drug” replace dragged as the past tense of drag? The answer is: It didn't, and it couldn't, and it better not.

Dual: double; having two parts.

Duel: a two-sided conflict (noun); to fight a duel (verb).

E

See anxious, eager.

See affect, effect.

These two helpful abbreviations are often used interchangeably, a sorry mistake that impoverishes the language. The term i.e. means “that is to say” or “in other words,” whereas e.g. means “for example.”

To illustrate: Artists like Marlon Brando and James Dean (i.e., the so-called “method actors”) electrified audiences in the 1950s. Compare that sentence with The so-called “method actors” (e.g., Marlon Brando and James Dean) electrified audiences in the 1950s.

It has come to mean “barely get by”: I eke out a living as a writer. But its traditional meaning is either “to supplement”: I eke out my living as a writer by working a day job, or “to make the most of”: We eked out the small amount of food we had left.

See allude, elude, refer.

EMIGRATE, IMMIGRATE

Emigrate: to leave one country in order to live in another country. Emigrate takes the preposition from, as in He emigrated from Russia to America. It is incorrect to say. “He emigrated to America.”

Immigrate: to enter a new country with the intention of living there. Immigrate takes the preposition to, as in He immigrated to America from Russia. It is incorrect to say, “He immigrated from Russia.”

EMINENT, IMMINENT

Eminent: prominent; distinguished: an eminent scholar.

Imminent: about to happen: in imminent danger.

EMPATHY, SYMPATHY

When we have empathy, we are able to put ourselves in other people's place and even feel their pain, or think we do.

Sympathy is more removed than empathy. When we have sympathy, we may not suffer along with those who are hurting, but we have compassion and are often willing to help.

EMULATE, IMITATE

Emulate means “to try to be as good or successful as.”

Imitate means “to copy or fashion oneself after.”

A sentence like He tried to emulate her is repeating itself: He tried to try to be as good as she was. We don't “try to emulate.” When we emulate, we're already trying.

This word is frequently misused: the “enormity” of football linemen these days, or the “enormity” of the task. Enormity has nothing to do with something's size. For that, we have such words as immensity, vastness, hugeness, and enormousness.

Enormity is an ethical, judgmental word meaning “great wickedness,” “a monstrous crime.” The enormity of Jonestown doesn't mean Jonestown was a huge place, but rather that it was the site of a hugely outrageous tragedy.

See assure, ensure, insure.

Many writers, editors, scholars, and critics regard enthuse and enthused as unserious and unacceptable.

EPITAPH, EPITHET

An epitaph is a tribute inscribed on a tombstone in honor of the person buried there.

An epithet, unlike an epitaph, is often an insult based on race, class, religion, politics, etc.: The mob was shouting racial epithets.

Otherwise, an epithet is a kind of nickname. It is a word or brief phrase that illustrates a defining trait of someone or something: Alexander the Great, the wine-dark sea.

The epitome of means “the essence of.” It does not mean “the best,” “the height of.” Sam is the epitome of humility means that Sam is a perfect example of a humble person. It doesn't necessarily mean that he's one of the humblest men who ever lived.

It's often confused with worthwhile. But erstwhile means “previous” or “one-time.” My erstwhile assistant does not mean “my valuable assistant.” It means “my former assistant” and nothing more.

etc., et al.

These abbreviations are a scholarly way of saying, “You get the point.”

The term etc. means “and the rest,” “and so on.” It is usually placed at the end of a short list of things to save the writer (and reader) the trouble of going on needlessly.

When a list of people, rather than things, is involved, use et al. in place of etc.: Joe Smith, Ray Jones, et al., led the team to victory.

Both etc. and et al. require periods, even midsentence.

EVERY DAY, EVERYDAY

The two-word term every day is an adverbial phrase that answers the questions when or how often, as in I learn something new every day.

As one word, everyday is an adjective that means “ordinary” or “part of a daily routine”: These are my everyday clothes.

EXACERBATE, EXAGGERATE

To exacerbate is to make a difficult situation worse or more intense: The humidity exacerbated the intense heat.

To exaggerate (note the double g) is to overstate, to stretch the truth: He exaggerated when he said it was the hottest day on record.

See accept, except.

F

FACTIOUS, FRACTIOUS

Factious means “characterized by dissent and internal disputes.” A factious group is liable to split off into factions.

Fractious means “irritable,” “quarrelsome,” “ill-tempered.”

FAINT, FEINT

Faint: to go unconscious.

Feint: a distracting move meant to throw an opponent off guard (from feign).

Fair: an exhibition (noun); just, impartial (adjectives).

Fare: payment for travel (noun); to have an experience (verb); to go through something (verb): How did you fare on your test?

FARTHER, FURTHER

The general rule: farther refers to real, physical distance: Let's walk a little farther.

Further deals with degree or extent: Let's discuss this further.

FAZE, PHASE

When something or someone fazes you, you are disturbed or troubled: Her behavior doesn't faze me.

A phase is a period or chapter: He's going through a difficult phase right now.

Feat: an extraordinary act or accomplishment.

Feet: twelve-inch increments; appendages below the ankles.

FEWER, LESS

Here's a seemingly innocent sentence: I now have two less reasons for going. Make it two fewer reasons. If you can count the commodity (two reasons), less will be wrong. You have less justification, but fewer reasons.

Exception: When the amount is one, such a sentence should read, “I now have one reason fewer” or “one less reason, but not “one fewer reason.” Admittedly, this is a head-scratcher, but that's English for you.

Use less for specific measurements of money, distance, time, or weight: It costs less than a million dollars. We walked less than fifty feet. Less than thirty minutes had passed. It weighs less than five pounds. The book Modern American Usage explains why: “We take a million dollars as a sum of money, not as a number of units; fifty feet as a measure of distance, not as one foot added to forty-nine other feet; thirty minutes as a stretch of time, exactly like half an hour…and the quantitative less is therefore correct in comparisons; fewer would sound absurd.”

Fir: a type of tree.

Fur: animal hair.

See secondly, thirdly, fourthly.

FLAIR, FLARE

Flair: style; talent.

Flare: to erupt; to blaze.

FLAMMABLE, INFLAMMABLE

Let's see: flammable means “combustible.” Inflammable means “combustible.” Any questions?

FLAUNT, FLOUT

He was a rebel who flaunted the rules. That sentence is incorrect. Make it flouted the rules. To flout is to ignore, disregard, defy.

To flaunt is to make a big display: She flaunted her diamond necklace.

Flea: a type of insect.

Flee: to run away.

FLOUNDER, FOUNDER

One way to avoid confusing these two verbs is to think of flounder, the fish. Something that is floundering is thrashing around helplessly, like a fish out of water.

Founder means “to fail.” If a business is floundering, it is in distress but may yet be saved. If a business founders, nothing can revive it.

FLOUR, FLOWER

Flour: an edible powder prepared by grinding grains.

Flower: the bloom of a plant.

FOREGO, FORGO

Many permissive editors allow forego in place of forgo. But forego means “to go before,” “precede”: A good stretching session should forego rigorous exercise.

To forgo is to abstain from, do without: If you forgo a good stretching session, you might pull a muscle.

FOREWORD, FORWARD

A foreword is an introduction, usually to a book. It's sometimes confused with forward, meaning “ahead,” “forth.”

See latter.

FORTH, FOURTH

Forth: onward.

Fourth: coming directly after whatever is third.

FORTUITOUS, FORTUNATE

Fortuitous is a chronically misunderstood word. To purists, it most emphatically does not mean “lucky” or “fortunate”; it simply means “by chance.” You are fortunate if you win the lottery fortuitously, but you can also get flattened by a truck fortuitously.

Foul: tainted; sickening.

Fowl: edible bird or birds.

See factious, fractious.

A curious term for gift.

Many people take fulsome to mean “abundant” or “lavish.” But be wary of writing the likes of He received a fulsome tribute or Please accept my fulsome apology. The word actually means something darker: “excessive,” “fawning,” even “disgusting.”

FUN

Fun is a noun, not an adjective. Sentences like It was a fun time or the ghastly It was so fun have no place in serious writing.

FUR

See fir, fur.

See farther, further.

G

Gait: stride; the way a person or animal walks or runs.

Gate: a barrier.

Gamut originally referred to the entire range of musical notes that the ear can recognize. It has come to mean the range or extent of anything: His speech ran a gamut of emotions. Do not confuse run the gamut with run the gantlet (see gantlet, gauntlet).

GANTLET, GAUNTLET

These two words, despite their similarity, come from different roots. The distinction should be preserved.

The expression run the gantlet means “to undergo criticism or harassment from several sources in a concentrated period of time.” It is often written run the gauntlet, which makes language nitpickers cry foul.

To throw down the gauntlet is to aggressively challenge someone. To take up the gauntlet is to accept such a challenge.

In popular usage, jell means “to come together”: Our team is starting to jell. Gel refers to a jellylike substance: hair gel.

GILT, GUILT

Gilt: gold coating.

Guilt: fault; blame; shame.

GLIB

A word with a split personality suitable for backhanded compliments and faint praise. Glib can mean “smooth,” “urbane.” But it can also mean “superficial,” “too slick.”

He graduated high school last weekend. Make it graduated from. There are even some fussbudgets who'd insist he was graduated from high school. But graduated from is as correct as was graduated from.

Note the double f and single t. Graffiti is the plural of graffito, Italian for “little scratching.” Therefore, There was graffiti all over the wall is incorrect. Make it There were graffiti all over the wall.

GRILL, GRILLE

Grill: a grated metal cooking utensil (noun); to cook over direct heat (verb).

Grille: a network of metal, wooden, or plastic bars that acts as a barrier or screen.

GRISLY, GRISTLY, GRIZZLY

Grisly means “horrific,” “gruesome.” However, grisly bears are not necessarily grizzly bears, North American brown bears known for their fierceness.

Don't confuse grisly with gristly, which means “tough,” “chewy.”

Note the spelling: double r, double l. Some think “guerilla” with one r is a valid alternative, but the word derives from guerra, which means “war” in Spanish.

H

Hair: what grows on the head and body.

Hare: a rabbit.

Hall: a passageway; a large room.

Haul: to pull or drag.

HALVE, HAVE

Halve: to divide in two.

Have: to possess; to hold.

HANGAR, HANGER

Many think that a shed or shelter for housing airplanes is a “hanger,” rather than a hangar (the correct spelling).

A hanger is something to hang a garment on, or someone who hangs things.

HANGED, HUNG

Speakers and writers who value precision know that the past tense of hang, when it means “to put to death using a rope,” is hanged, not hung. This applies to both the active and passive voice: They hanged the prisoner and The prisoner was hanged.

For inanimate objects, use hung. Under unusual conditions, people also hung or are hung, e.g., He hung from the tree with one hand or He found himself hung upside down.

Heal: to repair; to restore to health.

Heel: the back part of the foot; a scoundrel.

HEALTHFUL, HEALTHY

The difference between these two words is unquestionable, healthful meaning “something that promotes health” and healthy meaning “in good health.” But in everyday speech, healthful has been nudged aside by healthy in phrases like healthy food or a healthy diet.

There is an ear in hear, and here is 80 percent of where.

HEROIN, HEROINE

Heroin: a drug derived from morphine.

Heroine: a woman admired for courage or ability.

See an historic.

HOARD, HORDE

Hoard: to stockpile; to amass.

Horde: a large group; a crowd.

HOARSE, HORSE

Hoarse: raspy; sore-throated.

Horse: a type of animal.

HOLE, WHOLE

Hole: an opening.

Whole: entirety (noun); entire (adjective).

HOLY, WHOLLY

Holy: sacred.

Wholly: entirely.

A critic called a film “a homage to motherhood.” The critic wisely did not write “an homage,” knowing full well that the h is sounded (see an historic). This word has spun out of control in the twenty-first century. Its traditional pronunciation is “HOMM-ij.” Then “AHM-ij” gained a foothold, and it went downhill from there. Now, just about all one hears is the pseudo-sophisticated “oh-MAHZH,” a pronunciation that was virtually nonexistent in English until the late twentieth century.

Make it home in. Hone in has achieved undeserved legitimacy for the worst of reasons: the similarity in sound and appearance of n and m. Honing is a technique used for sharpening cutting tools and the like.

To home in, like zero in, is to get something firmly in your sights, to get to the crux of a problem.

HOT WATER HEATER

A curious term for water heater.

HUNG

See hanged, hung.

I

IDLE, IDOL, IDYLL

Idle: not active; unemployed.

Idol: an effigy; a beloved celebrity.

Idyll: a happy interlude; prose or poetry describing rural serenity.

i.e.

See e.g., i.e.

See allusion, illusion.

See emulate, imitate.

See emigrate, immigrate.

See eminent, imminent.

As a verb, impact is constantly misused, and affect is almost always the better choice. Avoid such usages as The proposition will impact property taxes or Greenhouse gas emissions negatively impact the environment. Make it affect instead of impact in both sentences.

Impact means “to pack tightly together,” as in an impacted tooth.

IMPLY, INFER

Infer is not a synonym for imply. Imply is done by a speaker or writer—specifically, one who is being indirect: She implied that I'm a fool means that she didn't come right out and say it, but she got her point across.

Infer is done by a perceptive listener or reader who “catches” your meaning: I infer that you think I'm a fool.

Imply is akin to suggest and insinuate; infer is akin to deduce and conclude.

INCITE, INSIGHT

Incite: to provoke; stir up.

Insight: understanding; comprehension.

From a story about a rescue at sea: “The rescued pair included an American woman and a Danish man.” This is a misuse of include, which means “to make someone or something part of a group.” You can't be included unless others are involved. The sentence requires a rewrite, something like The two people rescued were an American woman and a Danish man.

A major-league baseball team doesn't include men; it consists of men, and only men. Compare: Our office softball team includes women. We realize immediately that it's a coed league and there are also men on the squad.

INCREDIBLE, INCREDULOUS

Something incredible is beyond belief, so when we experience it, we are incredulous.

Incredulous refers to a state of astonishment or disbelief. It is not a deft synonym for incredible.

See imply, infer.

INFLAMMABLE

See flammable, inflammable.

INGENIOUS, INGENUOUS

What a difference one letter makes. Ingenious refers to worldly brilliance; ingenuous refers to otherworldly innocence.

IN ORDER TO

Sometimes in order to is necessary, but it's often just a fussy way of saying to: We should exercise in order to stay healthy. Drop in order whenever possible.

IN REGARD(S) TO, WITH REGARD(S) TO

In regard to and with regard to are phrases that mean “regarding,” “concerning,” “on the subject of.”

As regards—note the s on the end—means the same thing. Perhaps this is why people mindlessly pluralize regard and say in regards to and its partner in crime, with regards to.

Both of the following examples are correct: With regard to your friend, let's hope she is well. Compare that to With regards to your friend. Let's hope she is well.

In the first sentence, With regard to means “concerning.” But in the second sentence, regards with an s is a plural noun meaning “best wishes.”

See assure, ensure, insure.

When something is ironic, it has a grimly humorous or paradoxical twist, as if the universe were playing a wicked practical joke. Thus, it is ironic if a speeding car crashes into a “drive carefully” sign, or if someone named Joe Friendly turns out to be a serial killer.

Do not use irony or ironic to describe a simple coincidence: It's so ironic that our birthdays fall on the same day. No irony there; it's merely coincidental.

IRREGARDLESS

This nonsense word results from confusing and combining regardless and irrespective. If people would just think about it, what's that silly ir- doing there?

In technical terms, ir- is an initial negative particle. So if irregardless means anything, it means “not regardless” when the person using it is trying to say the exact opposite.

The thing is is that…The truth is is that…The problem is is that…The airwaves are teeming with commentators afflicted with the is is hiccup, one of life's mysteries, even to those who say it. The most alarming case in point: The fact of the matter is is that, a bloated locution intoned by certain pundits, often right before they express an opinion.

ISLE

See aisle, isle.

It's: a contraction for it is or it has.

Its: a possessive pronoun meaning “belonging to it.”

J

JELL

See gel, jell.

The verb jibe means “to fit,” “to be in harmony with”: His version did not jibe with hers.

Many people say jive when they mean jibe, but jive, noun and verb, is African-American slang that originally referred to up-tempo, jazzy music. Then it became a term for hipster jargon. It has come to mean dishonesty, silliness, or inanity: talking jive is lying or talking nonsense. Stop jiving means “Stop fooling around.”

JUST

Be careful where you put it. The meaning of just depends on its placement in a sentence, especially when it is accompanied by not, or by negative verbs such as don't or wouldn't.

Many people say just not when they mean not just, and this could lead to misunderstanding, embarrassment, even hurt feelings.

Not just means “not only,” whereas just not means “simply not” or “definitely not.”

He's a trusted adviser, not just a friend means “He's more than an adviser; he's a friend, too.” But He's a trusted adviser, just not a friend means something quite different: “I trust his advice, but he's no friend of mine.”

JUST DESERTS

See desert, dessert.

K

See carat, caret, karat.

KINDERGARTNER

Note how the spelling differs from kindergarten.

Knew: past tense of know.

New: up to date; original; unused.

To this great man, kudos are due. That sentence wouldn't raise many eyebrows, but kudos is not the plural of kudo. There's no such thing as “a kudo.” Kudos is a Greek word (pronounced “KYOO-doss” or “KOO-doss”) meaning “praise” or “glory,” and you'd no more say “kudos are due” than you'd say “glory are due.” Admittedly, kudos is due looks odd. Better to rewrite the sentence.

L

If you wouldn't say “firstly,” why say “lastly”? Drop the -ly. (See also secondly, thirdly, fourthly.)

He offered a trip to New York, Chicago, or Tarzana. She chose the latter. Oh no she didn't. Latter can't be used when there are three (or more) options. It applies only to sentences like He offered a trip to New York or Tarzana, which makes New York the former, Tarzana the latter. When there are more than two people or things mentioned, use last.

LAXADAISICAL

The word doesn't exist, but that doesn't stop people from saying it. The word they're looking for is lackadaisical: “without energy or enthusiasm.”

These may well be the two most confounding three-letter words in all the language. The use of lay where lie is indicated has been a major problem for generations. Maybe because of the word's negative double meaning, people shy away from saying lie.

All of the following are incorrect: I'm going to lay on the couch. Your wallet is laying on the dresser. He wants to lay down. Make it lie, lying, lie, respectively.

Lie: You lie down today; you lay down yesterday; you have lain down before.

Lay: Please lay the book down now; you laid the book down yesterday; you have laid that book down before.

Yesterday I lied/laid/lain/lay on the bed.

Most people would guess laid on the bed, but the correct answer is lay.
I have often lied/laid/lain/lay on the bed.

Again, most people would guess laid, but lain is correct.
I have often lied/laid/lain/lay my wallet on the dresser.

This time, laid is correct.

Lay vs. Lie Chart

	Present	Past
To recline	lie; is/are lying	lay; has/have/had lain
To put or place	lay; is/are laying	laid; has/have/had laid
To tell a falsehood	lie; is/are lying	lied; has/have/had lied

Examples in the present tense:	I like to lie down for a nap at 2 p.m.
	I am lying down for a nap today.
	Please lay the book down.
	I am laying the book down.
	I am tempted to lie about my age.
	I am not lying about my age.
Examples in the past tense:	I lay down for a nap yesterday at 2 p.m.
	I laid the book down yesterday.
	He lied on the witness stand.
Examples with a helping verb (has, have):	I have lain down for a nap every day this week.
	I have laid the book down for the last time.
	He has lied each day on the witness stand.

Correct: He led the parade. Incorrect: He lead the parade. Budding writers are increasingly using lead instead of led as the past tense of the verb to lead.

There are three reasons for this confusion. First, the past tense of read, the other common -ead verb, is read. Second, the word lead, when it's a noun denoting a metal, is pronounced led, just like the past tense of the verb to lead. And third, they don't drill spelling in schools the way they used to.

Leak: an unintended discharge of liquid or gas.

Leek: a type of onion.

LESS

See fewer, less.

LESSEN, LESSON

Lessen: to decrease.

Lesson: something learned or studied.

LET HE WHO IS WITHOUT SIN…

One of the most notorious misquotations in the English language is “Let he who is without sin among you cast the first stone.” This misuse of the pronoun he has been giving English sticklers nightmares for decades.

How could it be “Let he”? It couldn't. Here is the actual quotation from the Gospel of John: “He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her.”

LIABLE, LIBEL, LIKELY

Liable has a negative connotation: He's liable to have an accident if he doesn't slow down.

Libel is a malicious attack on someone's character.

Likely refers to simple probability: She is likely to be on time.

LIE

See lay, lie.

LIGHTENING, LIGHTNING

That flash in an overcast sky is a bolt of lightning, which is sometimes misspelled lightening.

Lightening is the process of making something lighter in color or weight.

LIKE

Do it like she does. Sentences like that one have always been unacceptable to purists. Nowadays, however, such sentences go virtually unchallenged, even by many editors.

Strictly speaking, like can only be a preposition meaning “similar to” or “similarly to.” So Do it like her (i.e., similarly to her) would be correct. But because no one would say, “Do it similarly to she does,” there is no grammatical justification for Do it like she does.

In the mid-twentieth century, Theodore M. Bernstein said in The Careful Writer: “The usage of like as a conjunction…is not acceptable in better-grade writing.”

The American Heritage Dictionary's panel of experts has noted that for more than a century, anyone who said like she does was considered illiterate. Yet today, the panel says, “Like is more acceptably used as a conjunction in informal style.”

The traditional view is that if a verb follows the noun or pronoun, as in like she does, it means like is the wrong choice. Instead, use as, as if, as though, or the way.

Do it the way she does (not like she does).
Say it as if or as though you mean it (not like you mean it).
Go when the light is green, as it is now (not like it is now).

I was so amazed, I literally hit the ceiling. If someone has literally hit the ceiling, he ought to move to a place with higher ceilings.

It was literally like being in Paris. Drop literally. Nothing is “literally like.” Anyone who says “literally like” doesn't understand the word.

Literally is supposed to mean “100 percent fact”…period. But not today, when, as in the previous examples, literally is often used figuratively. That way madness lies.

In responsible usage, literally allows no room for poetry, analogy, hyperbole, frivolity, or any other flights of fancy. Any sentence containing literally should mean what it literally says. We are being asked to accept that sentence as fact and not interpret or infer. So if you say you were “literally stunned,” we have no choice but to conclude that you were physically incapacitated.

A newspaper item told of a couple whose dreams “literally collapsed” when a fixer-upper they bought came down in a heap as they started working on it. Now, we know what the writer meant, but the house is what literally collapsed, not the dreams. How could a dream, the very essence of all that is beyond materiality, literally collapse?

One simple solution: Say “virtually”: I virtually hit the ceiling. Their dreams virtually collapsed.

Virtually allows speakers and writers to enhance and embellish to their hearts' content, options they relinquish when using literally.

Loan: something given temporarily.

Lone: only; solitary.

LOATH, LOATHE

Loath: reluctant.

Loathe: to dislike intensely.

I am loath to work for anyone I loathe.

LOOSE, LOSE

Loose: opposite of tight.

Lose: to misplace; to be defeated.

M

Mail: correspondence.

Male: masculine.

MAIZE, MAZE

Maze: a labyrinth.

MANNER, MANOR

Manner: a method; a behavior.

Manor: a palatial residence.

MARQUEE, MARQUIS

Marquee: a projection over a theater entrance.

Marquis: an aristocrat; a nobleman.

MARRY, MERRY

Marry: to wed.

Merry: cheerful.

MARSHAL, MARTIAL

Marshal: a law officer (noun). To assemble (verb). Note the spelling: one l.

Martial: warlike.

MASTERFUL, MASTERLY

Another pair of words whose distinct meanings have been blurred by carelessness. The problem centers on masterful, in such phrases as a masterful artist or a masterful performance. Make it masterly, which means “highly accomplished,” “inspired,” “demonstrating mastery.”

Masterful has darker shadings. It's about being the alpha dog: dominant, supreme—almost ruthlessly so. A masterful performance should refer to a boxer or a victorious football team rather than a cello concert.

MATERIAL, MATERIEL

Material: whatever something is made from.

Materiel: military equipment and supplies.

MAY

See can, may.

MEDAL, MEDDLE, METAL, METTLE

Medal: a decoration; a badge.

Meddle: to interfere.

Metal: an earth element.

Mettle: boldness; grit.

Among the language's most abused words is media, a plural noun; medium is the singular. A medium is a system of mass communication: The medium of television is a prominent component of the mass media.

Every day we hear and read statements like “The media is irresponsible,” “The media has a hidden agenda.” In those sentences, “media” should be followed by “are” and “have.”

There are some who prefer and defend “the media is” and “the media has.” To them, the various means of mass communication—newspapers, radio, TV, magazines, blogs, etc.—make up one “media.”

The United States is where I live is correct, even though “States” is plural, so why not “the media is,” even though media is plural? Nice try, but no sale.

Writers should insist on the media are. It's important that people think of the media as many voices, opinions, and perspectives rather than one monolithic entity.

MERETRICIOUS

A veteran newsman said, “His career is meretricious.” He probably meant meritorious. Instead, the sentence as it stands is an insult.

When you hear it, the first two syllables echo merit, but the similarity to meritorious ends there. Meretricious means “flashy,” “cheap,” “tawdry”: The candidate made a meretricious display of piety.

METAL, METTLE

See medal, meddle, metal, mettle.

MIC

Mic is a bogus and clueless abbreviation of microphone. For too many decades to count, the word was mike. “Ike is good on a mike” went a line from a popular early-1950s song about presidential candidate Dwight D. Eisenhower.

A bicycle is a bike, not a “bic.” So how is a microphone a “mic”?

MINER, MINOR

Miner: one who works in a mine.

Minor: someone under the legal age of adulthood (noun); of less importance (adjective).

Be sure to note that first u. A lot of writers think the word is “miniscule.” And it makes sense that a word for “tiny” would have a mini in it. Don't think mini, think minus.

A misnomer is a mistake, but not all mistakes are misnomers. The word is wrongly used in this sentence: It's a misnomer that elephants are afraid of mice. A misnomer is not the same as a misconception. The nome in the middle is from the Latin nomen, meaning “name.” A misnomer is a mistake in labeling: for instance, calling aluminum foil “tinfoil” or calling a koala a “bear” (it's a marsupial).

If “Lucky” Brown loses his fortune in the stock market and “Speedy” Green blows out his ankle, their respective nicknames become misnomers.

MORAL, MORALE

Moral: a lesson (noun); ethical (adjective).

Morale: spirit; level of enthusiasm.

MORE IMPORTANTLY, MOST IMPORTANTLY

Traditionalists do not accept importantly in sentences like Most importantly, Churchill was a statesman. Drop the -ly and save yourself a superfluous syllable. More important, you'll be using good English.

MORNING, MOURNING

Morning: the start of the day, between night and afternoon.

Mourning: sorrow over a tragedy.

MUSCLE, MUSSEL

Muscle: fibrous tissue; strength.

Mussel: an edible marine bivalve.

N

NAVAL, NAVEL

Naval: pertaining to ships; nautical.

Navel: belly button.

NEITHER…OR

As a conjunction, neither often teams with nor: “Neither a borrower nor a lender be.” The rule many learned in fifth grade was, “Neither…nor, either…or, but never neither…or.”

Neither…or is another once-unthinkable faux pas gaining momentum among people who ought to know better. A political adviser's resignation letter read, “This position is not a fit for me, neither personally or professionally.” (Make it “either.”)

A big-city newspaper editor wrote, “I neither commissioned or approved it.” Even editors need editors.

NEW

See knew, new.

See all-time record.

Note the double s.

Nonplussed is widely misused as a synonym for cool or unfazed: Despite his anxiety, he appeared nonplussed. Clearly, the writer meant nonchalant. nonplussed means the opposite: “confused,” “thrown off.” His strange behavior left her nonplussed.

NOR

See neither…or.

A critic wrote: “Burgess gained notoriety with his wildly popular children's books.” Another oft-abused word, notoriety has somehow become a good thing. But can't you hear the notorious in notoriety? There are all kinds of fame; notoriety is one of the bad kinds, just down the pike from infamy. This is a word best reserved for describing the world's scoundrels.

See amount, number.

O

“Hey! You! Get off of my cloud,” sang the Rolling Stones, unnecessarily. Make it off my cloud. The of in “off of” adds nothing, so why not drop it?

ORAL

See aural, oral.

ORDINANCE, ORDNANCE

Ordinance: a law.

Ordnance: military weapons and ammunition.

OVERDO, OVERDUE

Overdo: to go overboard with; behave excessively.

Overdue: behind time; payable.

She is overly concerned about her job. Note that if the opposite were true, no one would say “underly concerned.” Make it too concerned or overconcerned.

Many writers think overly is unnecessary and a bit precious. “Making over into overly,” says Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words, “is a little like turning soon into soonly. Adding -ly does nothing for over that it could not already do.”

P

Pail: a bucket.

Pale: lacking color.

Pain: physical or emotional suffering.

Pane: a glazed piece or section of a door, window, etc.

PALATE, PALETTE, PALLET

Palate: the roof of the mouth; taste.

Palette: a range of colors; a board to hold and mix paint colors.

Pallet: a low, portable platform.

PARISH, PERISH

Parish: a district with its own church and clergy.

Perish: to stop existing; to die.

PARODY, SATIRE

A parody is a humorous imitation of a book, film, song, poem, etc., meant to poke fun at the original's style or intentions.

A satire uses biting humor, hyperbole, sarcasm, irony, etc., to lay bare the toxic absurdity of civilization.

PASSED, PAST

Passed: gone ahead of; approved.

Past: a former time; beyond.

PAST HISTORY

A curious term for history.

PASTIME, PAST TIME

A pastime is a leisurely pursuit or hobby.

The phrase past time refers to something that should have happened or been done by now.

It's past time that people realized that pastime is one word.

PEACE, PIECE

Peace: tranquility.

Piece: a portion.

PEAK, PEEK, PIQUE

Peak: a summit.

Peek: a glance (noun); to steal a glance (verb).

Pique: ill humor (noun); to arouse or annoy (verb).

Peal: to ring.

Peel: to strip.

PEDAL, PEDDLE

Pedal: a foot-activated lever (noun); to operate something with pedals, such as a bicycle or organ (verb).

Peddle: to sell or publicize.

Peer: a person who is an equal (noun); to look attentively (verb).

Pier: a structure extending out over water.

PENULTIMATE

“He's the penultimate Washington insider,” said the glib pundit, blissfully unaware that penultimate means “second to last.”

PERPETRATE, PERPETUATE

Perpetrate: to commit a crime.

Perpetuate: to prolong or sustain.

PERSECUTE, PROSECUTE

To persecute is to go after in an intimidating, bullying manner.

To prosecute is to go after in a legal manner.

See convince, persuade.

See faze, phase.

This troublemaker baffles even articulate speakers. And they know it. If you listen closely, you'll notice people trying to save face by fudging the last syllable.

Phenomenon is singular. “Management is a universal phenomenon,” declares a business website. It helps to remember the -on on the end, which almost spells one.

The plural form is phenomena. A commentator on national television had it exactly backward. He spoke of “the phenomena of climate change” and later used phenomenon as a plural. Others say “phenomenas” when they mean phenomena.

See peace, piece.

See peak, peek, pique.

PISTIL, PISTOL

Pistil: the female organ of a flower.

Pistol: a gun.

PLAIN, PLANE

Plain: a treeless area of land (noun); not fancy; evident (adjectives).

Plane: a flat or level surface; short form of airplane.

PLUM, PLUMB

Plum: a type of fruit.

Plumb: to examine (verb); upright; vertical (adjectives); totally; precisely (adverbs).

p.m.

See a.m., p.m.

POINT IN TIME

At that point in time is an exercise in empty pomposity, made (in)famous by the Watergate hearings of the early 1970s and still going strong. Why not just at that point or at that time?

Pole: a long, cylindrical piece of wood or metal.

Poll: a collection of opinions; a survey.

POOR, PORE, POUR

Poor: deprived.

Pore: a small opening (noun). To study carefully (verb).

Pour: to send liquid flowing.

Be careful not to say “pour over” if you mean pore over.

Pray: to speak to a deity.

Prey: a victim (noun); to hunt, to exploit (verbs).

PRECIPITATE, PRECIPITOUS

Media pundits have errantly decided that precipitous means “immediate” or “swift,” as when they discuss the advisability of “precipitous troop withdrawal.” The correct adjective would be precipitate.

Precipitous means “steep,” like a precipice.

PREDOMINATELY

Some mistakenly use it as an alternative to predominantly, as in “chiefly,” “primarily.” Funny thing about predominately: you might not see it for long stretches, and then, like some verbal swine flu, it crops up everywhere for a few weeks. Although predominately is technically a word, it's not easy to pinpoint what it means.

PREMIER, PREMIERE

Premier is generally an adjective meaning “the best,” “of unsurpassed quality, skill, or importance.” As a noun, it refers to a head of government.

A premiere is an opening night or first performance.

Careful speakers and writers might consider avoiding this word. If you tell hungry guests, “We're serving dinner presently,” they might think you mean now. But presently means “in the near future.” It's a stuffy word anyway; what's wrong with soon?

See assume, presume.

PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE

Principal: a major participant; the head of an institution (nouns); of first importance; chief (adjectives).

Principle: a fundamental belief; a fundamental fact.

PROFIT, PROPHET

Profit: gain.

Prophet: a predictor; a seer.

PRONE, SUPINE

The victim was found lying prone, her eyes gazing sightlessly at a full moon. Sorry, but this is a maneuver only the swivel-headed girl from The Exorcist could pull off, because when you're prone, you're lying on your stomach. Make that supine, which means “lying on one's back.”

PROPHECY, PROPHESIZE, PROPHESY

A prophecy is a prediction.

When prophets make prophecies, they prophesy, not “prophesize.”

It will be a crowning achievement, prophesized its chief engineer. Lose that z and make it prophesied. It is doubtful you could find any dictionary anywhere that lists “prophesize.” Even the nonjudgmental Webster's New World College Dictionary shuns this common (mis)usage.

See persecute, prosecute.

PURPOSELY, PURPOSEFULLY

These words share much common ground, and they are sometimes interchangeable, but there are distinct differences. Purposely means “intentionally,” but some acts are intentional, yet pointless: Little Jimmy purposely threw Alice's lunch in the mud.

Someone who does something purposefully is on a mission, with an important goal in mind: The rescue team purposefully combed the woods for the missing child.

Q-R

QUOTATION, QUOTE

To purists, quote is a verb only. When we quote, we repeat or reproduce someone's exact words.

The correct term for quoted material is a quotation. In casual usage, a quotation is often called a “quote,” but quote as a noun is still not acceptable in formal writing.

RACK, WRACK

As a verb, rack means “to afflict,” “oppress,” “torment.”

To wrack is to cause the ruin of.

A lot of people mistakenly write things like “nerve-wracking” and “I wracked my brains.” Drop the w in both cases. Both expressions derive from that device in the torture hall of fame called the rack.

RAISE, RAZE

Raise: to lift up.

Raze: to take down.

Rap: a sharp blow; a type of music (nouns); to strike sharply (verb).

Wrap: to enclose in a covering.

Real: actual, authentic.

Reel: a spool (noun); to stumble; falter (verbs).

REASON BEING IS

One hears this odd phrase frequently, in statements like The economy is in trouble; the reason being is profligate spending. Make it either the reason being profligate spending or the reason is profligate spending.

REASON IS BECAUSE

The reason is because we spend too much. Make it The reason is that we spend too much. Saying the reason is makes because unnecessary.

REEK, WREAK

Reek: to smell bad.

Wreak: to inflict.

See allude, elude, refer.

See irregardless.

REIGN, REIN

Reign: period in power (noun); to be in power (verb).

Rein: a strap to control horses (noun); to control or guide (verb).

Jones is relishing in his new role as financial adviser. The sentence mistakes relish for revel. Either Jones relishes his role or he revels in his role.

Ansel Adams is renown for his timeless photographs. Make that renowned. This widespread gaffe results from thinking renown is akin to known, probably because they share those last four letters.

REST, WREST

Rest: to relax.

Wrest: to take forcibly.

REST, AS THEY SAY, IS HISTORY

The rest, as they say, is history is a cringe-inducing cliché. Not The rest is history, which has its place—it's that pseudo-sagacious as they say which really rankles. How to explain the enduring appeal of something so tired, weak, and breathtakingly unoriginal?

RESTAURATEUR

Note the spelling: no n.

RETCH, WRETCH

Retch: to heave.

Wretch: a lowly being; a scoundrel.

Reticent means “uncommunicative, reserved, silent.” But many people wrongly use it to mean “reluctant”: I was reticent to spend so much on a football game. No, you were reticent when you didn't protest the ticket price.

In formal writing, there's no such thing as “a reverend.” The word is an honorific used before a pastor's name: the Reverend Josiah Blank. Important: the is mandatory. Also note the phrase must be followed by the person's full name—to say “Reverend Blank” is wrong twice.

REVIEW, REVUE

Review: an examination or criticism (noun); to assess, to analyze (verbs).

Revue: a variety show.

Riff: a brief musical phrase; pithy or flippant wordplay.

Rift: a crack; a disagreement.

RIGHT, RITE, WRITE

Right: an entitlement (noun); correct, opposite of left, opposite of wrong (adjectives).

Rite: a ritual; a ceremony.

Write: to compose letters or words.

RING, WRING

Ring: the sound of a bell; jewelry worn around a finger.

Wring: to twist.

ROAD, RODE, ROWED

Road: a street; a path; a highway.

Rode: past tense of ride.

Rowed: past tense of row.

Role: a position; a part in a play or film.

Roll: a baked food; a flowing movement (nouns); to rotate; to flow with a current (verbs).

Rye: a grain.

Wry: mocking; ironic; droll.

S

See parody, satire.

SAVER, SAVOR

Saver: someone or something that saves or conserves.

Savor: to appreciate.

SCENT, SENT

Scent: an aroma; a fragrance.

Sent: taken; moved.

SECONDLY, THIRDLY, FOURTHLY

As noted earlier, few people say “firstly,” and fewer yet say “fifthly,” “sixthly,” “seventeenthly,” etc. Many adverbs do not end in -ly. It makes more sense to use second, third, and fourth rather than secondly, thirdly, and fourthly.

See biannual, biennial, semiannual.

SENSUAL, SENSUOUS

Sensual: relating to sexual pleasure.

Sensuous: relating to or affecting the physical senses.

Serf: a slave.

See cereal, serial.

Set: to place something somewhere.

Sit: to take a seat.

SEW, SO, SOW

Sew: to stitch.

So: as a result; in the manner indicated.

Sow: to scatter or plant seed.

SHEAR, SHEER

Shear: to cut; to clip.

Sheer: pure; steep; translucent.

[sic]

This is found only in a direct quotation (note the brackets). An editor inserts [sic] directly after a word or sentence to notify readers that something is off or incorrect, but is being reproduced exactly as it originally appeared.

See cite, sight, site.

It's not the same as simple. It means “oversimplified,” as in Your simplistic argument leaves out too many facts.

At a memorial service, a well-meaning soul remembered a renowned artist as “a simplistic man.” Some occasions are too solemn for foolish language lapses. Trying to express something commendable, the speaker instead said the dear departed had been a simpleton.

See because, since.

SITE

See cite, sight, site.

Despite its popularity, the slash (/), technically known as a virgule, is frowned on by purists. Other than to indicate dates (9/11/2001) or separate lines of poetry (“Celery, raw / Develops the jaw”), it has few defensible uses in formal writing.

Usually a hyphen, or in some cases the word or, will suffice. Instead of writing the novelist/poet Eve Jones, make it the novelist-poet Eve Jones. Rather than available to any man/woman who is qualified, make it any man or woman.

“The virgule is a mark that doesn't appear much in first-rate writing,” says Bryan A. Garner in A Dictionary of Modern American Usage. “Use it as a last resort.”

SLEIGHT, SLIGHT

Sleight: dexterity; skill.

Slight: slender; of little substance.

Many think snuck is the past tense of sneak, but it's not, at least not yet. The past tense of sneak is sneaked.

See sew, so, sow.

Soar: to fly high.

Sore: painful; in pain.

Sole: the bottom of a foot; a type of fish (nouns); single; solitary (adjectives).

Soul: essence; the spirit apart from the body.

Some: an unspecified number.

Sum: the total from adding numbers.

Son: male offspring.

Sun: the star that is the central body of our solar system.

SOW

See sew, so, sow.

STAID, STAYED

Staid: solemn; serious.

Stayed: remained; waited.

STAIR, STARE

Stair: a step.

Stare: to gaze intently.

STAKE, STEAK

Stake: a wager; an investment; a pole.

Steak: a cut of meat.

STATIONARY, STATIONERY

Stationary: in one place; inactive.

Stationery: writing paper.

STEAL, STEEL

Steal: to rob.

Steel: an iron alloy (noun); to toughen (verb).

STEP, STEPPE

Step: a stair (noun); to move by lifting the foot (verb).

Steppe: vast grassland.

STOMPING GROUNDS

It started out as stamping grounds, which is still preferred by most dictionaries.

STRAIGHT, STRAIT

Words like straitjacket and strait-laced are frequently misspelled using straight, which is incorrect, but understandable. Wouldn't a “straightjacket” be just the thing to straighten you up and straighten you out? Doesn't “straight-laced” aptly describe a person of refinement (the lace part) who lives the “straight life”? This is why some authorities accept straight-laced as an alternative spelling. But a strait is a narrow channel, and it is that sense of “confinement with little room to maneuver” that generated these terms.

STRATEGY, STRATAGEM

Note the second a in stratagem.

Both words refer to plans of action. But stratagem denotes trickery. It is a scheme to deceive or outwit.

SUM

See some, sum.

SUN

See son, sun.

SUNDAE, SUNDAY

Sundae: ice cream with syrup.

Sunday: a day of the week.

See prone, supine.

Never “suppose to.” Don't drop the d in usages like You're supposed to be here.

SURF

See serf, surf.

See empathy, sympathy.

T

Tack and tact are commonly confused when discussing strategy.

A tack is a course of action.

Tact is discretion.

We decided to try a new tack is correct, but “a new tact” is what a lot of people say, mistakenly thinking “tact” is short for tactic.

Tail: the hindmost animal appendage.

Tale: a story.

TAKE

See bring, take.

TAUGHT, TAUT

Taught: trained; educated.

Taut: stiff; tightly stretched.

Team: a group with the same goal (noun); to form a squad (verb).

Teem: to swarm.

Although it produces tremors and makes the ground tremble, an earthquake is a temblor, not a “tremblor.”

TENANT, TENET

A tenant is someone who pays rent to use or occupy a property. But “tenant” is often mistakenly used in place of tenet, a fundamental belief or principle held true by a group or organization.

Than is used for comparison.

Then means “next,” “after that.”

THAT

See who, which, that.

THEIR, THERE, THEY'RE

Their: belonging to them.

There: in that place.

They're: contraction of they are.

They're in their car over there.

THOSE KIND OF

Instead of “those kind of things,” say either those kinds of things or things of that kind. Better yet: things like that.

Always use till. You won't find a reference book anywhere that recommends 'til. Writer John B. Bremner declares brusquely, “Either till or until, but not 'til.”

It's natural to assume that 'til is a contraction of until. However, till predates until by several centuries.

TO, TOO, TWO

To: in the direction of; toward.

Too: also; excessively.

Two: the number after one.

TORT, TORTE

Tort: a breach of contract.

Torte: a rich cake made with little or no flour.

TORTUOUS, TORTUROUS

Tortuous: winding; twisting: a tortuous trail.

Torturous: painful; causing suffering: held under torturous conditions.

Not to be used arbitrarily. How is totally convinced different from convinced?

TOWARD, TOWARDS

The Associated Press Stylebook insists on toward, but both are acceptable and mean the same thing.

The celebrity issued a statement through his attorney that he was “sorry and saddened over what transpired.” This usage of transpire, though common, is incorrect. The word doesn't mean “occur” or “happen.” Something that transpires is revealed or becomes known over time. The Oxford online dictionary gives this example: “It transpired that millions of dollars of debt had been hidden in a complex web of transactions.”

See temblor.

TROOP, TROUPE

Troop: a body of soldiers.

Troupe: a group of traveling performers.

Mike is a real trouper. Many would spell it “trooper.” But a trooper is either a cop or a soldier in the cavalry, whereas a trouper, according to the American Heritage Dictionary, is “a reliable, uncomplaining, often hard-working person.”

Note the spelling: no e.

This word is often just window dressing. How is I truly believe different from I believe?

TURBID, TURGID

Turbid means “muddy,” or “unclear,” literally and figuratively. Both a river and a poem may properly be called turbid.

Turgid means “swollen,” literally and figuratively. One may suffer physically from a turgid limb, or mentally from a turgid (i.e., pompous and bombastic) speech.

U

UNINTERESTED

See disinterested, uninterested.

The Big Easy is one of America's most unique cities. Drop most. What's wrong with saying one of America's unique cities?

Unique is, on its own, a potent word, and it must never be accompanied by an intensifier, since modifying it saps its considerable power. When you use unique, put it out there alone—otherwise, say unusual.

Unique belongs to a group of words called absolutes or incomparables. Examples include dead, equal, essential, eternal, opposite, supreme. Such words resist being modified. Modifiers like more, most, absolutely, rather, and very either strip them of their strength or result in foolishness.

“Would you say ‘very one-of-a-kind’?” asks Roy Blount Jr. in his book Alphabet Juice. Adding very or absolutely to unique, Blount says, “is like putting a propeller on a rabbit to make him hop better.”

All the way back in the 1940s, George Orwell blew the whistle on this pretentious word in his classic essay “Politics and the English Language.” Orwell advised writers to get over themselves and go with use. But use is so humble, so mundane, whereas utilize really sounds like something. Bureaucrats in particular love to use utilize.

V

VAIN, VANE, VEIN

Vain: futile; narcissistic.

Vane: a blade moved by wind: weather vane.

Vein: a blood vessel; a mood.

VENAL, VENIAL

Venal: corrupt,” “able and willing to be bribed.”

Venial: “forgivable.”

Any writer who inadvertently drops the i in a sentence like Her lapse was venial may want to think about getting a good lawyer.

VERSES, VERSUS

Verses: lines of poetry.

Versus: as compared to another choice; against.

VERY

Serious writers are wary of very. Very often, this very word is very unnecessary.

Viable means “able or fit to live”: viable cells, a viable fetus.

In popular usage, viable has become synonymous with possible, workable, feasible. Many purists consider this unacceptable. Roy Copperud, in American Usage and Style, says “the word has had the edge hopelessly ground off it.”

Vial: a small container.

Vile: evil, depraved.

Vice: a bad habit; an immoral practice.

Vise: a device used to hold an object firmly.

See literally.

W

WAIST, WASTE

Waist: the part of the human body between the ribs and hips.

Waste: garbage (noun); to squander (verb); to spend uselessly (verb).

WAIT, WEIGHT

Wait: to stay; to be available.

Weight: heaviness; significance.

WAIVER, WAVER

Waiver: relinquishment of a right.

Waver: to feel indecisive; to swing unsteadily.

Warn: to notify about trouble.

Worn: carried on the body; deteriorated.

WARRANTEE, WARRANTY

Warrantee: a person who is given a written guarantee or a warrant.

Warranty: a written guarantee.

WARY, WEARY

Wary: mistrustful; guarded.

Weary: exhausted; drained.

Way: a method; a direction; a manner.

Weigh: to measure mass; to mull over.

A ways to go, meaning “a considerable distance,” is best avoided in formal writing.

Weak: lacking strength.

Week: a period of seven days.

WEATHER, WHETHER

Weather: climatic conditions (noun); to withstand (verb).

Whether: if; in case.

WHETHER OR NOT

Often, the or not can be dropped, as in I don't know whether or not you've heard this.

See who, which, that.

WHILE, WILE

While: during.

Wile: a ploy to fool, trap, or entice.

WHO, WHICH, THAT

Use who only when referring to humans. Avoid such usages as a company who or a country who or a dog who. For those, that or which is correct.

Contrary to superstition, that is perfectly acceptable when applied to people. The Man That Got Away and The Girl That I Marry, two hit ballads from the mid-twentieth century, were written at a time when the popular culture expected literacy from its songwriters. And don't forget the famous quotation from the Gospel of John which begins, “He that is without sin among you…”

Which as a pronoun should never refer to humans. (It's an adjective in sentences like Which man do you mean?)

See hole, whole.

See holy, wholly.

WHO'S, WHOSE

Who's is a contraction of who is or who has.

Whose is the possessive case of who.

Who's the man whose wife called?

WITH REGARD(S) TO

See in regard(s) to, with regard(s) to.

WON'T, WONT

Won't: contraction of will not.

Wont: habit; custom (nouns); accustomed (adjective).

WORN

See warn, worn.

See rack, wrack.

WRAP

See rap, wrap.

See reek, wreak.

WREAK (WRECK) HAVOC

Because wreak havoc means “to cause destruction,” some mistakenly think the first word of the phrase is wreck.

See rest, wrest.

See retch, wretch.

See ring, wring.

See right, rite, write.

WRY

See rye, wry.

Y

Yoke: a harness for oxen.

Yolk: the yellow part of an egg.

YOU'RE, YOUR

You're: contraction of you are.

Your: belonging to you.