Index

Page numbers followed by the letter “f” refer to figures illustrating the text. Page numbers followed by the letter “t” refer to tables. Page numbers containing the letter “n” refer to endnotes, with the number of the note following.

• “abject form

• abolition of characters, in Korea and Japan, 201–202
• abolition of Chinese characters, 15, 22, 44
  • as “easy iconoclasm,” 14, 26
  • lack of typewriter as argument for, 124
  • proponents of, 13–14, 190
  • rejection of, 125, 138, 156, 171–172
• advertising, Chinese, 153–154
• A.E.G. Company, 343n37
• aesthetics
  • of divisible type, 96–103, 154
  • machinic, 151, 153
  • of Oriental “essences” in Occident, 92
  • politics of, 156
  • traditional Chinese orthographic, 93–95, 96, 130, 132, 151, 154
  • twentieth-century transformation of, 153
• agonistic methodology, 30, 31–32
• Ai Weiwei, 3
• aikoku taipisuto (patriotic typists), 222
• algorithmic reading, 76, 84, 85, 88, 91, 347n3
  • by Chinese researchers, 141, 361n63
• Allard, J. Frank, 185
• Allen, Joseph, 261
• alphabet, Cyrillic, 60
• alphabet, fetishization of, 67–68
• alphabet, Greek, 2, 186
• alphabet, Latin
  • on stenotype machine, 317–318
  • used as paratextual technology in Chinese, 8–9, 255–256
  • used in Chinese telegraph code, 117, 118f, 120
• alphabet, Phoenician, 2, 186
• alphabetic order
  • as analogy for character organization methods, 249
  • Chinese telegraph code and, 120
  • lack of in Chinese script, 3–9, 250
  • in Olympic Parade of Nations, 2, 4, 338n9
  • as stable, 250, 252, 253
• alphacentric technologies, 9–10, 25, 46, 60, 352n48
• alphasyllabaries (abugidas), 11
• Analytic Universal Telegraphy (Escayrac de Lauture), 106, 108–109
• Anderson, Leroy, 27–28, 29, 31
• Anglo-Chinese College, 102, 147
• Anglo-French expedition to China (1859), 106
• animation, Chinese, 170
• anti-reading. See algorithmic reading
• Apple (computer company), 241
• Arabic numerals
  • adoption of, in Chinese, 140
  • on Shu-style typewriter, 366n19
• Arabic script, and typewriter, 62–63, 344n52
• Army Typist, The (Sakurada Tsunehisa), 222
• Asahi shinbun (periodical), 222, 375n7
• ASIA (magazine), 188, 278
• “auto-telecommunication

• Baidu, 320
• baihua. See vernacularization of Chinese
• Bangkok, 50
• Baoshan Chinese Typewriting Supplementary School, 228–229
• Barr, John H., 345n54
• Beijing, 227, 228, 278, 284. See also Olympic Games
• beiyongzi. See infrequently used characters
• Bell, Alexander Graham, 55
• Berry, Mary Elizabeth, 248
• Beyerhaus, Auguste, 102, 149, 265, 325, 351n38, 351n39
• Bi Sheng, 81, 169, 325
• Bible, 87, 89, 135, 349n19, 351n38, 358n20
• Blair, Ann, 247–248
• blind typing, 179
• Bloom, Alfred, 70, 72
• Boas, Franz, 68
• Bodde, Derk, 70, 72
• bodies, human
  • attuned to Communist rhetoric, 292, 304
  • Chinese typewriting and, 134, 172, 182, 371n55
  • in Chinese versus alphabetic typing, 178–180
  • natural-language experimentation and, 290, 300, 304
  • standardization and, 303
  • technolinguistic history and, 178
• Bollywood, 29
• Boltz, William, 70
• Bombay Talkie (film), 28–29, 30
• Book from the Sky (Xu Bing), 16–18, 22
• Boulder Dam, as analogy for Chinese typewriter, 244, 245
• Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program, 137, 138
• boycott of Japanese goods in China, 218, 219
• Boyfriend (magazine), 215
• Breteuil, 355n74
• Brook, Timothy, 225
• Brown, Alexander T., 47
• Brumbaugh, Robert, 151
• brushtalk, 209–210, 211
• Bryans, William Remington, 148, 363n78
• Bryson, Bill, 35, 40, 41, 43
• Buck, Pearl S., 272, 278
• Burgess, Anthony, 35
• bushou. See radicals
• Byrne, David, 319

• Cable and Wireless, 201, 315
• Cadmus, 186–187, 279
• Cai Yuanpei, 185, 249
• Caligraph (typewriter model), 50
• calligraphy, Chinese, 16, 96, 281, 399n66
  • aesthetics of, 94–95, 99
  • orthographic principles of, 5, 94–95, 256
• candidacy (in input), 240, 281
• Cang Jie, 170
• carbon-paper copying, 170, 180, 220
• carriage advance mechanism, 59, 60, 63
  • reversed in Arabic and Hebrew typewriters, 60–61, 343n45, 344n52
• Carter, Harry, 17, 18, 19
• cartoons, mocking Chinese typewriters, 35–38, 42, 192–193
• cenemic script, 11–12, 68
• Chang, C.C., 157, 363n78
• Chang, Chung-yuan, 279
• Changsha, 142
• character cylinder (typewriter part), 166, 167, 265, 363n79
  • in Japanese typewriter, 205
• “character retrieval problem.” See under retrieval of Chinese characters
• characters, Chinese
  • abundance of, 77, 88, 264–265
  • in computing, 239–243
  • described verbally by components, 261
  • as elemental unit of script, 79–80
  • encounter with Western information technologies, 9–10, 44
  • fake, 16–18
  • “fundamental method” of organizing, 250–253, 256–258
  • as hindrance to technology, 184, 316
  • as “ideographic,” 66, 320
  • invention of, 170
  • as irresolvable individuals, 131, 132
  • “natural laws” of, 99
  • not made to fit the typewriter, 156
  • “puzzling” of, 75–121, 211
  • as semi-phoneticized “half-breed
  • simplification of, 15, 19, 20, 301
  • spatial archetypes of, 262
  • “spelled” from components, 80, 90, 94, 102, 104, 131, 149
  • structural balance of, 75
  • as ultimate Other of world scripts, 11–12, 64–65, 317
  • used for transnational communication, 209–210
  • Western denigration of, 38, 43–44, 65–74, 81
  • See also abolition of Chinese characters; radicals
• character selector (typewriter part), 143, 197, 199
• character slugs (typewriter part), 30, 169, 226
  • lacking for infrequent characters, 284
  • not fixed, 163, 295
  • on Shu-style typewriter, 163–164, 167, 364n1
  • Yu Binqi and, 219
  • See also infrequently used characters
• Chartier, Roger, 178
• Chen Changgeng, 230, 231, 233
• Chen Duxiu, 12, 15, 252
• Chen Guangyao, 296, 298
• Chen Heqin, 141, 142, 361n58
• Chen Lifu, 253–258, 325, 390n23, 390n25
  • invention of Five-Stroke system, 254
  • as “righting the wrongs of the ancients
• Chen Pengnian, 77
• Chen Songling, 175
• Chiang Kai-shek, 254, 278, 371n55
• Chicago Daily Tribune, 244, 245
• China Standard Typewriter Manufacturing Company, 226
• Chinatown, Los Angeles, 161
• Chinatown, San Francisco, 35
• China Typewriter Company, 233
• “Chinese alphabet” (Western misconception), 183–187
• Chinese-American Typing Institute, 174
• Chinese Civil War, 278
• Chinese Exclusion Act, 362n76
• Chinese Inventors Association, 220
• Chinese National Physical Education Federation, 215
• Chinese Phonetic Alphabet. See zhuyin fuhao
• Chinese Railway Institute, 165
• Chinese Students’ Monthly, 125
• Chinese Telegraph Administration
• Chinese Times, 126
• “Chinese Typewriter” (dance), 40
• Chinese Typewriter, The (film), 38–39
• chinmun. See “truth script”
• Chu Yin Tzu-mu Keyboard. See typewriter models, Chinese: Remington Chinese Phonetic Typewriter
• Civil Service Examination, Chinese, 21
• Civil War, U.S., 127
• CJK (Chinese-Japanese-Korean information technology), 200, 210
  • in typewriter market, 209
• Clarke, Adele, 307
• cleaning services for typewriters, 225
• cliché, 291, 295
• cloud, the, 320
• Coble, Parks, 225
• “code consciousness
• codex, 178
• Cold War, 196
• colonialism, Western, 9, 12, 107
• combinatorialism, 79, 121, 159, 316
  • in Chinese-language printing, 89–103, 106
  • criticism of in typewriting, 157–158, 264
  • definition of, 80
  • in MingKwai, 264–265, 266f
  • in Qi Xuan typewriter, 149–154, 150f
  • in telegraphy, 103–104
  • See also divisible type
• Commercial Press, 142, 250, 252, 274, 296, 364n104
  • competition to, 212, 217, 223, 224, 229
  • and formation of typewriter industry, 170–172, 175, 182
  • implements lianchuanzi, 292
  • interest in Zhou Houkun typewriter, 157, 159, 165
  • Japanese bombing of, 212–213
  • mass-produces first Chinese typewriter, 161, 164, 166–169, 168f, 169f
  • presents Chinese typewriter to West, 188–190
• Commercial Press Characters in the Chinese Spoken Language (Chen Heqin), 141
• common usage, 17–18, 121, 316
  • approach to typewriting, 155–156
  • in Chinese-language printing, 81–88, 89, 106, 128
  • in Chinese telegraph code, 110
  • criticism of in typewriting, 158, 264, 274
  • definition of, 79
  • “discovery” of by Westerners, 85
  • Japanese kanji and, 204–205
  • in MingKwai, 264, 267, 268
  • and number of characters used in texts, 84–86
  • politics of exclusion in, 87, 88, 100, 103, 198
  • in Qi Xuan typewriter, 148–149
  • in Sheffield typewriter, 132–134
  • in Shu-style typewriter, 163
  • vibrancy in early twentieth-century China, 140–142
  • in Zhou Houkun typewriter, 137, 140, 143, 159, 166
  • See also descriptive imperative; exclusion of characters; prescriptive imperative
• Communist Party, Chinese (CCP)
  • alliance with Nationalists, 254
  • attitude toward typing experiments, 300–301
  • in Chinese Civil War, 278–279
  • language reform and, 12, 142, 301
  • Zhang Jiying and, 292
• Communist revolution (1949), 8, 232, 278–279
  • key political changes caused by, 299–300
• competitions, typing
  • Manchuria-Wide Typing Competition, 224
  • North China Military Region Typing Competition, 298
• “complete keyboard” typewriter. See double-keyboard typewriter
• Computer History Museum, 237
• computing
  • Chinese, 9, 14, 19, 24, 238–243, 288, 315–321
  • history of Western, 237–238
  • Western misconceptions of Chinese, 321
• conceptual algorithms, 42–44
• Conference on Unification of Pronunciation, 185
• Confucianism, 12, 15, 202
• Confucius, 86
• Connected Language Tray Bed. See lianchuanzi
• continuity, 18, 21–23
• correspondence (of keystrokes to inscription), 239, 245, 317
• Costas, Bob, 3–4, 6, 9
• Cousin, Abel Joseph Constant, 53–54
• Creel, Herrlee Glessner, 68–69, 70
• criteria (in computing), 239, 240, 281
• C.Y. Chao Typewriting Maintenance Department, 225

• Daily Hiragana News, 202
• Daily Picayune-New Orleans, 136
• Damrong Rajanubhab, Prince, 45
• dao (of organizing Chinese characters), 252, 253, 258
• Daodejing, 89, 92
• Daoism, 15, 89, 202
• dayinben. See type-and-mimeograph editions
• daziji. See typewriter, Chinese
• daziyuan. See typists, Chinese
• decentralization of tray bed changes, 288, 290, 300, 304, 308, 311, 397n55
• deconstruction, 31–32
• De la transmission télégraphique des caractères chinois (Escayrac de Lauture), 103–104
• Denshin jigō. See kana: in Japanese telegraph code
• Densmore Typewriter Company, 46, 50
• descriptive imperative, 87, 134
• Detroit, 137
• “dialects” of Chinese, 13, 21, 40, 187, 243, 356n75
  • and “national language
  • in popular culture, 39
• dictionaries, Chinese, 15, 77, 82–83, 95, 270
  • foundational character dictionaries, 142, 204
  • See also Kangxi Dictionary
• Ding, Cook, 99
• directionality of script, in Hebrew and Arabic, 60
• discipline, physical and mental, 178
• divisible type, 80, 90–103, 106, 131, 351n37, 351n38
  • aesthetic politics of, 96–103, 154, 198
  • compared to full-body type, 97–100, 98f, 101f
  • number of radicals needed in, 158
  • Qi Xuan’s typewriter and, 147, 149, 151
  • telegraphy and, 103
  • widespread adoption of, 102
• Dodge, Elbert S., 343n45
• Dong Jing’an, 143
• double-keyboard typewriter, 47–49, 48f, 342n27
  • disappearance of, 51, 56
• Du Dingyou, 249, 250, 252, 260–263, 270, 325, 390n29
• Du Ponceau, Peter S., 66–67
• Dyer, Samuel, 102, 325, 349n20

• East Asia Japanese-Chinese Typewriting Professional Supplementary School, 228, 229, 386n109
• Eastern Extension A&C Telegraph Company, 110
• East India Company, 84
• edicts, imperial (zhaoshu), 213
• Egyptian script, 66
• eight fundamental strokes, 5, 5f, 94–95, 256, 257f
• electronic music, 318–319
• embedded messages, 217
• embodied practice. See bodies, human
• “enciphered” transmissions (telegraphy), 112–113, 115
  • Chinese considered to be, 114, 355n74
  • during Nationalist military campaign, 254
• engineers
  • duty of according to Zhou Houkun, 138–139
  • role in Chinese technolinguistic modernity, 10, 14
• Escayrac de Lauture, Pierre Henri Stanislas d’, 104–105, 110, 114, 325
  • Chinese telegraph code proposal, 103–104, 105f, 109
  • and universal telegraphic language, 106, 108–109, 110, 112, 353n59
• Ethnic Classification project (minzu shibie), 283
• “evocative objects
• evolutionism
  • in character retrieval debate, 252
  • questioning of, 68–70
  • in Western critiques of Chinese, 43–44, 65–67, 71, 72
• “examination Chinese
• exclusion of characters
  • in Sheffield’s typewriter, 132, 133, 134–135
  • in typewriters in general, 155–156
  • in Zhou Houkun’s typewriter, 166
• “exotic type

• factories, typewriter, 59, 61, 63, 167–169, 168f, 169f
• false universalisms, 9, 10–12, 64, 317
  • in Olympic Games, 4
• Fan Jiling, 232, 233
• Far East Trade Monthly, 224
• feminization of clerical workforce
  • in Japan, 205
  • worldwide, 172–173, 175, 177, 274, 392n47
• Fengtian Japanese-Chinese Typing Institute, 229
• Fengtian Typing Professional School, 213
• finding rod. See character selector
• Five-Stroke (Wubi) retrieval system, 254–258, 259f, 390n25. See also Chen Lifu
• Flox, O.D., 126–128
• Foguoji (A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms), 89, 102, 351n39
• Fong Sec, 188
• fonts, Chinese, 89, 90, 92–93, 96, 102, 348n16, 351n39
  • radical new fonts, 153–154
  • Song-style font (songti), 18
  • See also divisible type; movable type
• Forbidden City, 36, 147
• foundational character sets, 141–142, 155, 166, 361n63
• Four Treasuries, The (Siku quanshu), 82
• France, rationality of, 90, 93
• frequency analysis of alphabetic scripts, 60
• frequency analysis of Chinese characters
  • by Chinese researchers, 140–142, 361n58
  • in computer input, 19, 240
  • in corpus of Chinese texts, 84, 89
  • by Gamble, 75–76
  • in natural-language arrangement, 305
  • by Sheffield, 132
  • in Shu-style typewriter tray bed, 163
  • for typesetting, 82
• Fujimura, Joan, 307
• Fukuzawa Yukichi, 204
• Fuller, Matthew, 239

• gada gada gada (sound of Chinese typewriter), 30, 31
• Gamble, William, 75–76, 134, 141, 325, 349n19
  • analysis of Chinese common usage, 75–76, 79, 86, 87, 89, 127, 361n58
  • criticism of Chinese movable type, 81, 83, 347n4
• Gao Mengdan, 249, 250
• Gattopardo, Il (Lampedusa), 22
• Gellner, Ernest, 202
• Gestalt pattern-finding, 262, 271
• Gilbert, Paul T., 183
• Ginsberg, Allen, 71
• Girouard, Gerry, 319
• Glidden, Carlos, 46
• Goody, Jack, 69
• Google, 241, 281, 319
• Grant, John Cameron, 184–185
• “graphology” (“metalanguage”), in Chinese, 261
• Great Asia Pictorial (periodical), 176
• Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 224
• Great Leap Forward, 79, 300
• Great Learning, The (Daxue), 89
• Great Northern Telegraph Company, 109, 201
• Great Qing Legal Code, 84–85, 89
• Greece, Western reverence for, 2
• “Greek Miracle,” 2, 69, 186
• Guangde Chinese Typewriting Supplementary School, 227, 228
• Guomindang, 195, 253
  • Central Executive Committee, 253, 255
  • in Chinese Civil War, 278
  • military campaign in warlord period, 254
  • retreat from Japanese forces, 220, 225
  • urban development campaign, 255
• Gutenberg, Johannes, 81

• Haddad, Salim, 62
• Hall, Thomas, 46, 48, 325
  • attempt to develop Chinese typewriter, 131–132
• Hammond Typewriter Company, 61, 185, 186
• Han Zonghai, 233
• Han dynasty, 94
• hangul (Korean phonetic script), 3
• hanja (Korean characters), 201–202, 210
• Hannas, William, 70
• Hanyang factory, 167
• Hanyeping Steel Company, 167
• Hanyu pinyin. See pinyin
• hanzi. See characters, Chinese
• Harbin Municipal Bureau of Public Security, 284
• Harrison, Samuel A., 60–61
• Harvard University, 244, 273
• Havelock, Eric, 2, 69, 72, 186
• Hayford, Charles, 142
• heat maps, 308, 309f, 310f, 398n63
• Hebei, 284
• Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 65–66, 72
• hegemony, alphabetic, 9–12, 23, 26
• Henan Provincial Government, 175
• Hepburn, James Curtis, 376n28
• Hernisz, Stanislas, 351n41
• Herodotus, 186
• heteropraxy and political orthodoxy, 292, 295
• high modernism, 153
• Hill, Robert Erwin, 62
• Hillier, Walter, 372n65
• History of the Art of Writing, The (Mason), 67
• Holly, Carlos, 325
• Hong, Y.C. (You Chung), 161, 164
• Hongye Company, 219
• Howl (Ginsberg), 71
• Howland, Douglas, 209
• Hu Shi, 138, 156–157, 326
• Hu Zhixiang, 233
• Huadong Machinery Factory, 171
• Huang Xisheng, 250
• Huanqiu Chinese Typewriter Manufacturing Company, 225–226
• Huanqiu Typing Academy, 174–175, 368n34
• Hull, Matthew, 339n23
• human-machine interactionism (HCI), 260
• Humphrey, Henry Noel, 67
• Hung Shen, 142
• Huntington Library, 161, 163
• Hwangsong sinmun (periodical), 375n14
• Hwa-yin Type-writing School, 176
• hypermediation. See mediation

• IBM (International Business Machines Corporation), 272, 315, 391n38
• “ideographic” scripts, 66
  • Chinese rejected as, 67
• Ilion, New York, 46
• imitation (fangzhi), of Japanese typewriters by Chinese companies, 230–232, 233
• immediacy of script, myth of, 316–317
• imperialism, Japanese, 200, 201, 223, 229
• imperialism, Western, 10, 11, 12
• Imperial Printing Office (Wuying dian), 82, 348n10
• Importance of Living, The (Lin Yutang), 244
• imports of typewriters to China, 220–221, 221f, 232
• Imprimerie Royale, 91, 348n16
• Indo-European language family, 66
• inflectional (agglutinative) languages, 96
• “information crisis” in China, 10, 248–249, 250
• information environment, early modern, 248
• information infrastructure, Chinese, 19–21
• “information overload
• information technology, Chinese
  • current-day robustness of, 14, 26
  • lack of archives on, 32
  • “technology transfer” and, 25
• infrequently used characters
  • in movable type, 82, 359n36
  • in “secondary usage character box,” 140, 197, 371n55
  • in telegraphy, 110
  • in typewriting, 191, 284
• input, 237–243, 286, 318
  • in Chinese computing, 238–243, 315–320
  • cloud input (yun shuru), 319–320, 399n3
  • MingKwai and birth of, 243, 245–247, 280–281
• input method editors (IMEs), 239–243, 318, 319, 388n2
  • Cangjie input, 243, 281
  • Sougou pinyin input, 240–241, 242f, 281
  • structure-based, 243
• Interim Committee on the National Language (Japan), 204
• International Olympic Committee, 2, 4, 8, 9, 11
• International Telegraphic Union, 107, 114, 355n74
• Iroha organizational system, 201, 205, 212
• “Italian engineer” of MingKwai, 276, 392–393n54

• Japan
  • invasion of China (1937), 220, 228
  • invasion of northeast China (1931), 213, 218, 263
  • military occupation of Southeast Asia, 221
  • neologisms from, 86
  • See also imperialism, Japanese; typewriter, Japanese
• Japanese Business Machines, Ltd., 198, 199
• Japanese Imperial Army, 230
• Japanese Typewriter Company, 232
• Japanese Typist Association, 207
• Jesus
  • placement on Sheffield’s typewriter, 135–136
  • in typewriter art, 203
• Jiang Yiqian, 250–252
• Jiangsu Province Education Committee Summer Supplementary School
• Jiaotong Engineering University, 137, 360n49
• Jin Jian, 82–84, 134, 326, 348n10, 348n14, 348n16
• Jin Shuqing, 216, 380n59
• Jinggangshan, 294
• Jinggangshan Newspaper Printing House, 292–294
• Jingyi Typewriter Company, 233
• Jiyang Chinese Typewriting Supplementary School, 227–228
• Jones, Robert McKean, 265, 326
  • creation of Chinese Phonetic Typewriter, 182–183, 185–186, 187
  • and kana typewriter, 376n23
  • Lin Yutang and, 391n37

• Kadry, Vassaf, 344n50
• Kafka, Ben, 339n23
• Kaifeng, 278, 291, 294
• kana (Japanese phonetic writing), 3, 202, 203
  • hiragana, 3, 200, 202
  • in Japanese telegraph code, 201
  • katakana, 3, 200, 201, 203, 212
  • in typewriting, 59, 200, 202–204
  • See also typewriter, Japanese: kana-based
• Kangxi Dictionary, 18, 77, 82–83, 91, 149, 256, 270, 348n11
  • criticisms of, 190, 249, 299
  • number of characters in, 85
• Kangxi emperor, 82
• kanji (Japanese characters), 3, 202
  • common usage and, 204
  • in typewriting, 199, 200, 205
  • See also typewriter, Japanese: kanji-based
• kanjisphere, 210, 211, 212, 213
• Kanto earthquake, 204
• Karlgren, Bernhard, 67
• Kataoka Kotarō, 205, 326
• Kennedy, George, 141, 142, 143
• keys, computer, 239
• keys, typewriter
  • analogous to piano keys, 179
  • “dead keys,” 48, 59, 63
  • definitive of typewriter’s essence, 41–45
  • on double-keyboard machine, 47
  • on imaginary Chinese typewriter, 35–37, 40–44, 157
  • lack of on Zhou Houkun machine, 145
  • as metaphor for life, 28
  • on MingKwai, 243, 245, 246f, 265, 271–272
  • Western typewriters without, 46
• Khalil, Seyed, 344n52
• Kittler, Friedrich, 28
• Klaproth, Julius Heinrich, 102
• Korean War, 279–280, 292, 297
• Kurosawa Teijirō, 202, 375n17

• Lampedusa, Giuseppe Tomasi di, 22
• language reform in China, 12–16, 19–23, 138, 186
  • ethnographic notions in, 253, 262, 263
  • and reaction to typewriters, 156
  • See also abolition of Chinese characters; characters, Chinese: simplification of; retrieval of Chinese characters; Romanization of Chinese; vernacularization of Chinese
• language reform in Japan and Korea, 201–202, 204
• laser printer, 285
• Lauer, Matt, 3, 9
• L.C. Smith & Brothers Typewriters Inc., 51
• leapfrogging, technological, 24, 375n7
• Lee, Tuh-Yueh, 273
• Legrand, Marcellin, 75, 91–103, 151, 154, 326, 351n38, 351n39, 351n41. See also divisible type
• Legros, Lucien Alphonse, 184–185
• Levering, Gilbert, 193
• Lewis, Jerry, 28
• Lewis, Samuel, 46
• lexicon, Chinese, size and expansion of, 77, 78f, 85, 86
• Li Chih, 142–143
• Li Fuguang, 94
• Li Gui, 24–25
• Li Xianyan, 213–214, 229
• Li Youtang, 228
• Li Zuhui, 174
• lianchuanzi organization, 291, 292–294, 295, 298
• Liangyou (periodical), 176
• Liaoning Chinese Typing Institute, 176
• Life (periodical), 193
• Lin Gensheng, 305–306, 398n58
• Lin Taiyi, 237, 272, 277f, 326, 392–393n54
  • demonstrates MingKwai, 273–276
• Lin Yutang, 235, 237, 244–247, 277f, 326, 391n32, 392–393n54
  • early development of typewriter, 263–265, 391n36, 391–392n38
  • failure to mass-produce MingKwai, 278–281
  • Jones and, 391n37
  • legacy in transforming technology, 280–281, 316
  • and mechanical design of MingKwai, 246, 267
  • and taxonomic system for MingKwai, 267, 268–272
  • unveils and promotes MingKwai prototype, 272–276
  • work with character retrieval methods, 250, 252
  • See also typewriter models, Chinese: MingKwai
• linguistic fitness, of Chinese, 65–72
• Linotype, 360n54, 392n47
• literacy, mass, 15, 19, 166
  • campaigns for, 260
  • in current-day China, 14
  • information technology and, 21
  • supposed lack of in China, 69
• Literacy in Traditional Societies (Goody), 69
• literary (Classical) Chinese, 20, 140, 211, 347n4
• Logan, Robert, 69
• London, 196, 198
• Los Angeles Times, 276
• Lu Xun, 13, 15, 29
• Lu-Ho Rural Service Bureau, 143
• Luoyang, 288

• Macartney, George, 84
• machine gun, compared to typewriter, 28, 29
• machine translation, 106, 315
• Madagascar, 104
• Maejima Hisoka, 202
• Magic Eye viewfinder (in MingKwai), 245, 246, 270
• Maha Vajiravudh. See Rama VI, King
• Maha Vajirunhis, Crown Prince, 49
• Malaysia, 196, 197
• Malling-Hansen, Rasmus, 42
• Manchukuo, 195, 213–214, 222, 223, 224, 230
• Manchu script, 224
• Mao Zedong, 279, 298
  • and language reform, 142, 279
  • name on typewriter tray beds, 294, 295, 302–303, 307–308, 307f
  • poetry of, 285
  • speeches of, 285
• Marshall, John, 391n38
• Marshman, Joshua, 86
• Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg (MAN), 167
• Mason, W.A., 67
• Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 138, 139, 145, 315, 391n38
• “masses,” Chinese, 260–261, 292, 311
  • Chinese common usage and, 141, 142, 143
  • how characters are found by, 253, 260–261, 270
  • MingKwai advertised as usable by, 274
  • as projections of imagination, 262–263
  • and proletarian knowledge, 299
• mass production
  • of Chinese typewriters, 161, 164, 167–170
  • failure of Chinese phonetic typewriters to achieve, 187
  • failure of MingKwai to achieve, 277
  • failure of Sheffield typewriter to achieve, 137
  • of images, 37
• McFarland, Edwin Hunter, 45–50, 56, 59, 326, 341n11, 342n27
• McFarland, George, 49–50, 51, 54, 56, 326, 341n11, 341n13, 342n22, 342n27, 342n31
• McFarland, Jane Hays, 45
• McFarland, Samuel Gamble, 45, 341n10
• McFarland Siamese Typewriter. See typewriter, Siamese
• MC Hammer, 40, 43
• mechanization, industrial, 177
• mediation
  • in Chinese computing, 239, 240
  • of Chinese in telegraph code, 112, 116–121, 118f, 119f, 356n76
  • and hypermediation in Chinese telegraph code, 117–121, 356n75
• Meeting for the Improvement of the Typewriter Character Chart, 301–302, 303
• memory practices
  • in Chinese typing, 178, 180
  • and Japanese tray beds, 211
  • and natural-language tray beds, 311
  • and telegraph code books, 120
• Mergenthaler Linotype, 10, 199, 272, 273, 277, 278–279, 392n47
• metadata, 104
• “Mexican” script, 66
• Microsoft Word, 318, 320, 399n3
• MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface), 317, 318–319
• Ming dynasty, 12, 78, 82
• Ming Kee Typewriter Company, 226
• MingKwai Chinese Typewriter
  • mechanism of, 245, 265–268
  • retrieval system used in, 267, 270, 279, 280
  • See also Lin Yutang; typewriter models, Chinese: MingKwai
• minimal modification, 63, 123, 345n54
• Ministry of Communications (China), 114
• Ministry of Education (Chinese Republic), 142, 185
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France), 104
• Minsheng Chinese Typewriter Company, 233
• missionaries in China, 45, 64, 86, 102, 127, 341n10, 349n20
  • and hope of introducing new vocabulary, 87, 134–135, 349n19
  • See also Gamble, William; Sheffield, Devello Z.
• Missipi (Edna Eagle Feather), 343n36
• model workers, 288, 292, 298, 300, 304
• modernity
  • Chinese “incompatibility” with, 65–72, 172, 248
  • of Chinese women, 176
  • compatibility of languages with, 10, 11, 60, 66, 70
  • how to achieve in China, 13, 15, 20
  • information technology as test of, 16
  • Japanese, premised on cutting ties with China, 203
  • Japanese and Korean exclusion from, 210
• modernity, Chinese technolinguistic
  • between mimicry and independence, 165
  • character organization systems hinder, 249
  • intensity of engagement in, 26
  • methodological issues, 29–32
• modernization initiatives in Siam, 45, 48
• Monarch Typewriter Company, 344n52
• Mongolia, 56
• Mongolian script, 224
• monoculture, technolinguistic, 44, 56, 58, 140
• Monotype, 139, 360n54
• Morse, Samuel, 106, 326
• Morse code, 25, 113f, 117
  • authorized symbols in, 107
  • Chinese and, 108, 110, 112, 115–116
  • Continental, 107, 354n66
  • as inherently English-centered, 106–107, 352n48
  • See also telegraph code of 1871, Chinese
• movable type, 8, 18, 74, 96, 169, 281, 349n20, 359n36
  • and common usage in Chinese printing, 84–88
  • compared to hot metal printing, 360n54
  • invention of in China, 81
  • and “Oriental” type design by Westerners, 90–94
  • resolving “incompatibility” of Chinese with, 75, 81–84, 92, 106, 347n4
  • See also divisible type
• Mow, Pang-Tsu, 272
• Mr. Hui’s Chinese-English Typing Institute, 174
• “Mr. Tsiang” and “Mr. Cü” (assistants to William Gamble), 76
• multiple-character sequences, 241, 290, 291, 294, 295–296, 311
• Musée de la Machine à Écrire, 59
• Museo della Macchina da Scrivere, 59
• Museum of the History of Science (Oxford), 320
• My Country and My People (Lin Yutang), 244

• Nagasaki, 110, 230
• Nanbu Yoshikazu, 376n28
• Nanjing, 159, 220, 254–255
• Nanjing, Treaty of, 127, 357n14
• Nanjing Normal College, 159
• Nanyang College, 137, 360n49
• National Conference of Youth Activists in Social Construction, 298
• Nationalist Party. See Guomindang
• National Language Monthly, 186
• National Ping-Pong Association (China), 215
• National University of Commerce, 215
• Nation’s Business, 183
• natural-language arrangement, 286–311, 289f, 396n35, 398n62
  • attempts to centralize, 301–303, 311
  • in Chinese typewriters, 286–288, 295–311
  • failure to adopt in Republican era, 296–297, 298
  • individual styles of, 306, 313f, 398n58
  • limited uses of, 295, 297, 297f
  • spread of in Communist era, 297–300, 308–311, 399n66
  • strategies for setting up, 305–306, 311, 312f
  • in typesetting, 291–295
• NBC, 6
• Needham, Joseph, 346n77
• New China Press, 291, 295
• Newcomb, Henry C., 126
• New Culture Movement, 156
• newspaper industry, Japanese, 201, 204, 375n7
• New Typing Method, 298
• New York Times, 143, 154, 210, 276
• New York University (NYU), 147, 148, 154, 157
• New York World Tribune, 276
• Nietzsche, Friedrich, 42
• Ningbo, 74, 75
• Nipon o daï itsi ran (Annales des empereurs du Japon), 102, 351n39
• Nippon Typewriter Company, 207, 223, 226, 228
  • introduction of Wanneng model, 223–224
• North China Language School, 142
• North China Military Region Headquarters, 297
• Notizie Olivetti, 59
• “numbered languages” (langues chiffrées). See “enciphered” transmissions

• Oba Sachiko, 222
• occupation of China, Japanese, 221–223, 235
  • collaboration with, 214, 225, 228
  • resistance to, 225
• offset printing, 279
• Olivetti, 9–10, 27, 42, 71, 199
  • globalization of, 56–58
• Olympic Games (Beijing, 2008), 1–9, 10, 11, 94. See also Parade of Nations, Olympic
• Ong, Walter, 2, 40, 186
• “On the Nature of Chinese Ideography” (Creel), 68–69
• “On the Psychology of How the Masses Search for Characters” (Du Dingyou), 260–261
• Opium Wars, 105, 127
• oracle bones, 71
• Orality and Literacy (Ong), 40
• organizational methods for characters. See retrieval of Chinese characters
• Orientalism, 44, 91–92
• Oriental Library (Shanghai), 260
• Origin and Progress of the Art of Writing, The (Humphrey), 67
• Otani Typewriter Company, 205

• Palace of Fine Arts, San Francisco, 147
• Panama-Pacific International Exposition (1915), 56, 147, 204
• Parade of Nations, Olympic, 2–9, 11, 337n6, 338n9
  • in Beijing Olympics (2008), 2–9, 7t, 94
  • regulations of, 2
  • in Tokyo and Seoul Olympics, 3
• particles (in Chinese language), 136, 140, 296, 398n62
• patent rights, in Communist China
• Pauthier, Jean-Pierre Guillaume, 89–103, 151, 154, 326, 351n38, 351n41. See also divisible type
• Peking Syllabary, 128
• People’s Daily, 290, 297
• People’s Liberation Army, 297
• People’s Republic of China, 79, 196
  • campaigns in, 284, 300
  • “golden age” of typewriting in, 284–286
  • in Korean War, 279–280
  • model workers in, 288
  • natural-language tray bed experiments and, 286–288
  • Reform era, 79, 286
  • seizure of Japanese interests, 232
  • typewriter models in, 195
• People’s University, 294
• Peter Mitterhofer Schreibmaschinenmuseum, 58–59, 341n8
• Philadelphia Centennial Exposition (1876), 24, 55
• Philadelphia Commercial Museum, 188, 189
• Philadelphia Sesquicentennial International Exposition (1926), 161, 188–190, 192
• Philology and Ancient China (Karlgren), 67
• Philosophy of History, The (Hegel), 65
• phoneticization of Chinese, 8, 13, 264–265
  • Western dreams of, 183–187
  • See also zhuyin fuhao
• phoneticization of Japanese, 203
• phonetics (structural components of Chinese script), 265
• piano playing, compared to typewriting, 179
• pictography, 68, 320
• pinyin, 8, 281, 338n12
  • in Chinese computer input, 240–241
• place names, on typewriter tray bed, 135, 295–296, 306, 396n35
• plaintext, 113–116, 318, 355n74
• Playing the Building (Byrne), 319
• pleremic script, 11–12
• point (dian), 5
  • as fundamental element of characters, 258, 259f
• politics of objects, 196, 198–199
  • kana typewriter and, 203
• Popular Science Monthly, 145
• predictive text, 319
  • analog roots of in typewriting, 286–288, 308
• “predictive turn,” 308, 309f
• Presbyterian Mission Press, 75
• prescriptive imperative, 87
  • in Sheffield’s typewriter, 135–136
• primary and secondary transcripts
• primers, character, 88, 142
• printing industry, Japanese, 201
• printing press, 170, 171. See also Linotype; Monotype; movable type
• pronunciation of Chinese, 9, 243
• propaganda, Chinese Communist, 284, 292
• Provençal troubadour poetry, 396n31
• “pseudo-radicals” (in MingKwai)
• Psychological Warfare Unit, Eighth United States Army in Korea, 280
• publishers, Chinese, 154
• punctuation, Western, 19
  • on typewriter tray beds, 366n19, 398n62
• Puyi (Kangde emperor), 213, 214

• Qi Xuan, 147–159, 148f, 204, 265, 267, 326, 362n76
  • debates Zhou Houkun, 157–158
  • design of combinatorial typewriter, 149
  • reception of typewriter, 154–159
  • transnational ambitions of, 379n39
  • See also typewriter models, Chinese: Qi Xuan typewriter
• Qian Xuantong, 13, 186, 264, 326
  • criticism of Chinese typewriter, 190–192
• Qianlong emperor, 82, 84
• Qing dynasty, 127, 147, 244
  • printing during, 82
  • restored in Manchukuo, 213
  • telegraphy and, 108, 115
• QQ, 241
• QWERTY keyboard, 238
  • training regimen on, 179
  • used in Chinese computing, 9, 238–243, 315, 316, 319

• race science, refutation of, 68, 70
• racism, 40
• “radiating compounds,” 298, 301–302
• radicals (structural components of Chinese script), 83, 197, 256, 262, 348n12
  • in divisible type, 90–100, 99
  • likened to prefixes, 265
  • in MingKwai, 267, 271
  • new character retrieval methods and, 250
  • reimagined as equivalent of letters, 80, 94–96, 149, 156
  • with shared orthographic features
  • size and placement, 91, 92, 157–158
  • as taxonomic entity, 95–96, 348n11
  • in telegraphy, 104
  • used in IMEs, 243
• radical-stroke organization system, 82–83, 256, 348n13, 349n19
  • in Chinese telegraph code, 110
  • criticisms of, 190, 249, 296, 299
  • departure from in Mao era, 286, 288, 290, 291, 298, 303, 304
  • exceptions to in tray beds, 295–296
  • in movable type, 348n14
  • reaffirmed by typing reform committee, 302, 303
  • relaxed in tray beds, 302–303, 397n50
  • typewriter tray beds using, 143, 212, 307–308
• Rama V, King, 45, 49, 55, 341n13, 342n22
• Rama VI, King, 49, 341n13, 342n21, 342n22, 342n23
• Red Star Typewriter Company, 232
• Reed, Martin, 279
• reference materials
  • anxiety about in China, 248–249
  • Chinese, 15, 255, 258, 389n9
  • made possible by codex form, 178
• refugee crisis in northeast China, 219
• Remington, Eliphalet, 46
• Remington Export Review, 182
• Remington News, 59
• Remington Rand. See Remington Typewriter Company
• Remington Typewriter Company, 28, 36, 42, 44–45, 48, 50, 343n33, 343n36, 343n45
  • Arabic typewriter and, 345n54
  • argues for Japanese language reform, 203
  • arrival in Siam, 51–55, 52f
  • Chinese Phonetic Typewriter and, 182–183, 185–187, 265
  • claims of universality by, 9–10
  • as constitutive of modern technolinguistic consciousness, 31–32, 74
  • failure to encompass Chinese, 10, 64, 71, 159, 199, 200
  • feminization of typing and, 177
  • founding of, 46
  • globalization of, 55–57, 57f, 60, 123, 182
  • Lin Yutang and, 272–275, 391n37
  • purchases Smith Premier company, 51
  • sale of Japanese kana typewriter, 202–203, 376n23
• Rémusat, Abel, 351n39
• repatriation of Japanese after Second World War, 230
• Republican era
  • character retrieval and reference materials in, 247, 253–256
  • iconoclasm in, 153, 299
  • telegraphy in, 110, 115
• Resist Japan Association, 218
• retrieval of Chinese characters, 15
  • and “character retrieval problem,” 247–249, 250, 252–253, 255, 258, 260–261
  • Communist push for proletarian taxonomy in, 299
  • in computing, 316
  • ethnographic viewpoint on, 253, 260–263, 270
  • input and, 280
  • MingKwai and, 245–246, 247
  • new experimental methods of, 248, 249, 250–263, 251f, 270, 286
  • predictive text and, 286
  • slowness of, 248–249
  • surrogacy and, 81
  • in telegraphy, 104
  • transposed to inscription, 247, 267
  • in typing school curricula, 179–180
  • See also Five-Stroke retrieval system; Lin Yutang; Shape-Position retrieval system
• revolution of 1911, 79, 147, 185, 213, 244, 371n55
• rhetoric, Communist, 286, 291, 292, 299–300
  • ingested into typist’s body, 304
  • metacognitive distance from, 294–295
• Richardson, Ingrid, 290
• Rivista Olivetti, 56
• Robbins, Bruce, 23
• Rockefeller Foundation, 391n38
• Romance of the Three Kingdoms, 86
• Romanization of Chinese, 14, 19, 40, 128
  • as bound to fail, 184–185
  • call for in Mao era, 279
• Romanization of Japanese, 376–377n28
• Ryōshin Minami, 201

• Sakai Yasujiro, 378n38
• Sakurada Tsunehisa, 222
• “same script, same race
• Sammons, Thomas, 145
• Sampson, Geoffrey, 69
• San Francisco Chronicle, 137, 276
• San Francisco Examiner, 35
• Schjellerup, H.C.F.C., 110
• Schurmann, Franz, 299–300
• Science and Civilization (Needham), 346n77
• scroll (textual form), 178
• searching. See retrieval of Chinese characters
• Second World War, 200, 221, 229–230
• Selleck, Tom, 38, 40, 43
• semiotics, 317
• semiotic sovereignty, 115, 121, 355n74
• Semi-Weekly Tribute, 136
• Shang dynasty, 71
• Shanghai, 109, 110, 145, 157, 216, 226, 244, 260
  • fall to Japanese forces, 220
  • Japanese bombing of, 212, 218, 260
  • typewriter manufacturing in, 161, 230
  • typing schools in, 174–175
  • Zhou Houkun in, 159, 165
• Shanghai Baptist College and Seminary, 143
• Shanghai Calculator and Typewriter Factory, 195, 233
• Shanghai Central Stadium, 215
• Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, 189, 218
• Shanghai Chinese Typewriter Manufacturers Association, 233
• Shanghai Machinery Import-Export Company, 233
• Shanghai Press, 188
• Shape-Position retrieval system, 260–263, 262f. See also Du Dingyou
• Sheffield, Devello Z., 123, 126–137, 139, 140, 143, 151, 326, 357n14, 358n20, 359n38, 362n68
  • Chinese clerks and, 129–130
  • early version of invention, 127–128
  • fate of typewriter, 136–137
  • invention of Chinese typewriter prototype, 132–133
  • missionary work, 129, 134–136
  • See also typewriter models, Chinese: Sheffield typewriter
• Sheffield, Eleanor, 127
• Shen Yunfen, 297–298, 300
• Shenbao (periodical), 190, 214, 218, 219, 220
• Sheng Yaozhang, 228, 229
• Shibao (periodical), 176
• shift key, 46–47, 48, 129
• shift-keyboard typewriter, 46, 47, 48
  • dominance of, 44–45, 51, 56–59, 63
  • encounter with foreign scripts, 59–63, 182
  • inadequacy of for Chinese, 124
  • Japanese typewriters and, 202
  • MingKwai’s similarity to, 245
  • as typewriter par excellence, 42
  • See also typewriter, Western; typewriter form, universal
• Shimada Minokichi, 205, 326
• Shimizu Usaburō, 202
• Shinozawa Yūsaku, 209
• Sholes, Christopher Latham, 46, 123
• Shu Changyu. See Shu Zhendong
• Shu Zhendong, 167–169, 171, 229, 247, 326, 365n12, 366n14. See also typewriter models, Chinese: Shu-style typewriter
• shuru. See input
• “Shu Zhendong Chinese Typewriter, The” (animated film), 170, 171
• Siam, 45, 48–55, 342n23
• Siamese script, 45, 46, 47, 53–54, 64
  • changed to fit typewriter, 49
• Silicon Valley, 237, 238, 315
• Simpsons, The, 321
• Singapore, 196, 197, 199
• single-shift typewriter. See shift-keyboard typewriter
• Sino-Japanese War, First, 244
• Sino-Japanese War, Second. See War of Resistance Against Japan
• Smith, Arthur W., 345n54
• Smith, Lyman C., 47
• Smith Premier Typewriter Company, 47–48, 49, 342n23
  • demise of, 50–51
  • presence in Bangkok, 50
• Snowden, Edward, 399n3
• social Darwinism. See evolutionism
• Société Asiatique de Paris, 89
• Song Mingde, 170–171
• Sonic Banana project, 319
• Southeast University of Commerce, 215
• Soviet Union, 230
• space, and spatial recognition of Chinese characters, 262
  • within divisible type, 99–100, 103, 149
• speed of typesetting, using natural-language arrangement, 290–291, 292, 294, 395n26
• speed of typing, 27
  • average, in Mao era, 288
  • on index typewriter, 343n37
  • on Qi Xuan typewriter, 154
  • on Shu-style typewriter, 170, 190
  • using natural-language tray bed, 286, 288, 298, 311
  • Western notions of, on Chinese typewriter, 320
  • on Zhou Houkun typewriter, 165
• Spurgin, Richard A., 61
• State Department, U.S., 279
• Staunton, George, 84–85, 88, 89, 100, 132, 327
• Steele, Herbert H., 344n52
• Stellman, Louis John, 36, 41, 43
• stenography, 317–318
• Stickney, Burnham, 204
• St. John’s University, 244
• St. Louis Globe-Democrat, 36
• Strauss Festival Orchestra Vienna, 27
• stroke count, materiality of in character slugs, 180
• stroke-count organization, 4, 8, 83, 302
  • mocked by Olympic commentators, 3
• stroke ranking, 6
• strokes (bihua), 131–132, 243, 256
  • as elemental unit of script, 94–95
  • See also eight fundamental strokes
• “study sessions,” 284, 285
• Suchman, Lucy, 307
• Sugimoto Kyōta, 204, 209, 211, 327
• Suiyuan province, 220
• Sun Yat-sen, 230, 371n55
• surrogacy, 79, 121, 316
  • in Chinese telegraphy, 103–121
  • definition of, 80–81
  • MingKwai and, 265, 270
• surveillance, 256, 284, 399n3
• Sushan, 215
• synaesthesia, 261
• Syracuse, New York, 47, 48
  • relationship with Bangkok, 50, 342n23

• “Table of 214 Keys and Their Variants” (Tableau des 214 clefs et leurs variants) (Legrand), 92, 93f
• Tai, Evelyn (pseudonym), 196–199, 200, 233, 374n2
• Tai, Maria (pseudonym), 197–199, 374n2
• Taipisuto (magazine), 205, 207, 208f, 222–223
• taipuraitā. See typewriter, Japanese
• Taiwan, 195–196, 223, 244
• Tanakadate Aikitsu, 377n28
• Tang Chongli, 171
• Tao Minzhi, 233, 384n93
• Tao Xingshi, 142
• Tap-Key (imaginary inventor), 36–37, 40, 41, 42, 45, 65, 74, 193, 316, 320, 327
• taxonomic evenness, 270
• Tcherkassov, Baron Paul, 62
• Teaching of Words, The (Fukuzawa)
• technolinguistic imagination, collapse of, 42–45, 54, 316
• technolinguistic realm, 18–23, 72, 339n23
  • definition of, 17
• “technological abyss,” 24, 26, 243
• technological fitness, denigration of Chinese according to, 44, 71–72, 346n77
• technosomatic complex. See bodies, human
• Tekniska Museet, 320
• telecommunication, 317, 318
• telegraph code books, 81, 104, 113, 355n74
  • changes to, 117, 120
  • for Chinese telegraphy, 110, 121
  • during Nationalist military campaign, 254
• telegraph code of 1871, Chinese, 110–121, 111f, 201, 254, 265, 354n66
  • adjustments to, 116, 354n70
  • and Chinese as inherently secret language, 114
  • disadvantages of, 112, 114–115, 355n74
  • exempted as plaintext, 115
  • taking “symbolic possession” of
• Telegraph-Herald, 185
• “telegraph sovereignty
• telegraphy, 9
  • causes sense of crisis in China, 248
  • Chinese, 24, 25, 74, 80, 103–121, 131, 178, 240, 265
  • global expansion of, 106, 107–108, 109–110, 114, 354n73
  • international regulations, 107, 113, 355n74, 356n76
  • Japanese, 201
  • Japanese domination of in China, 221–222
  • MingKwai system and, 279
  • and non-Western scripts, 108
  • structural inequality of China within, 114, 116, 121, 355–356n74
• telephone, 55
• terrain, Chinese language portrayed as, 83, 85, 191–192
• Tewksbury, Reverend E.G., 185
• textbooks, typing, 180, 301, 303
• thimble linking (dingzhen xuxian), 294, 395–396n31
• Thirteen Classics, 86
• “Three People’s Principles” (Sun Yat-sen), 230
• Tianjin, 128, 133, 222, 232, 278
  • typing reform committee in
• Tianjin, Treaty of, 127
• Times (London), 320
• tinkering, 307
• Titsingh, Isaac, 351n39
• Today! (journal), 286
• Tokugawa period, Japan, 248
• Tokyo, firebombing of, 229
• tones (in Chinese), 185
• Tong Lisheng, 233
• Tongji (periodical), 171
• Tongzhou, 126, 127, 132
• Too Much to Know (Blair), 247–248
• Toshiba, 205
• Touch Method, 51
• training drills. See under tray bed
• “transnational culturalism” in East Asia, 209–210, 211
• tray bed (typewriter part), 30, 169, 199, 226, 295, 298
  • absence of in MingKwai, 265, 267
  • adjacency of characters on, 288–290, 296
  • Communist terms on, 294–295
  • democratization of, 300, 304, 308, 398n62
  • how to rearrange, 305–306
  • on Japanese-built Chinese typewriters, 212
  • on Japanese typewriter, 205
  • memorization of characters on, 178, 197, 211, 305–306, 311
  • move to standardize, 301–303
  • with “out-of-the-box” natural-language arrangement, 303
  • with relaxed radical-stroke system, 302–303, 304
  • reorganized by Mao-era typists, 286, 288–290, 300, 307–308
  • on Shu-style typewriter, 163–164, 364n1, 366n19
  • sold blank by manufacturers, 311
  • special usage region of, 163, 295, 297, 298, 303
  • as territorial expanse, 191–192, 320
  • training drills on, 179–180, 181f, 370n51, 371n55
  • visibility of characters on, 270
  • on Yu Binqi typewriter, 217
  • Zhou Houkun’s “popular
• treaty ports in China, 64, 127
• trigraph coded transmission (telegraphy), 117, 120, 356n76
• “truth script
• Tsinghua University, 244
• Tsugi Kitahara, 204
• Turkle, Sherry, 198
• Twain, Mark, 177
• two-character compounds (ci), 180, 241, 286, 289, 291, 295–296, 306, 397n50
• Two Lists of Selected Characters Containing All in the Bible and Twenty Seven Other Books (Gamble), 81, 87
• type, materiality of, 17
• type-and-copy shops (dazi tengxieshe), 284
• type-and-mimeograph editions (dayinben), 285–286, 287f
• type design. See under movable type
• type lever (typewriter part), 30, 148
• “Types de Charles X” (Legrand), 91
• typesetters, Chinese, 82–84, 132
  • natural-language experimentation and, 290–295
  • as “nomadic,” 83–84, 85
• typesetters, Western, 81–88, 102, 348n16
• typewriter, Arabic, 60, 61–63, 64, 344n52, 345n54
  • Jones keyboard for, 182, 187
  • Olivetti model, 56, 58f
• typewriter, Chinese
  • aurality of, 27, 29–30, 198
  • challenge of creating, 25, 138–140
  • functional mechanics of, 30, 199
  • history of textual reproduction and, 170–171
  • how to identify documents typed on, 283–284
  • impact of, 24
  • linguistic ambidexterity of, 226, 379n39
  • measured against Western typewriter, 23–24, 27–32, 125, 164–165, 188, 190
  • merits of, 170–171
  • as monstrous imagined object, 35–44, 36f, 37f, 38f, 45, 65, 71–72, 192f, 192–193, 203, 316, 320–321
  • national identity and, 229
  • and personal relationship with user, 163–164, 198
  • in popular culture, 35–40, 321
  • as symbol of modernity, 124–125
  • transnational nature of, 33
  • used for state documents, 283–284
  • used in Korean war, 280, 280f
  • used to reproduce books, 285–286
  • Western criticism of, 188
  • See also typewriter models, Chinese
• typewriter, Hebrew, 60–61, 64, 343n45
• typewriter, Japanese, 200, 206f
  • adaptability to Chinese, 209, 211
  • dual modes of, 200, 209
  • H-Style, 218
  • Japanese Smith Typewriter (sumisu taipuraitā), 202
  • kana-based, 202–204
  • kanji-based, 204–205, 226, 378n38
  • market for in occupied China, 222
  • Remington and Underwood models, 202–204
  • retrofitted to handle Chinese, 226, 385n100
  • sound of, 223
  • Sugimoto kanji typewriter, 204–205
  • training regimens on, 203
  • used in occupied China, 213
  • Western denigration of kanji-based, 210–211
• typewriter, Romance language, 60
• typewriter, Russian, 60, 64
• typewriter, Siamese, 45–55, 49f, 53f
  • change to shift-keyboard design, 51–53
  • invention and design of, 45–50
• “Typewriter, The” (musical piece, Anderson), 27
• typewriter, Turkish, 182
• typewriter, Urdu, 182, 187
• typewriter, Western
  • aurality of, 27–30, 58, 340n32
  • Chinese response to, 24–25
  • compared to machine gun, 28
  • early diversity of, 42, 44, 45, 56
  • encounter with Chinese script, 44, 63–65
  • essence of, 41
  • expansion to foreign scripts, 44, 46, 53–54, 63, 123
  • in film, 28
  • functional mechanics of, 41, 59
  • globalization of, 55–64, 124
  • iconic nature of, 24, 28, 71, 74
  • inability to encompass Chinese, 123–124, 129, 139, 200
  • revolutionary nature of, 23
  • as symbol of modernity, 124
  • as “true” typewriter, 124–125, 164–165, 188
  • universality claimed for, 64, 71, 73f
  • See also shift-keyboard typewriter; typewriter form, universal; typewriter models, Western
• typewriter art, 203
• “typewriter boy,” nonexistent, 177
• typewriter form, universal, 59
  • confronted with Chinese, 64–65
  • as constitutive of technolinguistic consciousness, 74
  • stretched by foreign scripts, 60, 61
  • See also shift-keyboard typewriter
• “typewriter girl,” 173, 176–177
• typewriter industry, Chinese
  • formation of, 170–172
  • Japanese domination of, 200, 212, 214, 217, 220–221, 223–225, 232, 235
  • in postwar period, 230–233, 387n115
  • thriving in 1940s, 229
• typewriter models, Chinese
  • Brumbaugh patent, 151, 152f
  • Double Pigeon, 195, 199, 233–235, 234f
  • Grant and Legros Chinese phonetic typewriter, 183–184
  • Hammond Multiplex, 185
  • Horizontal-style machine, 228
  • improved Shu-style machine, 224
  • Japanese-built Chinese machines, 212, 213, 228, 274, 378n38
  • MingKwai, 237, 243, 244–247, 263–281, 268–269f, 273f, 275f, 316, 392–393n54 (see also Lin Yutang)
  • “Mr. Fan Wanneng Chinese Typewriter
  • “People’s Welfare Typewriter,” 230, 231f
  • pre-MingKwai prototype, 391–392n38
  • Qi Xuan typewriter, 147–159, 148f, 204, 265
  • “Reformed” typewriter of 1956, 303
  • Remington Chinese Phonetic Typewriter, 182–183, 184f, 187, 265
  • Sheffield typewriter, 126–137, 133f, 140, 166, 167, 359n36, 359n38
  • Shu-style typewriter, 161–164, 162f, 167–169, 170–172, 175, 182, 188–191, 189f, 191f, 197, 212, 224, 265, 274, 308, 364n1, 366n14, 366n19
  • Standard Horizontal-Vertical-style Chinese-Japanese Typewriter, 226
  • Standard-style machine, 228
  • Suganuma-style machine, 228
  • Superwriter, 196–199, 200, 233–235, 374n2
  • Underwood Chinese National Phonetic Typewriter, 185, 186–187
  • Wang Kuoyee patent, 151, 153f
  • Wanneng (“All-Purpose”) typewriter, 223–224, 224f, 228, 230–232, 233, 235, 302–303
  • Yu Binqi typewriter, 216–220, 224, 380n61, 381n71
  • Zhou Houkun typewriter, 138–145, 144f, 146f, 148, 149, 156–159, 165–167
• typewriter models, multi-language
  • “Oriental Type-Writer
  • “Universal Eastern alphabet typewriter” (Tcherkassov and Hill), 62–63
• typewriter models, Western
  • American Visible Typewriter, 42
  • Circular Index, 46
  • Hall Typewriter, 46
  • Hammond models, 391n36
  • Hughes Typewriter for the Blind, 46
  • index typewriters, 46, 56, 131, 343n37
  • Lambert typewriter, 42
  • L.C. Smith & Brothers “Standard
  • Malling-Hansen Writing Ball, 42
  • Mignon, 343n37
  • Olivetti Lettera 22, 27, 71, 72f
  • Remington Number 7, 55
  • Remington Number 10, 55
  • Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer, 46
  • Smith-Corona Elliott model, 202
  • Smith Premier Number 4, 47, 51
  • Underwood Number 1, 342n30
  • See also double-keyboard typewriter; shift-keyboard typewriter
• “Typewriter Tip Tip Tip” (song), 29
• typing classes, given by Commercial Press, 167. See also typing schools, Chinese
• typing schools, Chinese, 164, 182, 301, 303, 380n61
  • curricula in, 178–180, 197, 213
  • early entrepreneurial era of, 174–175
  • enrollment data from, 174, 227–228
  • establishment of first, 172
  • during Japanese occupation, 226–229
  • Latin-alphabet typing in, 179
  • in Manchukuo, 213
  • See also names of individual schools
• typing schools, Japanese, 205
  • in occupied China, 213, 223
• typing schools, Siamese, 51
• “typist fever
• typists, Chinese, 164, 172
  • and allegiance in Manchukuo, 213–214
  • demands for “production” by, 299, 300
  • employment of in Communist government, 300
  • gender of, 172–174, 175–177, 227, 274
  • media representations of, 172–177, 173f
  • in occupied China, 229
  • patriotic images of, 284, 285f
  • and sensitivity to machine’s materiality, 180
  • Sheffield as first, 134
  • spread of in government and business, 175
  • tray bed reorganization experiments by, 235, 286–290, 304–311, 398n62
• typists, Japanese, 207, 207f
  • in occupied China, 213, 222–223

• “U Can’t Touch This” (MC Hammer), 40
• Underwood, John T., 342n30
• Underwood Typewriter Company, 42
  • Arabic typewriter and, 344n50, 344n52
  • Chinese phonetic typewriter and, 185, 186
  • failure to encompass Chinese, 71, 159, 199
  • at Panama-Pacific exposition, 147
  • sale of Japanese kana typewriter, 203–204
  • Siamese typewriter and, 53, 54
  • visible typewriting and, 50, 342n30
• UNESCO, Chinese typewriter used in, 306–308, 398n62
• Union Typewriter Company, 50
• United Front alliance, 254
• United Nations, 279
  • Chinese typewriter used in, 306–308, 398n62
• Universal History (Sheffield), 129
• universal telegraphic language, 106, 108–109, 110, 353n59
• University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 138
• University of the Philippines, 260
• upper-case letters, frequency of in English, 47
• user-driven change, 304, 311
• user experience, 260, 270
• users of information technology, 21
  • and hypothetical “average Chinese user,” 253, 262–263, 303

• vernacularization of Chinese, 15, 19, 20–21
  • state-sponsored movement, 140, 142, 303
• vernacular taxonomy. See natural-language arrangement
• vertigo zoom, 389n10
• Victory and Success Typing Academy, 174
• Viguier, Septime Auguste, 110, 327, 354n70
• visible typing, 50–51, 55, 342n30

• Wade, Sir Thomas Francis, 128
• Wagner, Franz X., 342n30
• Wall Street Journal, 56
• Walsh, Richard, 272, 278
• Wan Guchan, 170
• Wan Laiming, 170
• Wang Chao, 185
• Wang Guihua, 305–306, 398n58
• Wang, H.L., 389n9
• Wang Jialong, 298
• Wang Jingchun, 327
• Wang Kuoyee, 151
• Wang Xinshun, 294
• Wang Xizhi, 5, 94, 183, 256–258
• Wang Yi, 216
• Wang Yunwu, 250, 252, 296, 327
• Wang Zhen, 82
• Warlord period, 254, 371n55
• War of Resistance Against Japan (1937–1945), 200, 220, 229, 230
• Waseda University, 215
• Washington Post, 155
• Watt, Lori, 230
• wax duplicating paper, 219
• Wei Geng, 227
• Wei Shuo (Lady Wei), 94–95
• weights and measures, 140
• Wen, King, 99
• Wenhua Chinese Typewriter Company, 233
• Western Civilization Union, 126, 128
• White Terror, 254
• Who’s Minding the Store? (film), 28
• Williams, Samuel Wells, 66
• Wilson, Mary Badger, 210–211
• women, professional, 173, 176, 205, 366n29
• women’s magazines, 141, 207
• woodblock printing, 82, 96
• word processing, 315
• Writing Systems (Sampson), 69
• Wu Zhihui, 185
• Wubi. See Five-Stroke retrieval system
• Wuxi, 137
• Wyckoff, Seamans, and Benedict, 55, 343n33

• Xia Liang, 175
• Xu Bing, 16–18, 22
• Xu Shen, 77

• Yamagata Girls’ Professional School
• Yana Fumio, 204
• Yanagiwara Sukeshige, 203, 204
• Yang, Daqing, 221
• Yang Yuying, 148, 154
• Yasujiro Sakai, 327
• Ye Shuyi, 176
• Yen, James, 142, 327
• Yesu. See Jesus
• yin-yi-xing triad, 16–20, 22, 23
• Yost (typewriter company), 46, 50, 60–61, 342n30
• Yu Binqi, 215–220, 215f, 230, 232, 233, 327, 380n59, 384n93
  • and anti-Japanese politics, 218–220
  • decline of business, 223, 224–225
  • modifies Japanese typewriter, 217–218
  • and typewriting enterprise, 216–217, 380n60
  • See also typewriter models, Chinese: Yu Binqi typewriter
• Yu Shuolin, 216, 384n93
• Yuan Shikai, 371n55
• Yu Binqi Chinese Typing Professional School, 216–217, 232, 380n60, 380n61
• Yucai Chinese Typing School, 228
• Yunnan University Mao Zedong-ism Artillery Regiment Foreign Language Division Propaganda Group
• Yu-Style Chinese Typewriter Company, 233

• Zhang Jiying, 283, 290–293, 293f, 294, 295, 297, 298, 300, 302, 327, 395n26
• Zhang Xiangling, 188–189, 190, 373n74, 373n77
• Zhang Yimou, 1
• Zhang Yuanji, 157, 159, 166–167, 171, 250, 365n12
• Zhanwang (periodical), 176
• Zhao Yuanren (Yuen Ren Chao), 138, 186, 237, 273, 327
• Zhongshan University, 260
• Zhou Houkun, 123, 137–146, 146f, 148, 265, 267, 327, 359n49, 362n68, 365n5
  • attempt to mass-produce typewriter, 145
  • Commercial Press and, 159, 165–167, 364n104
  • debates Qi Xuan, 157–158
  • on duty of engineers, 138–139
  • mechanics of typewriter built by, 143
  • reception of typewriter built by, 143–145, 156–159
  • See also typewriter models, Chinese: Zhou Houkun typewriter
• Zhou Yaru, 228
• Zhu Yunming, 95
• Zhuangzi, 76, 99
• zhuyin fuhao (Chinese Phonetic Alphabet), 183–187, 279, 366n19. See also typewriter models, Chinese: Remington Chinese Phonetic Typewriter