| APC | Acts of the Privy Council of England, 1617–1623 (London, 1929–1932) |
| CSPD | Green M.A.E. (ed.), Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, Elizabeth and James I, (London, 1858–72) |
| CSPV | Hinds, A.B. (ed.), Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts, Relating to English Affairs. Existing in the Archives and Collections of Venice. Vols. XV–XVI (London, 1909–10) |
| HMC | Historical Manuscripts Commission |
1. Dare, p.27.
2. Ibid., p.29.
1. Gifford, Discourse, sig. B2.
2. Perkins, sig. A2v.
3. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.3–4.
4. William West, Simboleography (1594), cited in Hart, pp.20–1. A juggler was someone who cured diseases with spells or charms.
5. Holland, in Sharpe, J. (ed.), English Witchcraft 1560–1736, Vol. I: Early English Demonological Works (London, 2003), p.51.
6. Bernard, p.155.
7. Briggs, p.85.
8. Ewen, C.L., Witch Hunting and Witch Trials. The Indictments for Witchcraft from the Records of 1373 Assizes held for the Home Circuit, AD 1559–1736 (London, 1929), p.295.
1. In the early seventeenth century, Belvoir Castle itself fell within the boundaries of Lincolnshire, whereas Bottesford was in Leicestershire.
2. W. Burton.
3. Hutton, p.115.
4. Thomas, p.631.
5. Scot, II.x; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.632.
6. Honeybone, Wicked Practise, p.30.
7. Thomas, p.6.
8. Sharpe, Witchcraft in Early Modern England, p.35. Keith Thomas’s estimations are broadly similar. He claims that the population of England and Wales grew from 2.5 million in 1500 to 5.5 million in 1700 (Thomas, p.3).
9. Gifford, Discourse, sig. C2.
10. Scot, p.86.
11. Kramer, H., and Sprenger, J., Malleus Maleficarum (1486), trans. M. Summers (New York, 1978), p.2.
12. Bruce, pp.140–1.
13. Cotta, p.98.
14. Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene (1590); Hart, p.25.
15. Scot, p.1.
16. Gifford, Discourse, sig. H3; ibid., sig. A2.
17. Bernard, pp.11, 22–3.
18. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.21.
19. Ibid., p.14.
20. Thomas, p.242.
21. Ibid., p.243.
22. Bate and Thornton, p.206.
23. People believed that the pouch contained an amulet, but when Reynolds was captured and searched, it was found to contain nothing more than a piece of green cheese.
24. Thomas, pp.31, 34.
25. Ibid., p.33.
26. Honeybone, Wicked Practise, p.89.
27. Thomas, pp.58, 60.
28. Ibid., p.84.
1. The 1st Earl of Rutland, Thomas Manners, had been appointed such by Henry VIII in 1525. The title lasted in this form until after the death of John Manners, the 8th earl, whose son and namesake was appointed Duke of Rutland in 1703. Burke’s Peerage, Vol. III, pp.3447–8.
2. Roger, meanwhile, was thrown into the Tower and George was imprisoned at Ludgate. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, pp.366–9; HMC, Longleat, Vol. V, pp.277–82; CSPD 1580–1625, p.409.
3. HMC, Salisbury, Vol. XI, pp.34–5.
4. Roger was fined £30,000, and Francis and George 4,000 marks each. Sir Robert Cecil (who had strong family ties to the brothers) obtained a remission of the latter fine shortly afterwards, so Francis and his younger brother escaped lightly from the affair – certainly a good deal more so than most of the other rebels. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, pp.366–7, 374, 376; Vol. IV, p.210; HMC, Salisbury, Vol. XI, p.214; McClure, Vol. I, pp.122–3.
5. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, p.367.
6. Broughton, p.2v.
7. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, p.374.
8. Katherine was christened in August 1603. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, p.446.
9. Goodman, Vol. I, p.97.
10. I am indebted to Fiona Torrens-Spence for sharing her research on Cecilia for her forthcoming biography of Katherine Manners.
11. Henderson and McManus, p.86.
12. Ibid., p.87
13. Fraser, p.27.
14. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, p.413.
15. Holmes, Seventeenth Century Lincolnshire, p.40.
16. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, p.413. Sir Francis’s elder brother, Roger, made a generous settlement so that the match might go ahead. Cecily was to receive 1,000 marks per year for the maintenance of herself and any sons that she bore.
17. Ibid., Vol. I, p.414.
18. Best, pp.5–8.
19. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. I, p.91.
20. McClure, Vol. I, p.474.
21. CSPD 1611–1618, pp.386–7. The conferring of the title to Cecil had been the cause of resentment on the part of Manners and his followers at court. This flared up in July 1613, when Cecil carried the sword at the head of a royal procession, ‘wherto some noble men tooke exceptions’. McClure, Vol. I, p.607. However, the matter was resolved when William Cecil died childless in 1618. The original baronial title passed back to the Manners family and Francis became the 17th Baron de Ros. His eldest son was known as ‘Lord Ros’.
22. CSPD 1619–1623, p.580.
23. For examples of Francis’s involvement in court masques, see McClure, Vol. I, pp.487, 498.
24. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. II, p.362.
25. Prior, p.195.
26. Broughton, p.2v.
27. W. Burton, p.43.
28. Stone, Crisis, p.565. The funeral of his uncle, Edward, 3rd Earl of Rutland, had been even more lavish. It was said that between 3,000 and 4,000 people were fed on the leftovers from the funeral feast.
29. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, pp.474–94; Dare, p.27.
30. Broughton, p.2v.
31. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.7–8; Chambers, p.356; Damnable Practises.
32. Broughton, p.2v.
33. Ibid.
34. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.7–8; Chambers, p.356.
35. Damnable Practises; T. Wright, Vol. II, p.120.
36. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, pp.462–4, 467, 471, 498.
37. Ibid., Vol. IV, p.467.
38. Ibid., Vol. IV, pp.465, 473.
39. See, for example, ibid., Vol. IV, pp.508, 518.
40. Ibid., Vol. II, p.334; Vol. IV, p.493.
41. Ibid., Vol. IV, pp.493, 505, 516.
42. Ibid., Vol. IV, pp.465, 472, 516.
43. Ibid., Vol. IV, pp.507, 512, 516.
44. Ibid., Vol. IV, p.504.
45. Ibid., Vol. IV, pp.511, 513.
46. Ibid., Vol. IV, p.491.
47. Ibid., Vol. IV, p.467.
48. Ibid., Vol. IV, pp.460, 503.
1. T. Wright, Vol. I, p.161.
2. Harington, Vol. I, pp.369–70.
3. Weldon, pp.178–9.
4. Goodman, Vol. I, p.3.
5. Stewart, pp.107–8.
6. Ibid., p.111.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid., p.112.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid., p.125.
11. Ibid., p.126.
12. Tyson, p.12.
13. T. Wright, Vol. I, p.181.
14. Newes from Scotland, in Tyson, p.190.
15. T. Wright, Vol. I, p.185.
16. Newes from Scotland, in Tyson, p.193.
17. Newes from Scotland, in ibid., p.195.
18. T. Wright, Vol. I, p.189; Crouch, p.130.
19. Larner, C., ‘James VI and I and Witchcraft’, in A.G. Smith, pp.84–5.
20. Newes from Scotland, in Tyson, pp.192–5; T. Wright, Vol. I, p.189.
21. Tyson, p.209.
22. Stewart, p.127.
23. Newes from Scotland.
24. Larner, Witchcraft and Religion, p.14.
25. T. Wright, Vol. I (London, 1851), p.179
26. Ibid., p.161.
27. Tyson, p.56.
28. Ibid., pp.129–30.
29. Ibid., p.181.
30. Ibid., p.138.
31. Ibid., p.182.
32. Ibid., pp.179–80.
33. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.5.
34. Scott and Pearl, p.176.
35. Gifford, Dialogue, f.A3r.
36. 1 Samuel 28:3–25.
37. Gifford, Discourse, sig. B2v.
38. Exodus 12:18; Leviticus 20:27. See also Deuteronomy 18:10–11.
39. Although it was arguably the most influential papal bull against witchcraft, it was not the first: that had been issued by Pope Alexander IV in 1258.
40. Papal bull, Summis desiderantes affectibus (1484), issued by Pope Innocent VIII. Cited in Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, Appendix, pp.613–15; Hart, pp.12–15.
41. Thomas, p.682.
42. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, p.19.
43. MacCurdy, p.87.
44. I Samuel 15:23.
45. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, pp.429–610.
46. J. Weyer, De Praestigiis Daemonum et Incantationibus ac Venifiicis (1563), cited in Monter, European Witchcraft , p.39.
47. Henningsen, pp.36–9. Among those implicated were 1,384 children aged between 7 and 14 years.
48. Ady, p.103.
49. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, pp.146–7, 294–6.
50. Hart, p.106; Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness, p.125; Thomas, p.535; Ewen, C.L., Witch Hunting and Witch Trials. The Indictments for Witchcraft from the records of 1373 Assizes held for the Home Circuit, AD 1559–1736 (1929), p.112.
51. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.29.
52. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, pp.20, 23–4, 501.
53. It is notoriously difficult to ascertain the exact number of people tried and executed for witchcraft, due to the loss or absence of many contemporary judicial records. This has led to intense speculation amongst historians, with estimates ranging from 50,000 to 9 million executions. There is now a broad consensus that around 100,000 suspected witches were tried and 40,000 executed. A useful summary is provided by Levack in The witch hunt.
54. Maxwell-Stuart, Witch hunters, pp.51–2.
55. Larner, C, ‘Witch Beliefs’, pp.33–4.
56. Scott and Pearl, pp.197–8.
57. Thomas, p.676.
58. Ibid., p.633.
59. Briggs, p.24.
60. Levack, The witch hunt, p.97.
61. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. I, p.129.
62. Harington, Vol. I.
63. Stewart, pp.171–2.
64. Weldon, p.186.
65. Ibid., p.178.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid., p.179.
68. Williamson, p.19.
69. Stewart, p.177.
70. Goodman, Vol. I, p.224; Weldon, p.178.
71. Goodman, Vol. I, p.168.
72. Weldon, pp.181–2.
73. Stewart, pp.278–9.
74. Ibid., p.175.
75. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. I, p.491.
76. T. Wright, Vol. I, p.179.
77. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.4.
78. Ibid., p.10.
79. Henry VI, Part 2. Shakespeare retained her real name for the character.
80. Peters, p.31.
81. Sermon of Bishop John Jewell of Salisbury (1560), cited in Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness, p.89.
82. Ibid.
83. Statute 5 Elizabeth I, cap.16, ‘An Act Against Conjurations, Inchantments and Witchcrafts’. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, pp.13–16.
84. Gifford, Dialogue, p.8.
85. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, pp.97–8.
86. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.30.
87. The Witches of Northamptonshire, quoted in Elbourne, Bewitching the Mind, p.62.
88. Durston, p.423.
89. Ibid., p.425.
90. CSPD Addenda 1566–79, p.551; Thomas, p.693.
91. Scot, pp.1, 3.
92. Hart, p.21.
93. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651); Hart, p.24.
94. R. Burton, p.33.
95. J. Weyer, De Praestigiis Daemonum et Incantationibus ac Venifiicis (1563), cited in Monter, European Witchcraft, pp.38–40.
96. James I: 1603/4 Act of Parliament against conjuration and witchcraft and dealing with evil and wicked spirits.
97. Ibid.
98. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.69.
99. Fairfax, pp.26–7.
100. Jonson, pp.945–6, 948.
101. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. II, pp.215–44.
102. Macbeth IV, i.
103. Wrightson, p.208.
104. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. I, p.578.
105. Ibid.,Vol. I, p.584.
106. Dalton, p.317.
107. Harington, Vol. I, pp.371–4.
108. Brown, F.B. (ed.), Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts, Relating to English Affairs. Existing in the Archives and Collections of Venice, Vol. X (London, 1900), p.333.
109. Perkins, pp.248–9.
110. Cooper, p.8.
111. Henningsen, p.39.
112. Perkins, p.1; Thomas, p.542.
113. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. II, p.458.
114. Ibid., Vol. II, p.458.
115. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, pp.474–94.
116. Tyson, p.170.
117. Broughton, p.2v.
118. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, pp.xviii–xix.
119. Sir Charles and Lady Manners were also listed as ‘convicted, suspected or sought for’ recusancy in 1620. CSPD 1619–1623, p.208.
120. McClure, Vol. I, p.625.
1. Damnable Practises; The Wonderful Discoverie, p.8; T. Wright, Vol. I, p.120.
2. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.8.
3. Damnable Practises.
4. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, pp.385, 452.
5. Ibid., Vol. II, p.411; Vol. IV, p.471.
6. Ibid., Vol. IV, p.505.
7. Damnable Practises; The Wonderful Discoverie, p.9.
8. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.9.
9. Eller, p.66.
10. Damnable Practises.
11. Thurston, p.73.
12. Married women were far from immune from suspicion, however. The surviving assize records show that a significant proportion of those tried for witchcraft had husbands still living. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.164.
13. King Lear, V, iii, Larner, C., ‘Crimen Exceptum? The Crime of Witchcraft in Europe’, in Levack, Witch Hunting, p.101.
14. Fraser, p.109.
15. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.9.
16. Ibid.
17. Harsnett, p.136.
18. Fraser, p.113.
19. The term is derived from the three wise men, or Magi, who attended the infant Jesus. It is thus easy to see the link with the word ‘magic’.
20. R. Burton, p.210.
21. Thomas, p.17.
22. Perkins, p.153.
23. Gifford, Discourse, sig. H1v.
24. Bernard, p.132.
25. Gifford, Dialogue, sig. B; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.120.
26. Gifford, Dialogue, sig. M3v; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, pp.129–30.
27. Thomas, p.211.
28. Ibid., p.212.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid., p.213.
31. Ehrenreich and English, p.15; Perkins, sig. H; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.128.
32. Parkinson, pp.20–1.
33. Gifford, Discourse, sig. C2v.
34. Gifford, Dialogue; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.128.
35. Bernard, p.139.
36. Thomas, p.215.
37. Ibid., p.800.
38. Ibid., p.254.
39. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.125.
40. Weyer, p.117.
41. Gifford, Discourse, sig. G1v.
42. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.4.
43. Ibid.; Gibson, Reading Witchcraft, p.178.
44. Gifford, Discourse, sig. H2.
45. Thomas, p.277.
46. Ewen, Robert Ratcliffe, pp.2–5.
47. Thomas, p.643.
48. Ibid., p.287.
49. Weyer, p.117.
50. Gifford, Discourse, sig. H1v.
51. Thomas, pp.291–2; R. Burton, p.6; Holland, sig.B1.
52. Gibson, Reading Witchcraft, p.178.
53. Gifford, Discourse, sig. H2v.
54. Ehrenreich and English, p.56.
55. Gifford, Discourse, sigs. H1v, I.
56. Ady, p.159.
57. Thomas, p.654.
58. A True and Exact Relation, p.1; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.123.
1. The Wonderful Discoverie.
2. Briggs, p.232.
3. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.9.
4. CSPD 1623–1625, p.557.
5. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.8.
6. Crouch, p.141.
7. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.8.
8. Ibid., p.9.
9. T. Wright, Vol. I, p.120.
10. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.9.
11. Ibid., p.21.
12. Interestingly, that village would soon be the centre of another witchcraft controversy. In July 1616, nine women had been executed there for bewitching the grandson of the lord of the manor of Bosworth.
13. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.22.
14. Scot, p.4.
15. Damnable Practises; Crouch, p.141.
16. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.9.
17. Damnable Practises.
18. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.22.
19. Ibid., pp.6–7.
20. Ibid., p.8.
21. Ibid., p.22.
22. Chambers, p.356.
23. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.9–10.
24. Scot, p.5.
25. Perkins, p.202.
26. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.4.
27. Bernard, p.156; Stearne, p.20.
28. Isaiah 8:19.
29. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.72.
30. The Witches of Northamptonshire, sigs. B2–B2v.
31. Thomas, p.606.
32. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.8.
33. Perkins, p.141.
34. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.10; Damnable Practises.
35. Damnable Practises.
36. Harsnett, sig. A2, pp.136–7.
37. Gifford, Discourse, sig. G2v–G3.
38. Damnable Practises; The Wonderful Discoverie, p.10.
39. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.4.
40. Scot, p.4.
41. Thomas, p.599.
42. Harner, M.J., ‘The Role of Hallucinogenic Plants in European Witchcraft’, in Levack, Witch Hunting, p.252.
43. See plates X–XX.
44. The Witch of Edmonton (1621), II, i.
45. Another account claims that he died soon after falling ill. Crouch, p.144.
46. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, p.497.
47. Damnable Practises; The Wonderful Discoverie, p.11.
48. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.10.
49. Rosen, p.44.
50. Damnable Practises; The Wonderful Discoverie, p.11.
51. Damnable Practises.
52. Gaule, p.85.
53. Thomas, p.640.
54. Guazzo, Compendium Maleficarum (1626); Hart, pp.51–4.
55. Thomas, p.640.
56. Cotta, pp.76–7.
57. Scot, p.5.
58. Potts; Briggs, p.74.
59. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.293.
60. Ibid., pp.294–5.
61. Baroja, J.C., The World of Witches (Chicago & London, 1964), cited in Monter, European Witchcraft, p.156.
62. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, pp.82–3.
63. Briggs, p.39.
64. Monter, European Witchcraft, pp.75–81.
65. Scott and Pearl, p.182.
66. Papal bull, Summis desiderantes affectibus (1484), issued by Pope Innocent VIII; Hart, p.14.
67. Briggs, p.79.
68. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, pp.138–45.
69. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, pp.183–4.
70. Ibid., p.162.
71. Scot, p.4.
72. Harsnett, p.136.
73. Peters, p.23.
74. Quoted in Levack, The witch hunt, p.129.
75. Briggs, p.20.
76. Hutchinson, p.138.
77. Ewen, Witchcraft in the Star Chamber, pp.18–19.
78. Gaule, p.5.
79. Scott and Pearl, p.155.
80. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.5.
81. Gifford, Discourse, sig. F4v, G1v.
82. Filmer, sig. B4.
83. Perkins, p.44.
84. Gifford, Discourse, sig. H3v.
85. Bernard, p.185.
86. Ibid., p.134.
87. Remy, p.159; Levack, The witch hunt, p.134.
88. The Witches of Northamptonshire, quoted in Elbourne, Bewitching the Mind, p.62.
89. Bernard, p.155.
90. Fraser, p.112.
91. Gifford, Discourse, sig. G1v.
92. Harington, Vol. I, pp.368–9.
93. Thomas, p.677.
94. The Witch of Edmonton (1621), 2, i, 1–15a.
95. Potts.
96. Perkins, p.191.
97. Scot, p.4.
98. There was a high degree of variation between different countries, however. For example, as many as half of convicted witches in France were men, and 25 per cent in Germany. Briggs, p.261.
99. Larner, Enemies of God, pp.1–3.
100. Pearson, J., ‘Wicca, Paganism and history: contemporary witchcraft and the Lancashire Witches’, in Poole.
101. Institoris and Sprenger; Barstow, Witchcraze, p.172.
102. Papal bull, Summis desiderantes affectibus (1484), issued by Pope Innocent VIII; Hart, pp.12–15.
103. See for example Leviticus 14:31; 20:27; Isaiah 8:19.
104. Stearne, p.10; 1 Samuel 28:7; Chronicles 10:10, 13, 14; Exodus 25:28.
105. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, pp.114–15. Extracts cited are Ecclesiasticus 25:22–6, Matthew 19:10.
106. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, p.115.
107. Scot, p.63.
108. The Home Circuit assize records show that between 1600 and 1702, there were 1,207 calls for witnesses at witch trials, of which 576 (48 per cent) involved women. Sharpe, J., ‘Women, witchcraft and the legal process’, in Kermode and Walker, p.112.
109. Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness, pp.178–80.
110. Perkins, pp.168–9.
111. Stearne, p.11; A. Roberts, p.42.
112. Swetnam, cited in Henderson and McManus, p.193.
113. Tyson, p.128.
114. Scot, p.158.
115. Swetnam, cited in Henderson and McManus, p.194.
116. Stearne, p.11; A. Roberts, p.43.
117. A. Roberts, p.43.
118. Bernard, p.93.
119. Institoris and Sprenger; Barstow, Witchcraze.
120. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, pp.117, 122.
121. Bodin, J., De la démonomanie des sorciers (1580), f.225r; Briggs, p.259.
122. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.9. Interestingly, despite their reputation for promiscuity, there is no hint in the contemporary records of any unwanted pregnancies. While Joan was past childbearing years, her daughters may have just been lucky in this respect – or more virtuous than the gossips claimed. Another explanation is that their mother had taught them about birth control or had given them certain herbal concoctions known to prevent conception. Whether it was for avoiding pregnancy or carrying out an abortion, this was considered the greatest sexual sin of all. It was impeding the course of nature – and of God’s creation – and those who practised it ran the risk of being accused of witchcraft.
123. Tyson, p.107.
124. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.158.
125. Ibid., p.159.
126. Quoted in Levack, The witch hunt, p.130.
127. Scot, p.12; Barstow, Witchcraze, p.29.
128. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, p.131. This distasteful analogy was commonly used in colloquial German to express a lustful yearning.
129. Scot, p.158.
130. Ibid., p.282; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.163.
131. Guazzo, Compendium Maleficarum (1626); Hart, p.30.
132. Scott and Pearl, pp.187, 199.
133. Scot, p.12; Stearne, pp.12, 29, 33.
134. Perkins,; Filmer, sig. B4v.
135. Perkins, p.193; Potts, pp.16–17.
136. Bernard, p.93.
137. Sharpe, Witchcraft in Early Modern England, p.110.
138. See for example Barstow, Witchcraze.
139. [W.W.], sigs. C7–C7v.
140. Gifford, Discourse, sig. G3.
141. Ady, p.114.
142. Thomas, p.608.
143. Proverbs, 28:27.
144. Thomas, p.662.
145. Scot, iii; Thomas, p.663.
1. Thomas, pp.375–6.
2. Bernard, pp.14–16.
3. Ibid., p.39.
4. Sowerby, pp.5–6.
5. Markham, pp.14–15.
6. Thomas, p.534.
7. Bodleian Library, Ashmolean Manuscripts 412, f.235v; Thomas, p.757.
8. Honeybone, Wicked Practise, p.93.
9. Fraser, p.80.
10. MacDonald, p.210.
11. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, p.501.
12. Ibid., Vol. IV, p.502.
13. Ibid.,Vol. IV, p.507.
14. Damnable Practises.
15. HMC, Rutland, Vol. V, pp.385, 452, 471, 505.
16. Ibid., Vol. IV, p.510.
17. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. II, pp.471, 478. It is interesting to note that in attending the late Prince Henry during his final illness, Dr Atkins had raised no suspicion of bewitchment, even though it would have deflected any criticism that he had failed to save the kingdom’s heir. Perhaps the prince’s symptoms – which were described as being a ‘continuall head-ache, lazinesse, and indisposition’ – did not conform to those commonly associated with bewitchment.
18. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, p.449.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Honeybone, Wicked Practise, p.93.
22. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.10
23. Macfarlane, Diary of Ralph Josselin, pp.113–14.
24. Harington, Vol. I, p.343.
25. McElwee, Wisest Fool, p.201.
26. Weldon, p.177.
27. CSPV, Vol. XV, p.420.
28. Ibid., p.468.
29. Williamson, pp.13, 28.
30. Goodman, Vol. I, pp.225–6.
31. Stewart, p.280.
32. McElwee, Wisest Fool, p.213.
33. CSPV, Vol. XV, pp.113–14; Stewart, p.280.
34. Stewart, p.330; British Museum Harleian MS 6987, f.234.
35. Somerset, p.51.
36. Stewart, p.330; McElwee, Wisest Fool, p.214.
37. Williamson, p.12.
38. CSPV, Vol. XV, p.335.
39. McClure, Vol. I, p.625.
40. Stewart, pp.281–2.
41. CSPV, Vol. XV, pp.459, 468.
42. CSPD 1623–1625, p.28.
43. Lockyer, p.26.
44. Ibid.
45. Williamson, pp.84–5.
46. Lockyer, p.58.
47. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, p.416.
48. British Museum Harleian MS 6987, f.119.
49. Ewen, Robert Ratcliffe, p.4.
50. Ibid., pp.4-5. Although the Privy Council ordered that Frances Shute be arrested and brought before the Archbishop of Canterbury, she was never taken. Perhaps thanks to Villiers’s intervention, she was pardoned by the king and went on to marry the Earl of Sussex the day after his wife’s death in December 1623.
51. Williamson, p.84.
52. Akrigg, p.222.
1. Stewart, p.301.
2. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.9.
3. Damnable Practises.
4. Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.109.
5. A True and Just Recorde of the Information, Examination and Confession of all the Witches, taken at S. Oses in the countie of Essex (1582), sigs. A7–A7v, cited in Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.109.
6. Honeybone, Wicked Practise, p.33.
7. Briggs, p.183.
8. Thomas, p.649.
9. Gifford, Discourse, sig. H3.
10. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.224.
11. Scott and Pearl, p.218.
12. Thomas, p.650.
13. Sharpe, Crime, p.110.
14. Holmes, ‘Women, witnesses and witches’, pp.55–6.
15. Gifford, Discourse, sigs. G4–G4v; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, pp.111–12.
16. Gifford, Discourse, sig. G4–G4v.
17. Macfarlane, A., ‘Witchcraft Prosecutions in Essex, 1560–1680: A Sociological Analysis’, PhD Thesis (Oxford, 1967), p.223.
18. There were few towns with populations of more than 10,000. Even as late as 1700, Norwich – which was the second largest city in the country – had only 30,000 inhabitants. London was the only large urban centre, with a population of 500,000 by the same date.
19. Scot, p.374; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.168.
20. Cotta, p.108.
21. A detailed guide to ‘swimming’ a witch was provided in the 1613 pamphlet Witches Apprehended, Examined and Executed. Another explanation for the effectiveness of the trial was put forward by James in Daemonology: that those who renounced the sacred water of baptism would be themselves rejected by water. Tyson, p.39.
22. The Wonderful Discoverie, Epilogue.
23. Briggs, p.54.
24. The Wonderful Discoverie, Epilogue.
25. Dalton, pp.308, 310.
26. Hart, pp.50–1.
27. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.19.
28. Ibid., p.11.
29. Cotta, p.108.
30. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.11.
31. Chambers, p.356.
1. In populous Kent, there was an average of 76 Justices during the late Elizabethan period, whereas Rutland (which was tiny by comparison) had only 12.
2. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. III, pp.262–3.
3. Introduction by Rev. Montague Summers to Scot, p.xx; Cockburn, History of the English Assizes, p.107.
4. Sharpe, Crime, p.47. No fewer than 20 deaths were recorded in Guildford Castle gaol in 1598 alone. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.27.
5. Durston, p.334.
6. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.27.
7. Durston, p.333.
8. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.27.
9. Durston, pp.333–4.
10. James VI, p.51.
11. The dungeons at the base of Cobb Hall can still be visited today.
12. Dalton, p.312.
13. Scott and Pearl, p.177.
14. Ibid., p.178.
15. The Wonderful Discoverie, title page and p.24.
16. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, p.514. Putting an ‘e’ on the end of a word was a common way of pluralising it.
17. Ibid., Vol. IV, p.514.
18. This Lord Willoughby d’Eresby was Robert Bertie, who succeeded to the barony in 1601.
19. His brother, Abraham, had written a popular pamphlet about the notorious legend of the Black Dog of Bungay. Although eagerly devoured by the credulous Elizabethan readership, Abraham had intended it as a morality tale, aimed at inspiring his readers to lead a more godly life. He may also have been involved in editing the most influential work by a witchcraft sceptic, Reginald Scot’s The Discoverie of Witchcraft. I am indebted to Dr Clare Stubbs for sharing her extensive research on Abraham.
20. As well as leaving various endowments to the poor and female members of his parish, Fleming also ordered – during his lifetime – the construction of a bridge so that the people of Bottesford might safely cross the fast-hlowing stream near the entrance to the church. He himself had almost drowned when attempting to navigate his way across some time before.
21. Scott and Pearl, p.188.
22. Ibid., p.218.
23. Potts, sig. P2v.
24. Bernard, pp.239–40.
25. Hopkins, p.59; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.20.
26. Bernard, pp.228–38.
27. Scott and Pearl, p.188.
28. Perkins, pp.214–15.
29. Scott and Pearl, p.186.
30. Gifford, Discourse, sig. G4v.
31. Briggs, p.235.
32. Cockburn, History of the English Assizes, p.120.
33. Ewen, Witchcraft in the Star Chamber, pp.28–36.
34. Maxwell-Stuart, Witch hunters.
35. Dalton, p.266; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.16.
36. Cotta, p.101.
37. Dalton, pp.275, 277; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.16.
38. Perkins, p.210.
39. Gifford, Discourse, sig. I.
40. Ibid., sig. G4v.
41. Bernard, p.25.
42. Cooper, pp.274–6.
43. Ibid., pp.277–8.
44. Ibid., p.276.
45. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II.
46. Newes from Scotland, in Tyson, p.202.
47. Tyson, p.107.
48. Newes from Scotland, in ibid., p.201.
49. Monter, European Witchcraft, p.85.
50. Barstow, Witchcraze, p.131.
51. Gaule, pp.78–9; Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.66.
52. Briggs, p.54.
53. Levack, The witch-hunt, p.73.
54. Cotta, p.77.
55. Tyson, p.30; Thomas, p.599.
56. Briggs, p.43.
1. Scott and Pearl, p.178.
2. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.23.
3. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.308.
4. Scott and Pearl, pp.179, 192.
5. The contemporary ballad describing the case inaccurately states that it was Phillipa, not Margaret, who was first to confess. Damnable Practises.
6. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.22, 24.
7. Ibid., p.21.
8. Ibid., p.22.
9. Ibid., p.7.
10. Ibid., p.23.
11. Ibid.
12. Thomas, p.530.
13. T. Wright, Vol. I, p.182.
14. Bernard, pp.218–20. James I provided a detailed explanation in his book about witchcraft of how a woman was marked by the Devil. He claimed that Satan ‘gives them his mark upon some secret place of their body, which remains sore unhealed until his next meeting with them, and thereafter insensible, howsoever it be nipped or pricked in any way, as is daily proved; to give them a proof hereby, that as in that doing he could hurt and heal them, so all their ill and well doings thereafter must depend upon him. And besides that, the intolerable distress that they feel in that place where he has marked them serves to waken them, and not to let them rest until their next meeting again; fearing lest otherwise they might either forget him, being as new apprentices and not well enough founded yet in that fiendly folly: or else, remembering of that horrible promise they made him at their last meeting, they might balk at the same, and press to call it back.’ Tyson, pp.112–13.
15. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.70.
16. Ibid.
17. Barstow, Witchcraze, p.130. The woman described here was released after a second examination. The pricker was eventually hanged, but not before he had sent 220 women to their deaths – earning 20 shillings for each conviction.
18. A true and exact Relation, p.24.
19. A Tryal of Witches at Bury St Edmunds (1664), p.16; Ewen, Witch Hunting, pp.61–2.
20. Newes from Scotland, in Tyson, p.192.
21. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, p.84.
22. A true and exact Relation, pp.2, 6.
23. Colling meant to kiss and embrace around the neck. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.5.
24. Goodcole.
25. Trial account of Isobel Gowdie, Scotland (1662); Hart, p.32.
26. Tyson, pp.163–4.
27. Scott and Pearl, p.130.
28. Almond, p.103.
29. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.306.
30. Cooper, pp.121–3.
31. A Pleasant Treatise of Witches, p.6.
32. McGowan, M.M., ‘Pierre de Lancre’s Tableau de L’Inconstance des Mauvais Anges et Demons: the Sabbat Sensationalized’, in Anglo, pp.182–201.
33. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.23–4.
34. Scott and Pearl, p.130.
35. Newes from Scotland; Hart, p.41.
36. Tyson, p.117.
37. A Pleasant Treatise of Witches, p.7.
38. Tyson, pp.163–4.
39. Scot, pp.43–4.
40. Andreski, S., ‘The Syphilitic Shock’, in Levack, Witch Hunting, p.286.
41. Institoris and Sprenger, Vol. II, pp.262, 265. An incubus is a sexual spirit in the form of a male, and a succubus is in the form of a female. Many demonologists believed that these spirits could change from male to female form depending upon the sex of the person they were trying to seduce.
42. Almond, p.102.
43. Monter, European Witchcraft, p.117.
44. See, for example, Witches’ Sabbath (1510).
45. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.23–4.
46. Gifford, Discourse, sig. G3.
47. Shakespeare, Macbeth, I, i.
48. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.305.
49. Ibid., p.306.
50. Ibid.
51. Thomas, p.626.
52. Tyson, p.139.
53. Gifford, Dialogue, p.102.
1. Those serving as grand jurymen had to pay substantial sums for the privilege. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, it cost £80 per year, compared to £10 to be a petty juryman. Durston, p.350.
2. Honeybone, Wicked Practise, p.176.
3. The pamphlet dates the Flower women’s arrest and trial to 1618, rather than 1619, although this may just be because it is using the old-style calendar. But the examination of Joan Willimot is dated ‘the 16. yeare of the raigne of our Soveraigne Lord, James, over England King &c. and over Scotland the 52’, which does tally with the 1618 date. Meanwhile, Nichols’s History and Antiquities, Vol. II, Part 1, p.49, cites it as 1620. However, Reverend Samuel Fleming, who played a key part in the trial, died that year but we do not know exactly when. The witches’ own testimonies are of no help because none of the specific dates or days they provide fit with any of the possible years in which the events could have taken place. Marion Gibson provides a useful analysis of the chronological problem surrounding the Belvoir witch case in Early Modern Witches, pp.276–9. See also: Cockburn, Calendar of Assize Records, p.80.
4. ‘Preamble to the charge given to the Grand Jury by Serjeant Davis at York Assizes Lent 1620’, in Cockburn, History of the English Assizes, Appendix 5, p.311.
5. For an excellent account of the history and proceedings of the assizes, see: Cockburn, History of the English Assizes.
6. The papers from Margaret and Phillipa’s trial probably survived until 1800, when the Midland circuit clerk declared that he saw no point in keeping the ‘cart load’ of records received from his predecessor and proposed to destroy everything when it was 60 years old. He evidently did so, for when most surviving assize records were transferred to the National Archives in 1911, the earliest document from the Midland circuit was dated 1818. A fragmentary series of indictments from this circuit covering the period 1652–88 was later recovered from private custody. Cockburn, Calendar of Assize Records, p.10.
7. Durston, p.404.
8. Bromley and Hobart had served as judges of the Midlands assizes since 1618. Cockburn, History of the English Assizes, p.270.
9. Honeybone, Wicked Practise, p.178.
10. Dalton, p.251.
11. Scott and Pearl, pp.195, 209.
12. Dalton, p.251.
13. Scott and Pearl, p.210.
14. Cockburn, History of the English Assizes, p.110.
15. Ibid., p.67; Cockburn, Calendar of Assize Records, pp.44–50. There were usually 17 or 19 members of the jury.
16. Durston, p.383.
17. Cockburn, History of the English Assizes, p.67.
18. T. Smith, p.78.
19. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.24–5.
20. ‘There is no murmuring or repining against God, but quietly to tolerate his inflicting, whensoever they chance, of which this worthy Earle is a memorable example of all men and Ages.’ The Wonderful Discoverie, p.26.
21. Gifford, Dialogue, L3–L3v; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, pp.18–19.
22. Potts, S1 verso, R3 recto.
23. T.W., p.59.
24. Sharpe, Crime, p.33.
25. Durston, p.363.
26. [W.W.], sig. B6v; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, pp.19–20.
27. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.24.
28. Ibid., pp.24–5.
29. Ibid., p.25.
30. Cockburn, Calendar of Assize Records, p.106.
31. Durston, p.390.
32. Thomas, p.547.
33. Durston, p.390.
34. Ibid., p.362.
35. T.W., p.15; Macfarlane, Witchcraft, p.24.
36. Durston, p.385.
37. Ibid., p.349.
38. James I: 1603/4 Act of Parliament against conjuration and witchcraft and dealing with evil and wicked spirits; T. Smith, p.83.
39. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.25.
1. Cooper, pp.313–14.
2. The most strange and admirable Discoverie, sigs. O2v, O3.
3. Cockburn, Calendar of Assize Records, pp.121–3.
4. Dalton, p.266.
5. A public house, appropriately named ‘The Strugglers’, stands close to the site today.
6. Durston, p.430.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid., p.431.
9. Damnable Practises.
1. Nichols, History and Antiquities, Vol. II, Part I, p.49n.
2. Quoted in ibid.
3. Two Sermons, pp.10, 12, 13, 14, 17, 20, 28, 35, 40–1, 50–1.
4. Gifford, Discourse, sig. H4v.I.
5. A. Roberts, dedicatory pages.
6. Chambers, Vol. I , p.356.
7. Gifford, Discourse, sig. I.
8. Tyson, p.181.
9. Scott and Pearl, p.188.
10. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.16.
11. Ibid., pp.16–18.
12. Ibid., pp.15–16.
13. Ibid., pp.18–19.
14. Ibid., pp.19–21.
15. Bodleian Library, Ashmolean Manuscripts 412, f.119.
16. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, p.225.
17. APC, 1619–1621, p.3.
18. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.7.
19. Ibid., p.11.
20. Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness, p.49.
21. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, pp.514, 516.
22. CSPD 1619–1623, p.412.
1. CSPD 1619–1623, p.71.
2. CSPD 1619–1623, pp.94, 97.
3. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. III, p.585.
4. McClure, Vol. II, p.284.
5. Thomas, p.297.
6. Bellaney, p.61.
7. Ibid., p.63.
8. McClure, Vol. II, p.293.
9. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, p.519. Ironically, this was less than the earl spent on ensuring that the Flower women were brought to justice.
10. The publication date is cited as 1619, but this was due to the fact that the old-style dates were still being used. In fact the pamphlet was published in 1620. This is consistent with the dates cited in the pamphlet itself, which are all in old style – notably the trial, which it gives as 1618, rather than 1619 when it actually occurred.
11. Bayman, pp.26–7.
12. Pepys’ is the only surviving copy of the original ballad, and it is thanks to his presenting it to Magdalene College, Cambridge, along with the rest of his ballad collection, that it has endured for posterity. See Gibson, Early Modern Witches, p.7.
13. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.25–6.
14. Holland, in English Witchcraft, Vol. I, p.89.
15. Perkins, pp.181–2, 184.
16. The Wonderful Discoverie, pp.7, 11, 22.
17. Ibid., sig. B.
18. See, for example, The Witches of Northamptonshire.
19. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.26.
20. Damnable Practises; Gibson, M., Early English Trial Pamphlets (London, 2003), p.275.
21. There are various other minor discrepancies with the original version of the pamphlet.
22. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.21.
23. McClure, Vol. II, p.293.
24. Bernard, pp.92, 111, 113, 129, 136, 157–62, 178–81, 189, 206, 225, 233.
25. Ibid., pp.24–5.
26. Ibid., p.27.
27. Ibid., p.170.
28. Ibid., p.216.
29. Ibid., pp.216–17.
30. CSPV, Vol. XVI, p.169.
31. McClure, Vol. II, p.293; CSPD 1619–1623, p.129.
32. Goodman, Vol. II, p.190.
33. McClure, Vol. II, p.293.
34. Goodman, Vol. II, pp.190–1.
35. McClure, Vol. II, pp.296–7.
36. CSPD 1619–1623, p.132.
37. Ibid., pp.113, 133.
38. Goodman, Vol. II, pp.191–2.
39. British Museum Harleian MS 6987, f.69. See also Akrigg, pp.220–1; Williamson, p.240; Lockyer, p.60.
40. Lockyer, p.60.
41. McClure, Vol. II, pp.301–2; CSPD 1619–1623, p.140.
42. McClure, Vol. II, p.306.
43. Beaumont, J., Epithalamium to my Lord of Buckingham and his Lady.
1. Samuel’s sister, Hester, was responsible for carrying out his last wishes. She married her brother’s curate soon after his death, and died in 1622.
2. Honeybone, Wicked Practise, p.133.
3. McClure, Vol. II, p.401.
4. Lockyer, pp.60–1; Akrigg, p.221.
5. Lockyer, p.60.
6. British Museum Harleian MS 6987, f.119; Akrigg, p.222.
7. Goodman, Vol. II, p.310; Lockyer, p.60.
8. Akrigg, p.221.
9. CSPD 1619–1623, pp.300, 333.
10. McClure, Vol. II, p.451; CSPD 1619–1623, p.449.
11. British Museum Harleian MS 6987, f.178.
12. CSPD 1619–1623, p.366. Buckingham had purchased Wallingford House shortly before Katherine’s lying-nn. It stood in a prime position, next to the palace of Whitehall and overlooking St James’s Park.
13. McClure, Vol. II, p.434.
14. The duchess gave birth to the longed-nor son in 1625; he was named after the new king, Charles, but died in infancy. In January 1628, Katherine gave birth to another son, George, who became the 2nd Duke of Buckingham upon his father’s death just four months later. A third son, Francis, who was said to have inherited his father’s striking good looks, was born in April 1629.
15. British Museum Harleian MS 6987, f.231.
16. Williamson, pp.142, 245.
17. Lockyer, p.152.
18. Goodman, Vol. II, p.312.
19. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. IV, p.855.
20. McClure, Vol. II, pp.502–3. The rumour proved accurate for Buckingham, but not for Rutland.
21. CSPD 1623–1625, pp.196, 198.
22. Ben Jonson, A Masque of the Metamorphosed Gipsies (1621), cited in Nichols, Progresses, Vol. IV, p.678. The other ‘three’ whom Jonson implied were greater than Rutland were the king, the prince and Buckingham.
23. CSPD 1623–1625, pp.197–8.
24. Weldon, p.162.
25. CSPD 1623–1625, p.231; Stewart, pp.334–5.
26. Stewart, p.337.
27. Ibid., p.338.
28. Ibid., p.341.
29. British Museum MS Harleian MS 6987, f.101.
30. Nichols, Progresses, Vol. IV, p.1033.
31. Goodman, p.409.
32. Stewart, p.348.
33. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, p.221.
34. Ibid.
35. Williamson, p.192. The child, christened George after his father, would be like him in almost every respect. Pleasure-seeking and ambitious in equal measure, he became a firm favourite of the future Charles II, and was rewarded for his loyalty towards him during the long years of exile before the Restoration in 1660. But his profligate lifestyle won him many enemies, and he even fell foul of the king. ‘He was true to nothing,’ wrote one observer. ‘He at length ruined both body and mind, fortune and reputation equally.’ Williamson, p.88n.
36. Bellaney, p.59.
37. MacDonald, pp.20–1.
38. CSPV, Vol. XIX, pp.604–5, 605n; Bellaney, p.62.
39. Stewart, p.349.
40. Bellaney, p.69.
41. Lockyer, p.454.
42. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, p.490.
43. The earl’s executor was possibly Sir Thomas Savage. The Savages were evidently well acquainted with the Manners, and Sir Thomas’s wife had been at Spa at the same time as Cecilia, during the summer of 1622. CSPD 1619–1623, p.420.
44. Although Francis Manners had been less extravagant than other members of his family, his clothes were valued at the not inconsiderable sum of £500 upon his death.
45. Proof that the monument was built during the earl’s lifetime is that at its base is an inscription, apparently added later than the rambling, self-nongratulatory prose of the main epitaph. This simply reads: ‘Francis Earl of Rutland was buried Feb. 20, 1632.’ Eller, p.376. The first mention of a tomb in the family accounts is dated 8 January 1614 (1615), when a footman was sent from Belvoir to bring Dr Fleming from his parish at Bottesford to discuss the making of the tomb with the earl. This could have been prompted by the death of the earl’s elder son, Henry, in September 1613. HMC, Rutland, Vol. IV, p.504.
46. HMC, Rutland, Vol. I, p.492.
47. Ibid., Vol. I, pp.493–4.
48. Ibid., Vol. II, p.344.
49. Eller notes that she was buried on 11 September 1653 in St Nicholas Chapel, Westminster Abbey, without any monument for herself or her son Francis. Eller, p.67. Their tomb was probably close to that of their relation, Lady Elizabeth Ros.
1. Hutchinson, p.180.
2. Elbourne, Bewitching the Mind, p.56. These women had been implicated in the case of the Husbands Bosworth bewitching, which had already resulted in the execution of nine local women (see p.83).
3. Gaskill, Witchfinders; Larner, quoted in Elbourne, Bewitching the Mind, p.56.
4. Larner, C., ‘James VI and I and Witchcraft’, in A.G. Smith, p.89.
5. Cockburn, Calendar of Assize Records, Appendix VI, pp.190–7, 230. The Home Counties are Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, Surrey and Sussex.
6. The Wonderful Discoverie, p.7.
7. Ibid., p.3.
8. Goodcole.
9. Cotta, p.A2v.
10. Ewen, Witchcraft in the Star Chamber, pp.18–19.
11. A Most Certain, Strange, and true Discovery.
12. Shakespeare, All’s Well That Ends Well, II, iii.
13. Brinley, p.69.
14. Thomas, p.774.
15. Webster, p.68.
16. Thomas, p.693.
17. Fourteenth Report of the Historical Manuscripts Commission, Appendix, Part iii, p.132; Thomas, p.686.
18. Ewen, Witch Hunting, pp.314–16.
19. Kennett, p.9.
20. Thomas, p.694.
21. Boulton, Compleat History; Boulton, Possibility and Reality.
22. Boulton, Compleat History, Vol. I, pp.11, 177–95.
23. Thomas, p.295.
24. Ewen, Witch Hunting, p.115.
25. Levack, The witch hunt, p.231.
26. Crouch, p.141.
27. Nichols, History and Antiquities, Vol.II, Part I, p.49n.
28. Eller, p.65.
29. Ibid.
30. The Pall Mall Gazette (London), Monday 10 March 1873.
31. Earlier that year, the Swiss government officially pardoned Anna Goeldi, who was beheaded in 1782 and is commonly regarded as the last person to be legally executed as a witch in Europe.