1 Peet 1977, 172.
2 The calculation is based on Janssen’s (1975, 534) estimation of a workman of the Nineteenth Dynasty earning 11 deben per month, and a passage from the court document (Peet 1977, 172) saying the stolen piece had a value of 90 deben.
3 Schultz and Seidel 2005, 372.
4 Meskell 1999, 209–11.
1 Ward (1986, 59), for example, claims that the status of women varied little throughout Pharaonic history.
2 See Goodison and Morris 1998 for an introduction, with references, to the ‘goddess movement’.
3 For example, Lesko 1999, 16.
4 Baumgartel 1947, 31, 36; 1960, 73–4, 144–47.
5 Hassan 1992, 1998.
6 Lesko 1999.
7 For an outline of the importance of cattle in the religion of Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt, see Wengrow 2001 and Hendrickx 2002, with references.
8 Fischer 1962; 1975, 630–32.
9 Reisner 1931, 123–4, pl. 38–46.
10 The interpretations of the Hierakonpolis bowl and seal impression are difficult. The Hierakonpolis bowl shows the bovine head with human eyes and mouth. On both the bowl and the seal impression, the bovine head is shown together with a bird. On the Hierakonpolis bowl, this is identified as the Saddle Bill or Jaribu stork, which Fischer (1962, 11) points out has the same phonetic value as that of the Bat deity, that is, the name of the Saddle Bill in ancient Egypt was ba, and thus, claims Fischer, implies that the bovine head is Bat. However, there is doubt surrounding the claim that the bovine is this deity. Fischer also states that the Bat fetish is rarely shown with the stork. Additionally, there is a possibility that the fragments come from separate bowls and have been incorrectly assumed to be one. Finally, as regards the Hierakonpolis bowl, the mouth of the Bat head has been totally reconstructed. Its features may have been less recognizably human in the original, and therefore less like the later known Bat deity. Burgess and Arkell 1958; Adams 1974, 5.
11 Hartung 1998, pl. 37, 120.
12 For example, Hassan 1998, 110, fig. 48; Wilkinson 1999, 282.
13 Smith 1992, 241–244.
14 Pyramid Texts 729, 2003.
15 Pyramid Texts 1285a, 1303c.
16 Pyramid Texts 332, 397, etc.
17 Petrie et al. (1913, 21–2, pl. II). See also Petrie and Griffith (1901, 24, pl. 6.22) for a similar bovine with curled horns identified as a bull.
18 See Fischer 1962, 8 for the stela and Chapter 8 in this volume for information on khener.
19 See Fischer 1962, 12; Gillam 1995, 215; and Wilkinson 1999, 283 for Fourth Dynasty references to Hathor. Hassan (1998, 106) cites identifications of Hathor in the Early Dynastic though these are based on over-interpretive translations. While the temple at Gebelein was dedicated in later times to Hathor, and the temple itself dates back to the Second Dynasty, we do not know if it was dedicated to Hathor in the Second Dynasty (Wilkinson 1999, 312).
20 The figurines are discussed in Ucko 1968, 188. Hendrickx (2002, 283–84) makes the interesting observation that a flint object from Naqada which is usually interpreted as a bull’s head could also be viewed as a woman with raised arms, though the ears of the head are difficult to understand as part of a female body. Hendrickx sees these as breasts, but if so, this is an unusual rendering for Early Dynastic Egypt.
21 Hassan 1998, 106, 107 fig. 46.
22 Baumgartel 1960, 144–47.
23 Zuener 1963, 226.
24 Ucko 1968, 188.
25 Kinney 2008, 43–4, 64–72.
26 Williams 1988; 47–51, 93, fig. 35, 36; Hendrickx 2002, 283.
27 Podzorski (1993) has suggested that in graves men tend to be associated with maces (although since only two maceheads were found in this study, the correlation may be insignificant) and Hassan and Smith’s (2002, 52) study of 426 graves from five cemeteries suggested that maces were as likely to be associated with women’s as with men’s graves.
28 Fuchs 1989, 139, 145, 151, fig. 19, 28; Berger 1992, 116, fig. 9; Morrow and Morrow 2002.
29 Lankester 2007, 99.
30 For example, Morrow and Morrow 2002, 133, 159.
31 For example, Redford and Redford 1989, fig. 34; Morrow and Morrow 2002, 65.
32 Ellis 1992; Savage 2000; Hassan and Smith 2002.
33 Baumgartel 1960, 60–1.
34 Ellis 1992.
35 Savage 2000.
36 Podzorski 1993.
37 Hassan and Smith 2002.
38 The idea that these palettes are used for grinding eye make-up, as opposed to say general body paints, rests upon projecting ideas of the Dynastic Period back onto the Predynastic. However, to be sure of these results we really need to compare Predynastic mortuary evidence with later mortuary evidence, or we are not comparing like with like. Unfortunately, such studies have not yet been published. Richards (2005) has considered Middle Kingdom mortuary data and Meskell (1999, 2002) material from New Kingdom Deir el-Medina. However, Richards does not specifically analyse gender as information on this was only available less than 50 per cent of the time and the sexing of skeletons in the past was insecure (2005, 106). It would also be interesting to consider evidence of equality and gendered roles from physical anthropology, or the human remains themselves. Sexual division of labour and differential access to food resources leave their mark on skeletal remains. One would wonder if this changes through time.
39 Hasan and Smith 2002.
40 For example, a figure from Qau- published by Adams (1992); and another from Naqada published in Petrie and Quibell (1896, pl. 59) cited in Hassan (1992, 313, fig. 2) possibly has grain but more clearly shows animals and water.
41 Lesko 1999, 11, 29.
42 Roth 2000.
43 Hassan and Smith 2002, 63.
44 Nelson 1998, 319–20, 330–31, with references.
45 Nelson 1998.
46 Hassan 1992; Hassan and Smith 2002, 64.
47 Hassan 1998.
48 Wengrow 2006.
49 Ibid., 33–4.
50 Sherratt 1981, 1983; Ehrenberg 1989, 99–107.
51 Wengrow 2006, 144–45.
52 Crabtree 2006, 584–85; Peterson 2006, 550.
53 Vogelsang-Eastwood 2000, 270.
54 Fischer 2000, 45–6.
55 Galvin 1981.
56 Gillam 1995.
57 Hassan 1992, 312.
58 Roth 2005, 11, 14, footnote 15.
59 Fischer 1989, 8; 2000, 5.
60 Fischer 1989, 10.
61 Roth 2005, 11.
62 Roth 1999b, 364.
63 Roth 2005, 11, 14, footnote 19.
64 Willems 1983.
65 Pflüger 1947, 128.
66 Fischer 2000, 59–60, footnote 50.
67 Fischer 1989; Bryan 1996.
68 Ward 1986, 2–21, 34–5.
69 Gillam 1995, 214.
70 Ibid., 222.
71 Galvin 1981, 16–19; Ward 1986, 28; Küllmer 2007, 158–63.
72 Fischer 2000, 41 pl. 1.
73 Galvin 1981, 203.
74 Ibid., 202.
75 Galvin 1981, 235–36, 240; Gillam 1995, 212–13.
76 Gillam 1995, 225.
77 Blackman 1914 I, 23, pl. 2; Galvin 1981, 210.
78 Galvin 1981, 235–39, 286.
79 Fischer 1989, 16; Fischer 2000, 19–20.
80 Gillam 1995, 213–14; Küllmer 2007, 85–8.
81 Blackman 1921, 29; Doxey 2001, 3, 71.
82 Routledge 2001, 2008.
83 Galvin 1981, 1984; Gillam 1995; Fischer 2000, 24–5.
84 Gillam 1995.
85 Ibid., 211.
86 Sethe 1933, 24–7; Gillam 1995, 212–13.
87 Blackman 1921, 24; Doxey 2001, 69.
88 Doxey 2001, 3, 71.
89 Blackman 1921, 29.
90 Roth 1991, 74–5.
91 Quirke 2007, 255–56.
92 Gillam 1995, 212, footnote 13.
93 Junker 1941, 55–6; Küllmer 2007, 143–44.
94 Fischer 2000, 20–1.
95 Ibid., 20–1.
96 Junker 1941, 52–4.
97 Küllmer 2007.
98 Wente 1990, 82; Quirke 2007, 255–56.
99 Robins 1993, 103.
100 Quirke 2007, 251.
101 Küllmer 2007, 15–21.
102 Eyre 1998, 175, fig. 1.
103 Ibid., 175.
104 Fischer 1989, 21–2; Fischer 2000, 38.
105 Lorenze 2009, 102.
106 Eyre 1998.
107 Fischer 2000, 4.
108 Fischer 1989, 22; 2000, 39–40.
109 Russmann 2005, 26.
110 Whale 1989, 275.
111 Janssen 1975, 226.
112 Van Walsem 1997, 374–75.
1 Callender 2006, 121.
2 Robins 1999, 57.
3 Troy 1984.
4 Fisher 2000, 3–4.
5 Lichtheim 1973, 69.
6 Schneider 2007.
7 Troy 1984, 78.
8 Quirke 2007, 257.
9 Lichtheim 1976, 137.
10 Lichtheim 1976, 203–11.
11 Ibid., 211–14.
12 Troy 1984, 78.
13 Lichtheim 1980, 127–38.
14 Fischer 1989, 6–7; Fischer 2000, 3–4.
15 Whale 1989; Robins 1994.
16 Fischer 2000, 13.
17 Fischer 2000, 41–3.
18 Vogelsang-Eastwood 1993, 97–8.
19 Troy 1984, 79.
20 Routledge 2008.
21 Campbell 1994.
22 Lichtheim 1973, 137.
23 Fischer 1989, 43–4, fig. 33.
24 Shown in Quibell and Hayter 1927, Cairo, frontispiece.
25 Kanawati 2001, but see also Küllmer 2007, 32 for other examples of female guards.
26 Roth 1999b, 362.
27 Roth 2005, 11.
28 Routledge 2001, 188–90, 202.
29 Routledge 2008, 164–65.
30 Filer 1992.
31 Baker 1997.
32 Baker 1997, 111.
33 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 216–19.
34 Ward 1995.
35 Wente 1990, 217.
36 Gaballa 1977, 22–7, 30.
37 Allam 1989, 130–31; Toivari-Viitala 2001, 102.
38 Janssen 2006, 7.
39 Allam 1989.
40 Meskell 2002, 110.
41 Katary 1999.
42 Meskell 1999, 158 ff.
43 Published in Griffith 1898, 31–2 and discussed in Johnson 1999.
44 Janssen 1988.
45 Lichtheim 1980, 166.
46 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 63–5.
47 Lichtheim 1976, 137.
48 Faulkner et al. 1973, 18.
49 Ibid., 1973, 92–107.
50 McDowell 1999, 33.
51 McDowell 1999, 42; Meskell 2002, 101.
52 Meskell 2002, 102.
53 Barker 1997.
54 Lorton 1977, 44.
55 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 133.
56 Onstine 2005, 34.
57 Eyre 1998.
58 Fischer 1963.
59 Robins 2008, 211.
60 Gilchrist 1999, 50–51.
61 Lichtheim 1976, 136.
62 Assmann 1997, 255, footnote 48.
63 Robins 1993, 160.
64 Donohue 1992, 874–75; Graves-Brown 2006.
65 Ritner 2008, 183.
66 Robins 1989, 108.
67 Though private stelae were set up in temples and votive cloths donated at Deir el-Bahri, it is debatable as to whether these could be considered domestic piety.
68 Lichtheim 1973, 69.
69 Goldberg 1998, 109.
70 For example, for Deir el-Medina see McDowell 1999, 51–2.
71 Lichtheim 1976, 143.
72 Lichtheim 1973, 184–92.
73 Mead 1950.
74 Roehrig 1996, 24.
75 Lichtheim 1976, 140.
76 For example, Allen 2000; 2008.
77 Whale 1989.
78 Robins 1993, 107.
79 For example, Kuper 1982.
80 Allen 2000; 2008.
81 Meskell 2002, 137.
82 Wente 1990, 36.
83 Wente 1990, 200.
84 Sweeney 2008.
1 Toivara-Viitala 2001, 181.
2 Lovell and Whyte 1999.
3 Janssen and Janssen (1990) and Szpakowska (2008) both summarize the possibilities.
4 Janssen and Janssen 1990, fig. 25.
5 Janssen and Janssen 1990, 57.
6 Fischer 2000, 27.
7 Ward 1989, 35–6.
8 McDowell 1995, 123.
9 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 189.
10 Ibid., 52–3.
11 When the word is used of males in work details it is usually translated as ‘recruits’. While nfrw is often translated as ‘beautiful’, it also has connotations of newness and youthfulness.
12 The Third Intermediate Period Onomasticon of Amenemipet contrasts an adult woman (st) with a young woman (nfrt) (Gardiner 1947).
13 Lilyquist 1979.
14 Robins 1999.
15 Vogelsang-Eastwood 1993, 114.
16 Rowlandson 1998, 99–100.
17 Montserrat 1996, 43.
18 Nunn 1996, 197.
19 McDowell 1999, 59–61; Wilfong 1999, 430–31; Toivara-Viitala 2001, 162.
20 Quirke 2007, 255–56.
21 But see Wente 1990, 82–3 for yet another reading suggesting instead that the lady was a wab-priestess.
22 Wilfong 1999; Toivari-Viitala 2001, 163.
23 Montserrat 1996, 48.
24 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 164–67.
25 Ibid., 52, footnote 52 and 53, footnote 287.
26 Lichtheim 1976, 136.
27 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 53, footnote 287.
28 Teeter 1999, 410–11; Johnson 2003, 155–58.
29 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 155.
30 Lichtheim 1980, 178.
31 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 61–7.
32 Lichtheim 1980, 128.
33 Gee 2001.
34 Callender 2002, 302–303.
35 Simpson 1974.
36 Ward 1986, 65–9.
37 Wente 1990, 60.
38 Whale 1989 passim.
39 Lichtheim 1976, 212.
40 Gardiner 1940, 23–9.
41 Johnson 2003, 155.
42 Whale 1989, 247–48, 272–73.
43 Nunn 1996, 196.
44 Ritner 1984, 209–21.
45 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 169; Meskell 2002, 141.
46 Pinch 1993.
47 See Pinch 1983, 1993 for a study of these.
48 Reilly 1997.
49 Borghouts 1971, 25.
50 Nunn 1996, 191.
51 Nunn 1996, 192.
52 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 171.
53 Masali 1973, 194–96.
54 Derry 1935 and 1942, 250.
55 Strouhal and Callender 1992, 67–73.
56 Steindorff 1946, 50.
57 Szpakowska 2008, 30.
58 Bourriau 1988, 115–16.
59 Quirke 2007, 250.
60 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 175.
61 Ritner 1984.
62 Wilkinson 1971, 81.
63 Keimer 1949, 138.
64 Ritner 2008, 174–75.
65 Lichtheim 1973, 220.
66 Pinch 1983, 409–10.
67 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 178.
68 Pinch 1983, 406–407.
69 Pinch’s type 6c, Pinch 1983, 406, pl. 6; Pinch 1993, 209.
70 el-Sabbahy 1999.
71 Brunner-Traut 1955, 24.
72 Pinch 1993, 209.
73 Pinch 1983, 406.
74 Robins 1993, 83.
75 Wegner 2002.
76 Bolger 1992, 156–58.
77 Lichtheim 1973, 221.
78 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 179.
79 McDowell 1999, 35.
80 Kiple 1993; Scott 1999, 30–32.
81 Berlin 3027 C, 1/9–2/6; Ritner 1993, 207 and 231; Yamazaki 2003.
82 Lichtheim 1976, 138.
83 Nunn 1996, 194.
84 Examples include: Sixth Dynasty Elephantine (Raue et al. 2004, 5); First Intermediate Period to Middle Kingdom Lisht (Arnold 1996); Middle Kingdom Elephantine (Pilgrim 1996, 85–100, 174; New Kingdom Deir el-Medina (Meskell 1999, 158–59); and fourth century AD Qasr Ibrim (Meskell 1999, 159).
85 David 1986, 112.
86 Pinch 1994, 132.
87 Filer 1998.
88 Meskell 1999, 171.
89 Lichtheim 1980, 169.
90 Though see the Second Intermediate statuette of Princess Sobek-nakht suckling a prince, Brooklyn Museum 34.137, Romano 1996.
91 Roehrig 1990, 315.
92 Desroches-Noblecourt 1952; Brunner-Traut 1970.
93 Lilyquist 2005, 64.
94 Roehrig 2005.
95 Leclant 1961.
96 Green 1998.
97 Yamazaki 2003.
98 Ritner 2001, 332.
99 Lichtheim 1976, 141.
100 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 206–207.
101 Masali and Chiarelli 1972; Podzorski 1990; Bagnall and Frier 1994; Nunn 1996, 22.
102 Massali and Chiarelli 1972.
103 Bednarski 2000, contra Tyldesley 1994, 32.
104 Rose 2006.
105 Sweeney 2004.
106 Fischer 1959, 251.
107 Janssen and Janssen 1996, 23–24, fig. 10.
108 Sweeney 2004, 82–3.
109 Wildung 2001.
110 Arnold 1996, 30, 79.
111 Baines 1991, 144.
112 Janssen 2006.
113 Wente 1990, 36.
114 Janssen 2006, 7.
115 Sweeney 2006, 138–39.
116 Janssen 2006, 6.
117 It is possible that the term ḫзrt refers to a disadvantaged widow rather than to the average woman whose husband had died.
118 The widow is presumably gleaning.
119 Lichtheim 1976, II, 151, 161.
120 Robins 1993, 138–39.
121 Meskell 1999, 158.
122 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 132–33.
123 Janssen 2006, 7.
124 Ibid.
125 Roth 2000, 194–95.
1 Robins 1993, 96.
2 Meskell 2002, 110–121.
3 Assmann and Lorton 2005, 223–24.
4 Fischer 1989, 17; Fischer 2000, 21–2.
5 Sweeney 2006, 148.
6 Lichtheim 1973, 170.
7 McDowell 1999, 51–2; Koltsida 2007, 12.
8 Robins 1993, 97.
9 Ward 1989, 36–7.
10 Quirke 2007, 252.
11 Ward 1989, 37.
12 Ibid., 6–7.
13 Fischer 1989, 14; 2000, 19.
14 Robins 1989, 112.
15 Bryan 1996, 40; Richards 2005, 29.
16 Eyre 1987, 19, 38.
17 Eyre 1998, 184; Meskell 2002, 110.
18 Eyre 1998, 182–83.
19 Fischer 1989, 17.
20 Sweeney 2006, 143.
21 Though Roehrig (1996, 21) argues for the continued existence of the ground loom along with the vertical loom.
22 Sweeney 2006, 140, 142.
23 Lorenze 2009, 100.
24 Vogelsang-Eastwood 2001, 491.
25 Bowen 2006.
26 Pinch 1993, 103–134, 123–24.
27 Illustrated in Lesko 1987, 15.
28 Eyre 1998, 176, fig. 2.
29 Ibid., 182.
30 Eyre 1998, 186; Sweeney 2006, 152.
31 Eyre 1998.
32 McDowell 1999, 79–80.
33 Janssen 1975, 526.
34 Janssen 1975.
35 Janssen 1975, 534.
36 Wente 1990, 58–9.
37 Eyre 1998, 178.
38 Robins 1993, 104.
39 Karl 2000.
40 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 228–31.
41 Karl 2000, 132.
42 Fox 1985, 72.
43 WB II, 140.
44 Toivari-Viitala 2005, 151.
45 Fox 1985, 69.
46 Lichtheim 1980, 178.
47 Ibid., 176.
48 Ibid., 134.
49 Troy 1986, 92–4.
50 Blackman 1953, pl. 45; Fischer 2002, 9, fig. 8.
51 Fischer 1989, 11–12; Fischer 2000, 11–12.
52 Blackman 1924, 31, pl. 9, 10; Fischer 2000, 9 fig. 9.
53 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 150–51.
54 Nunn 1996, 24–25, fig. 6.5.
55 Fischer 2000, 27, 69 note 157.
56 Nunn 1996, 132.
57 Roehrig 1996, 17.
58 Ward 1986, 8.
59 Ibid., 3.
60 Robins 1989, 107.
61 Ward 1986, 8; Janssen and Janssen 1990, 17; Robins 1993, 89, 118.
62 Whale 1989 passim.
63 Ibid., 170.
64 McDowell 1999, 36.
65 Strouhal and Forman 1992, 23–4.
66 Capel 1996, 96, footnote 14.
67 Ward 1984.
68 Bryan 1996, 39.
69 Lesko 1991, 5.
70 Troy 1986, 179.
71 McDowell 1999, 169–70.
72 Ibid., 44–5.
73 Blackman 1921, 8.
74 Fischer 1989, 24; Gillam 1995, 213.
75 Ward 1986, 20–1, 34–5.
76 Ibid., 34.
77 Blackman 1921, 24.
78 Sabbahy 1997, 165.
79 Fischer 1989, 24.
80 Fischer 1989, 24.
81 Blackman 1921, 9.
82 Ibid., 10.
83 For an authoritative discussion on these women, see Ayad 2009.
84 For information on the institution, see Graefe 1981.
85 Robins 1993, 156.
86 Fischer 1989, 19; Ayad 2003, 14.
87 For example, Bryan 1996, 43.
88 Though see Dodson 2002, footnotes 9, 21 and 46, who questions whether or not Amenerdis II was ever a God’s Wife.
89 Teeter 1999.
90 Ayad 2003, 18.
91 Ibid., 14.
92 Ibid., 21.
93 Ayad 2003.
94 Dodson 2002 argues that it is possible that Amenerdis II never became a God’s Wife.
95 See Ayad 2009.
96 Rikala 2008.
97 Ayad 2003, 25.
98 Ibid., 22–3.
99 Robins 1999, 67–8.
100 Onstine 2005, 11–12.
101 Fischer 1989, 12.
102 Fischer 1989, 18.
103 Onstine 2005, 12.
104 Lesko 1987, 38.
105 Onstine 2005, 76.
106 Davies and Gardiner 1948, 15, pl. 12 upper right corner.
107 Duquesne 2008.
108 Ibid., 2008.
109 Onstine 2005, 37; DuQuesne 2008.
110 Naguib 1990.
111 Onstine 2005, 14.
112 Onstine 2005, 19.
113 Onstine 2005, 4.
114 Teeter 1999, 406.
115 Ibid., 406–407.
116 Nord 1975; Nord, 1981; Ward 1983, 71; Onstine 2005, 7–8.
117 Blackman 1921, 10, 15, 16.
118 Callender 1994, 8.
119 Ward 1983, 71.
120 Onstine 2005, 4.
121 Nord 1981, 141.
122 Nord 1981, 141.
123 Ibid., 142.
124 Roth 1992, 140–44.
125 Lichtheim 1973, 220.
126 Wente 1969, 88.
127 Teeter and Johnson 2009, 42.
128 Kinney 2008, 162.
129 Blackman 1924, 31, pl. 9, 10; Fischer 2000, 9, fig. 9.
130 Fischer 1989, 19–20; Fischer 2000, 26.
131 Eyre 1987, 37.
132 Robins 1993, 164; Sweeney 2006, 140.
133 Haring 1997, 459; Lesko 2002.
134 Meskell 1999, 127–28.
135 Robins 1993, 164; Meskell 2002, 190; Sweeney 2001, 46.
136 Whale 1989, 185.
137 Sweeney 2001, 29–30.
138 Sweeney 2001.
139 Sweeney 2001, 36.
140 Ibid., 48.
141 Fischer 2000, 25.
142 Blackman 1921, 28.
143 Diamond 2008.
144 Fischer 1989, 19; Fischer 2000, 26.
145 Tosi and Roccati 1972, 88.
146 Whale 1989 passim.
147 Onstine 2005, 11.
148 Nord 1981, 141–42.
149 Pinch 1993, 213.
150 Ibid., 279–81.
151 Gillam 1995, 233.
152 Blackman 1921, 14.
153 Onstine 2005, 11–12.
1 Foucault 1978.
2 Montserrat 1996, 19.
3 Meskell 2000, 253.
4 Parkinson 2008.
5 Ford 1945, 36.
6 Roth 2000.
7 Meskell and Joyce 2003, 119.
8 Roth 2000.
9 Strouhal and Forman 1992, 11–12.
10 Lichtheim 1976, 206.
11 Wente 1990, 149; Toivari-Viitala 2001, 161–62, 170.
12 Roth 2000, 190.
13 Dorman 1999, 96.
14 Roth 2002, 190.
15 Cooney 2008, 4.
16 Roth 2000, 189.
17 For general information on creation by the potter’s wheel, see Dorman 1999, 2002.
18 Sauneron 1962, 233–34; Dorman 1999, 96; Gillam 2005, 119–20.
19 Dorman 1999, 96.
20 Dorman 2002, 119.
21 Sethe 1926, 61; Jonckheere 1954; Kadish 1969.
22 Lichtheim 1976, 206.
23 For same sex relations in ancient Egypt, see Parkinson 1995, 2008; Montserrat 1996, 136–62; Toivari-Viitali 2001, 159–61; Wilfong 2002; Reeder 2008.
24 Recently discussed by Reeder 2008; Parkinson 2008; and Dowson 2008.
25 Lichtheim 1976, 214–23.
26 Parkinson 1995.
27 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 160.
28 Szpakowska 2007, 402.
29 Westendorf 1977; Hornung 1982, 171; Troy 1986, 15–17; Zandee 1992.
30 Faulkner 1969, 198.
31 Allen 1988, 28.
32 Pinch 1994, 24.
33 Pinch 1993, 243–45; Robins 1993, 153.
34 Troy 1986, 188.
35 Troy 1986, 21.
36 Tobin 1986, 11–12.
37 Troy (2002, 3) sees kingship as largely androgynous, while others, including myself, see it as largely masculine.
38 Quirke 2007, 257.
39 Montserrat 2000, 48.
40 Hornung 1999, 55.
41 Kozloff and Bryan 1992, 213–14, 217.
42 Roth 2000, 194.
43 Troy 1986; Darnell 1997.
44 Parkinson 2008.
45 Westendorf 1977, 134, fig. 2; Andrews and Faulkner 1989, 163, pl. 12; Bryan 1996, 35, fig.12.
46 Davies 1953, pl. 2, III.
47 For Mut as an androgynous creator, see Troy 1997.
48 Sauneron 1982, 36–7.
49 Baines 2001.
50 Ward 1972.
51 Bösse-Griffiths 1977; Ritner 2006, 206–7, fig. 3.
52 Roth 2007, 229.
53 Manniche 1987, 44.
54 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 146.
55 Ibid., 144–45.
56 Janák and Navrátilová 2008.
57 For example, see Derchain 1976.
58 For a warning against assuming encoded messages, see Eaton-Krauss and Graefe 1985, Chapter 3.
59 Simpson 1977 cited in Roth 2007, 229.
60 Parkinson 1999, 170.
61 Hare 1999, 137.
62 Vogelsang-Eastwood 1993.
63 For women’s hairstyles, see Robins 1999.
64 Meskell 2002, 158.
65 Meskell 2002, 159.
66 Derchain 1975.
67 Lichtheim 1976, 203–11; Graefe 1979; Manniche 1999, 129–30.
68 Aldred 1971, fig. 33, 35 and 48.
69 While some have seen the sistrum as erotic, Ayad (2009) sees this aspect as overplayed.
70 Mace and Winlock 1916, 18–19, 68–71.
71 Van Walsem 1997, 112.
72 Manniche 1999, 101.
73 Lilyquist 1979, 97.
74 Lilyquist 1979.
75 For further references, see Meskell 2002, 115, fig. 4.7 and Toivari Viitala 2001, 176, footnote 300.
76 Romano 1989.
77 For example, Keimer 1948, 101 –5.
78 Vandier d’Abbadie 1938, 31.
79 For example, Strouhal and Forman 1992, 89; Tyldesley 1994, 160.
80 Mifflin 1997.
81 Montserrat 1996, 76, 77.
82 Montserrat 1996, 76.
83 Strouhal and Forman 1992, 89.
84 Daressy 1893, 166.
85 Poon and Quickenden 2006, 124, fig. 2.
86 Ward 1983, 74; 1986, 111.
87 For photos, see Keimer 1948, pls. 6–9; Ikram and Dodson 1998, 115.
88 Winlock 1923, 26, 28, fig. 20.
89 Meskell 2002, 161; 2003, 58.
90 Naville 1907, 50, 55; 1913, 9, pl. 2.
91 Pinch 1993, 213.
92 Bianchi 2004, 64.
93 Derry 1935.
94 Pinch 1993, 198–99, 211; Keimer 1948, pls. 12–13, 17–19.
95 Pinch 1993, 199.
96 Ibid., 212–13.
97 Keimer 1948, pls. 15–17.
98 Keimer 1948, 31.
99 Keimer 1948, pl. 26.
100 Strouhal and Forman 1992, 89; Poon and Quickenden 2006, 127–28.
101 Firth 1927, 50; Keimer 1948, 16.
102 Poon and Quickenden 2006, 128.
103 Bianchi 2004.
104 Poon and Quickended 2006, 128.
105 Keimer 1948, figs. 1–5.
106 Petrie 1901, 24.
107 Rice 1958.
108 Montserrat 1996, 75.
109 Poon and Quickenden 2006, 128, fig. 3.
110 Robins 1993, fig. 83.
111 Meskell 2002, 116.
112 Meskell 1999, 102–3; 2002, 115.
113 Bruyère 1934–35, 62.
114 Meskell 2002, 114.
115 Kemp 1979, 53.
116 See Koltsida (2006; 2007, 23–4) for the variety of views.
117 Toivari-Viitala 2001, 155.
118 Teeter et al. 2009, 43.
119 Papyrus Berlin 3033; Lichtheim 1975, 215–17.
120 Derchain 1975, 74.
121 See Parkinson 2008.
122 Parkinson 1995, 63.
123 Foster 1974, 56; Fox 1985, 74.
124 Fox 1985, 234–36; Foster 1995, 162.
125 Manniche 1991, 98; Simpson, 1972, 297.
126 Fox 1985, 305–6.
127 Ibid., 306.
128 Foster 1974, 20.
129 Ibid., 25.
130 Mathieu 1996, 152.
131 McCarthy 2008, 91.
132 Roth 2000.
133 Roth 1999a, 38.
134 Ibid., 39.
135 Roth 1999.
136 As suggested by Bryan 1996; McCarthy 2002; Robins 1988 and 1989; Roth 1999.
137 As suggested by Desroches-Noblecourt 1953 and Westendorf 1967.
138 Roth 1992, 2000, 198.
139 Roth 1992, 1993.
140 For arguments against this claim, see Quack 2006.
141 Ritner 2006, 212.
142 Roth and Roehrig 2002.
143 Faulkner and Goelet 1994, 104.
144 Cooney 2008.
145 Roth 2000, 199.
146 Cooney 2008, 6–7.
147 Bryan 1996, 35.
148 McCarthy 2008, 91–2.
149 Cooney 2008, 11–120.
150 Cooney 2008, 16.
151 Riggs 2005, 41–94.
152 Papyrus Chester Beatty I, Recto; Lichtheim 1976, 214–23.
153 Morris 2007.
1 Routledge 2008.
2 Troy 2002, 203.
3 Troy 1986, 120.
4 Troy 1986, 126–29; Robins 1993, 24.
5 Roth 2005, 9, footnote 6.
6 Troy 1986, 64–5; Gillam 1995, 248.
7 Redford 2002, 59.
8 Bryan 2008.
9 Troy 1986, 65, 136, 166.
10 Hawass 1995, 232–37.
11 Gillam 1995, 211–14, 233–34.
12 Ibid., 217, 234.
13 Derchain 1969.
14 Troy 1986, 61ff.
15 Wente 1969, 90.
16 O’Connor 1999.
17 Described in Rikala 2008.
18 Robins 1993, 98–9.
19 Robins 2002, 27.
20 Mertz 1952.
21 Robin 1983.
22 Robins 2002, 28.
23 Callender 1994, 17.
24 Dodson and Hilton 2004, 166.
25 Ward 1989, 41–2.
26 Ward 1986, 102–14.
27 Gillam 1982, 232.
28 Naville 1910, pl. 18A and pl. 11, respectively.
29 Callender 1994, 14, fig. 2.
30 Sabbahy 1997.
31 Allam 1963, 92–3.
32 Sabbahy 1997, 165.
33 Callender 1994, 11.
34 Nord 1975.
35 Lorton 1974.
36 Ward 1983.
37 Callender 1994, 9.
38 Ward 1983, 69–70.
39 Callender 1994, 10.
40 Lorton 1974.
41 Callender 1994, 10.
42 Haslauer 2001, 77.
43 Callender 1994, 20–2, fig. 4.
44 Discussed in Lilyquist 2008.
45 Robins, 1993, 39.
46 Callender 1994, 11.
47 Haslauer 2001, 77.
48 Ibid., 78.
49 Badawy 1966, fig. 5.
50 Spence 1999.
51 Wente 1990, 36.
52 Barber 1991, 64–5, 351–52.
53 Thomas 1981, 6.
54 Kemp 1978.
55 Dodson and Hilton 2004, 164.
56 Xekalaki 2007.
57 Meier 2000.
58 Robins 1993, 35.
59 Ibid., 34.
60 The tomb and contents has most recently been described by Lilyquist 2003.
61 Meier 2000.
62 Redford 2002, 57–8.
63 Schulman 1979, 180, footnote 13.
64 Spence 2007, 301.
65 Gillam 1995, 225.
66 Robins 1993, 39.
67 Lichtheim 1973, 137.
68 Redford 2002.
69 For an alternative translation, see Goedicke 1963.
70 Haslauer 2001, 80.
71 It is arguable as to whether or not Nefertiti ruled as queen in her own right after the death of her husband.
72 Bryan 1996, 29.
73 Tyldesley 2006, 74.
74 Bryan 1996, 30.
75 Ibid., 30, pl. 7.
76 Routledge 2008, 164.
77 Tyldesly 2006, 84.
78 Bryan 1996, 31.
79 See Gitton 1975 for more information on her.
80 Bryan 2000, 228–29.
81 Ibid., 229.
82 Russmann 2005, 29–30
83 Bierbrier 1995.
84 O’Connor 2006, 23.
85 Dorman 2006, 41.
86 Tyldesley 2006, 94.
87 Roth 2005, 13, 10, footnotes 9 and 10.
88 For the titles of these women, see Troy 1986.
89 Bryan 1996, 29–30; Tyldesley 2006, 52, 75.
90 This idea was put forward by Naville in 1906 (Davis et al. 1906, 74.) and is suggested by Dorman (2006, 58).
91 Roth 2005, 13.
92 Davies 2004.
93 Dorman 2005, 88; 2006.
94 Rikala 2008.
95 Blackman 1921, 17.
96 Robins 1993, 50.
97 Dorman (1988), however, largely discounts any romantic relationship between Hatshepsut and Senenmut.
98 For example, Tydesley 2006, 190.
99 Romer 1982, 156–59.
100 Dorman 1988, 166.
101 Bryan 1996, 33.
102 Davies 2005, 52–3.
103 Habachi 1957, 99–104; Gasse and Rondot 2003, 41–43, fig. 3.
104 Translation by Habachi 1957, 99.
105 Tyldesly 2006, 100.
106 Donohue 1992; Graves-Brown 2006.
107 See also Roberts 1995, 42–7, 118–28 for the link between Hatshepsut and Hathor.
108 Dorman 2005b, 269.
109 Robins 1999.
110 Bryan 1996.
111 Bryan 1996, 34.
112 Laboury 2006.
113 Roth 1999.
114 Tyldesley 2006, 133.
115 Green 1998, 483.
116 Ashton 2008, 57.
117 Ashton 2008, 132.
118 Ashton 2008, 1.
119 Ashton 2008.
120 Roth 2005, 12.
1 Quirke 1992, 26.
2 Billing 2002, 310.
3 Asher-Greve and Sweeney, 145
4 Roth 2000.
5 Frankfort et al.1933, I, 83.
6 For the latter, see Redford and Redford 1989, fig. 63.
7 Capel et al. 1996, 132.
8 Wilkinson 1999, 291.
9 Sayed 1982, 23–4; Lesko 1999, 46.
10 Troy 1986, 17.
11 Ibid., 18.
12 Hornung 1963, I Text, 188.
13 See also Sayed (1982, I, 16 and 58–60) for both hieroglyphic rendering and discussion of the bisexual nature of Neith as creator/creatoress.
14 Brunner Traut 1956.
15 Lichtheim 1980, 116–21.
16 Gillam 1995, 231.
17 Ibid., 216.
18 Assmann 2001, 155.
19 Lewis 1989.
20 The following Egyptologists have explored aspects of evidence for a mystic or ecstatic religion in Pharaonic Egypt, expressed and practised by men, as well as women: Federn 1960; Wente 1982; Roberts 1995 and 2000; Naydler 2005.
21 Gillam 1995, 226.
22 Szpakowska 2003, 135–41.
23 Bleeker 1973, 38–42.
24 Pinch 1993, 213.
25 Bleeker 1973, 54.
26 Daumas 1968, 15.
27 Kinney 2008, 164–67.
28 Lilyquist 1979.
29 Ibid., 99.
30 Lichtheim 1973, 168.
31 Tylor et al. 1895.
32 Roberts 1995, 13.
1 Herodotus is often quoted, as we have seen: ‘The Egyptians in their manners and customs, seem to have reversed the ordinary practices of mankind.’
2 Graves-Brown 2008, xvi–xvii.
3 Mertz 1952.
4 Robins 1983.
5 Onstine 2005, 8.