Notes

PREFACE

1W. M. Thackeray, The Paris Sketch Book, London: Collins’ Clear-Type Press, 1840, p. 369.

2Peter Burke, The Fabrication of Louis XIV, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.

3See, for instance, the discussion in the exemplary work of Lisa Wedeen, Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbolism in Contemporary Syria, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999; see also Yves Cohen, ‘The Cult of Number One in an Age of Leaders’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, vol. 8, no. 3 (Summer 2007), pp. 597–634.

4Andrew J. Nathan, ‘Foreword’ in Li Zhisui, The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Mao’s Personal Physician, New York: Random House, 1994, p. x.

5Ian Kershaw, The ‘Hitler Myth’: Image and Reality in the Third Reich, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

6Stephen F. Cohen, Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985, p. 101.

7Paul Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Western Intellectuals in Search of the Good Society, London: Routledge, 2017; Paul Hollander, From Benito Mussolini to Hugo Chavez: Intellectuals and a Century of Political Hero Worship, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017.

8Henri Locard, Pol Pot’s Little Red Book: The Sayings of Angkar, Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 2004, p. 99.

CHAPTER 1 MUSSOLINI

1Aristotle Kallis, The Third Rome, 1922–43: The Making of the Fascist Capital, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, p. 245.

2Christopher Duggan, ‘The Internalisation of the Cult of the Duce: The Evidence of Diaries and Letters’ in Stephen Gundle, Christopher Duggan and Giuliana Pieri (eds), The Cult of the Duce: Mussolini and the Italians, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013, p. 130.

3ACS, SPD, CO, b. 2762, f. 509819.

4ACS, SPD, b. 386, f. 142471, 29 April 1933, b. 386, f. 142484, 6 June 1933; b. 2773, Dec. 1938.

5Herman Finer, Mussolini’s Italy, New York: Holt and Co., 1935, p. 298.

6Denis Mack Smith, ‘Mussolini, Artist in Propaganda: The Downfall of Fascism’, History Today, 9 no. 4 (April 1959), p. 224.

7Peter Neville, Mussolini, Abingdon: Routledge, 2015, p. 46.

8Ivone Kirkpatrick, Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue, New York: Hawthorn Books, 1964, p. 89; Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1981, p. 39.

9Emilio Gentile quoted in Lucy Hughes-Hallett, Gabriele d’Annunzio: Poet, Seducer, and Preacher of War, London: 4th Estate, 2013, loc. 179.

10Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, pp. 98–9.

11Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 54.

12Ibid., pp. 54–5; Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 151; The Times, 28 October 1929, p. 14.

13Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 156; George Slocombe, The Tumult and the Shouting, Kingswood: Windmill Press, 1936, p. 148.

14Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 176.

15Ibid., pp. 107 and 200–202.

16Quinto Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, Milan: Longanesi, 1972, pp. 17–18; Dino Biondi, La fabbrica del Duce, Florence: Vallecchi, 1967, p. 96.

17Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, p. 173.

18Guido Bonsaver, Censorship and Literature in Fascist Italy, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007, pp. 19–20.

19Mussolini’s speech to the Chamber, 3 January 1925, Patrick G. Zander, The Rise of Fascism: History, Documents, and Key Questions, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2016, p. 140.

20Bonsaver, Censorship and Literature in Fascist Italy, pp. 20–21; Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 87.

21William Bolitho, Italy under Mussolini, New York: Macmillan, 1926, p. 107; Mussolini’s quotation about the state is famous, and appeared for the first time in ‘Per la medaglia dei benemeriti del comune di Milano’, 28 October 1925, Benito Mussolini, Opera Omnia, Florence: La Fenice, 1956, vol. 21, p. 425.

22Bolitho, Italy under Mussolini, p. 107.

23Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 244; Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 102.

24ACS, SPD, Carteggio Ordinario, b. 234, f. 2795, pp. 19731–6, May 1923; Lorenzo Santoro, Roberto Farinacci e il Partito Nazionale Fascista 1923–1926, Soveria Mannelli: Rubbettino, 2008, pp. 197–8.

25Mack Smith, Mussolini, pp. 102–3; Mario Rivoire, Vita e morte del fascismo, Milan: Edizioni Europee, 1947, p. 107.

26Augusto Turati, Una rivoluzione e un capo, Rome: Libreria del Littorio, 1927, pp. 35 and 143; Partito Nazionale Fascista, Le origini e lo sviluppo del fascismo, attraverso gli scritti e la parola del Duce e le deliberazioni del P.N.F. dall’intervento alla marcia su Roma, Rome: Libreria del Littorio, 1928, p. xiii.

27Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, pp. 197–9.

28Percy Winner, ‘Mussolini: A Character Study’, Current History, 28, no. 4 (July 1928), p. 526; Bolitho, Italy under Mussolini, p. 62; Slocombe, The Tumult and the Shouting, p. 149.

29Camillo Berneri, Mussolini grande attore, Pistoia: Edizioni dell’Archivio Famiglia Berneri, 1st edn 1934, second edn 1983, pp. 25–6; Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 124.

30William Sloane Kennedy, Italy in Chains, West Yarmouth, MA: Stonecraft Press, 1927, p. 18; Henri Béraud, Ce que j’ai vu à Rome, Paris: Les Editions de France, 1929, p. 38; Rivoire, Vita e morte del fascismo, p. 99.

31Adrian Lyttelton, The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2nd edn, 1987, p. 401.

32Béraud, Ce que j’ai vu à Rome, pp. 37–42; on the image of Mussolini, see also Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.

33Margherita Sarfatti, The Life of Benito Mussolini, London: Butterworth, 1925, pp. 29–30, 44 and 230.

34Berneri, Mussolini grande attore, pp. 26–8; Vincenzo de Gaetano, Il libro dell’Avanguardista, Catania: Società Tip. Editrice Siciliana, 1927, pp. 45–6; also Sckem Gremigni, Duce d’Italia, Milano, Istituto di Propaganda d’Arte e Cultura, 1927.

35Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, pp. 110–12, 124–5 and 135; Emil Ludwig, Talks with Mussolini, Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1933, p. 80; Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 159.

36Winner, ‘Mussolini: A Character Study’, p. 525.

37René Benjamin, Mussolini et son peuple, Paris: Librairie Plon, 1937, p. 235; Maurice Bedel, Fascisme An VII, Paris: Gallimard, 1929, pp. 18–19; Berneri, Mussolini grande attore, p. 43.

38Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, p. 161; Romain Hayes, Subhas Chandra Bose in Nazi Germany: Politics, Intelligence and Propaganda, 1941–1943, London, Hurst, 2011, pp. 9–10; Robert Blake and Wm Roger Louis (eds), Churchill, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002, p. 258; Edwin P. Hoyt, Mussolini’s Empire: The Rise and Fall of the Fascist Vision, New York: Wiley, 1994, p. 115; see also John Patrick Diggins, Mussolini and Fascism: The View from America, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972; David F. Schmitz, The United States and Fascist Italy, 1922–1940, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1988.

39Roberto Festorazzi, Starace. Il mastino della rivoluzione fascista, Milan: Ugo Mursia, 2002, p. 71.

40Piero Melograni, ‘The Cult of the Duce in Mussolini’s Italy’, Journal of Contemporary History, 11, no. 4 (Oct. 1976), pp. 221–4; see also Winner, ‘Mussolini: A Character Study’, p. 518.

41Berneri, Mussolini grande attore, p. 54; Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 161.

42Tracy H. Koon, Believe, Obey, Fight: Political Socialization of Youth in Fascist Italy, 1922–1943, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1985, pp. 111–12; Mack Smith, Mussolini, pp. 175–6; G. Franco Romagnoli, The Bicycle Runner: A Memoir of Love, Loyalty, and the Italian Resistance, New York: St Martin’s Press, 2009, p. 48.

43A list of subsidised newspapers appears in ACS, MCP, Reports, b. 7, f. 73; the mottos are in ACS, MCP, Gabinetto, b. 44, f. 259, ‘Motti del Duce’; on the flow of information between Ciano and Goebbels see Wenke Nitz, Führer und Duce: Politische Machtinszenierungen im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland und im faschistischen Italien, Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2013, p. 112.

44Bonsaver, Censorship and Literature in Fascist Italy, pp. 61 and 124; Giovanni Sedita estimates that 632 million lire were used to subsidise both newspapers and individuals; Giovanni Sedita, Gli intellettuali di Mussolini: La cultura finanziata dal fascismo, Florence: Casa Editrice Le Lettere, 2010, p. 17; Asvero Gravelli, Uno e Molti: Interpretazioni spirituali di Mussolini, Rome: Nuova Europa, 1938, pp. 29 and 31; the subsidy received by the author is listed in an appendix published in Sedita, Gli intellettuali di Mussolini, p. 202.

45Philip Cannistraro, La fabbrica del consenso: Fascismo e mass media, Bari: Laterza, 1975, pp. 228–41.

46Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, pp. 114–15.

47Franco Ciarlantini, De Mussolini onzer verbeelding, Amsterdam: De Amsterdamsche Keurkamer, 1934, p. 145.

48Paul Baxa, ‘“Il nostro Duce”: Mussolini’s Visit to Trieste in 1938 and the Workings of the Cult of the Duce’, Modern Italy, 18, no. 2 (May 2013), pp. 121–6; Frank Iezzi, ‘Benito Mussolini, Crowd Psychologist’, Quarterly Journal of Speech, 45, no. 2 (April 1959), p. 167.

49Iezzi, ‘Benito Mussolini, Crowd Psychologist’, pp. 167–9.

50Stephen Gundle, ‘Mussolini’s Appearances in the Regions’ in Gundle, Duggan and Pieri (eds), The Cult of the Duce, pp. 115–17.

51Koon, Believe, Obey, Fight, p. 30; Dino Alfieri and Luigi Freddi (eds), Mostra della Rivoluzione Fascista, Rome: National Fascist Party, 1933, p. 9; Dino Alfieri, Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution: 1st Decennial of the March on Rome, Bergamo: Istituto Italiano d’Arti Grafiche, 1933.

52Edoardo Bedeschi, La giovinezza del Duce: Libro per la gioventù italiana, 2nd edn, Turin: Società Editrice Internazionale, 1940, p. 122; August Bernhard Hasler, ‘Das Duce-Bild in der faschistischen Literatur’, Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken, vol. 60, 1980, p. 497; Sofia Serenelli, ‘A Town for the Cult of the Duce: Predappio as a Site of Pilgrimage’ in Gundle, Duggan and Pieri (eds), The Cult of the Duce, pp. 95 and 101–2.

53ACS, SPD CO, b. 869, f. 500027/IV, ‘Omaggi mandati a V.T.’.

54Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 170; many of the fasces can still be found today; see Max Page, Why Preservation Matters, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016, pp. 137–8; Ludwig, Talks with Mussolini, p. 121.

55Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 136; Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, pp. 275–6; see also Eugene Pooley, ‘Mussolini and the City of Rome’ in Gundle, Duggan and Pieri (eds), The Cult of the Duce, pp. 209–24.

56Michael Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015, p. 309; Dominik J. Schaller, ‘Genocide and Mass Violence in the “Heart of Darkness”: Africa in the Colonial Period’ in Donald Bloxham and A. Dirk Moses, The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 358; see also Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 171.

57Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, pp. 288–9.

58Jean Ajalbert, L’Italie en silence et Rome sans amour, Paris: Albin Michel, 1935, pp. 227–8.

59Mack Smith, Mussolini, pp. 190 and 197.

60Ruth Ben-Ghiat, Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922–1945, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001, p. 216; Ian Campbell, The Addis Ababa Massacre: Italy’s National Shame, London: Hurst, 2017; the incident with Graziani is recounted in Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, p. 202.

61To give but one example, the journalist Henry Soullier received thousands of Swiss francs to visit Addis Ababa; ACS, MCP, Gabinetto, b. 10.

62Romagnoli, The Bicycle Runner, p. 48; ACS, SPD, Carteggio Ordinario, b. 386, f. 142470, 23 Aug. 1936.

63Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, pp. 331–2.

64Santi Corvaja, Hitler and Mussolini: The Secret Meetings, New York: Enigma Books, 2008, pp. 27–8; Alfred Rosenberg, Das politische Tagebuch Alfred Rosenbergs aus den Jahren 1934/35 und 1939/40: Nach der photographischen Wiedergabe der Handschrift aus den Nürnberger Akten, Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1964, p. 28.

65Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, pp. 350–54.

66Galeazzo Ciano, The Ciano Diaries, 1939–1943, Safety Harbor, FL: Simon Publications, 2001, pp. 43–4 and 53.

67Mack Smith, Mussolini, pp. 230 and 249.

68Ciano, The Ciano Diaries, 1939–1943, p. 138.

69Ibid., p. 223, see also p. 222; Mack Smith, Mussolini, pp. 237 and 240–43.

70Renzo de Felice, Mussolini il Fascista, vol. 1, La conquista del potere, 1921–1925, Turin: Giulio Einaudi, 1966, p. 470; on his isolation see Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, pp. 45–6, and Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 167.

71Navarra, Memorie del cameriere di Mussolini, pp. 140 and 203; Ciano, The Ciano Diaries, 1939–1943, pp. 18–19.

72Mack Smith, Mussolini, pp. 240–47.

73Melograni, ‘The Cult of the Duce in Mussolini’s Italy’, p. 221.

74Duggan, ‘The Internalisation of the Cult of the Duce’, pp. 132–3.

75Emilio Gentile, The Sacralisation of Politics in Fascist Italy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 151–2.

76Emilio Lussu, Enter Mussolini: Observations and Adventures of an Anti-Fascist, London: Methuen & Co., 1936, p. 169; Romagnoli, The Bicycle Runner, p. 67.

77Christopher Duggan, Fascist Voices: An Intimate History of Mussolini’s Italy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 177 and 257–8; Ajalbert, L’Italie en silence et Rome sans amour, p. 231; Paul Corner, The Fascist Party and Popular Opinion in Mussolini’s Italy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 200 and 250.

78Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 239.

79Ciano, The Ciano Diaries, 1939–1943, p. 264.

80ACS, MCP, Gabinetto, b. 43, pp. 39 ff, 20 Nov. 1940, Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 260; ACS, MCP, Gabinetto, b. 44, f. 258, p. 29 on fighting clandestine radio.

81Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, pp. 494–5; Ciano, The Ciano Diaries, 1939–1943, p. 583.

82Kirkpatrick, Mussolini, p. 515.

83Winner, ‘Mussolini: A Character Study’, p. 526; ACS, MCP, Gabinetto, b. 44, f. 258, 12 March 1943, p. 5.

84Angelo M. Imbriani, Gli italiani e il Duce: Il mito e l’immagine di Mussolini negli ultimi anni del fascismo (1938–1943), Naples: Liguori, 1992, pp. 171–6.

85Robert A. Ventresca, Soldier of Christ: The Life of Pope Pius XII, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013, p. 192.

86Imbriani, Gli italiani e il Duce, pp. 184–5.

87Mack Smith, Mussolini, p. 298.

88Gentile, The Sacralisation of Politics in Fascist Italy, p. 152; Italo Calvino, ‘Il Duce’s Portraits’, New Yorker, 6 Jan. 2003, p. 34; John Foot, Italy’s Divided Memory, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, p. 67.

89Ray Moseley, Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce, Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2004, p. 2.

90Romagnoli, The Bicycle Runner, p. 259.

CHAPTER 2 HITLER

1H. R. Trevor-Roper (ed.), Hitler’s Table Talk 1941–1944, New York: Enigma Books, 2000, p. 10.

2Margarete Plewnia, Auf dem Weg zu Hitler: Der ‘völkische’ Publizist Dietrich Eckart, Bremen: Schünemann Universitätsverlag, 1970, p. 84.

3Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, Munich: Franz Eher Verlag, 1943, p. 235.

4Ernst Hanfstaengl, Unheard Witness, Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1957, pp. 34–7; size of the audience in Volker Ullrich, Hitler: Ascent 1889–1939, New York: Alfred Knopf, 2016, p. 95.

5Plewnia, Auf dem Weg zu Hitler, pp. 69 and 84–90.

6Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889–1936: Hubris, London: Allen Lane, 1998, pp. 162–3; Plewnia, Auf dem Weg zu Hitler, p. 81.

7Georg Franz-Willing, Die Hitlerbewegung. Der Ursprung, 1919–1922, Hamburg: R.v. Decker’s Verlag G. Schenck, 1962, 2nd edn 1972, pp. 124–8 and 218–19.

8Hanfstaengl, Unheard Witness, p. 70; Rudolf Herz, Hoffmann & Hitler: Fotografie als Medium des Führer Mythos, Munich: Klinkhardt and Biermann, 1994, pp. 92–3 and 99.

9Plewnia, Auf dem Weg zu Hitler, p. 90; Ullrich, Hitler, p. 113; Ludolf Herbst, Hitlers Charisma. Die Erfindung eines deutschen Messias, Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer Verlag, 2010, pp. 147–9.

10Hanfstaengl, Hitler, p. 86.

11William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, New York: Simon & Schuster, 50th anniversary reissue, 2011, pp. 75–6.

12Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 116; the term Traumlaller appears in Georg Schott, Das Volksbuch vom Hitler, Munich: Herrmann Wiechmann, 1924 and 1938, p. 10.

13Ullrich, Hitler, p. 189.

14Heinrich Hoffmann, Hitler Was My Friend: The Memoirs of Hitler’s Photographer, London: Burke, 1955, pp. 60–61.

15Claudia Schmölders, Hitler’s Face: The Biography of an Image, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009, p. 87; Herz, Hoffmann & Hitler, pp. 162–9.

16Hoffmann, Hitler Was My Friend, pp. 61–3.

17Ullrich, Hitler, pp. 199–202.

18Joseph Goebbels, Tagebücher 1924–1945, edited by Ralf Georg Reuth, Munich: Piper Verlag, 1992, vol. 1, p. 200; Ullrich, Hitler, p. 208.

19Ullrich, Hitler, p. 217.

20Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 96; Joseph Goebbels, Die zweite Revolution: Briefe an Zeitgenossen, Zwickau: Streiter-Verlag, 1928, pp. 5–8; ‘Der Führer’, 22 April 1929, reproduced in Joseph Goebbels, Der Angriff, Munich: Franz Eher Verlag, 1935, pp. 214–16; see also Ernest K. Bramsted, Goebbels and National Socialist Propaganda 1925–1945, East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1965, pp. 195–201.

21Ullrich, Hitler, pp. 222–3.

22Herbst, Hitlers Charisma, p. 215; The Times, 10 June 1931, p. 17; Richard Bessel, ‘The Rise of the NSDAP and the Myth of Nazi Propaganda’, Wiener Library Bulletin, 33, 1980, pp. 20–29.

23Ullrich, Hitler, pp. 281–2.

24Heinrich Hoffmann, Hitler wie ihn keiner kennt, Munich: Heinrich Hoffmann, 1935 (1st edn 1932); see also Herz, Hoffmann & Hitler, pp. 245–8.

25Bramsted, Goebbels and National Socialist Propaganda, pp. 202–4; Emil Ludwig, Three Portraits: Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1940, p. 27.

26Gerhard Paul, Aufstand der Bilder. Die NS-Propaganda vor 1933, Bonn: Dietz, 1990, pp. 204–7.

27Ullrich, Hitler, pp. 330–31.

28Richard J. Evans, ‘Coercion and Consent in Nazi Germany’, Proceedings of the British Academy, 151, 2006, pp. 53–81.

29Ibid.

30BArch, R43II/979, 31 March, 2 and 10 April 1933.

31BArch, R43II/979, 18 Feb., 7, 8, 11 March 1933; R43II/976, 7 April and 3 July 1933.

32BArch, NS6/215, p. 16, Circular by Martin Bormann, 6 Oct. 1933.

33Konrad Repgen and Hans Booms, Akten der Reichskanzlei: Regierung Hitler 1933–1938, Boppard: Harald Boldt Verlag, 1983, part 1, vol. 1, p. 467; BArch, R43II/959, 5 and 13 April 1933, 29 Aug. 1933, pp. 25–6 and 48.

34Richard Bessel, ‘Charismatisches Führertum? Hitlers Image in der deutschen Bevölkerung’ in Martin Loiperdinger, Rudolf Herz and Ulrich Pohlmann (eds), Führerbilder: Hitler, Mussolini, Roosevelt, Stalin in Fotografie und Film, Munich: Piper, 1995, pp. 16–17.

35Ullrich, Hitler, p. 474.

36Deutschland-Berichte der Sozaldemokratischen Partei Deutschlands (Sopade) 1934–1940, Salzhausen: Verlag Petra Nettelbeck, 1980, vol. 1, 1934, pp. 275–7; see also John Brown, I Saw for Myself, London: Selwyn and Blount, 1935, p. 35.

37Victor Klemperer, I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years 1933–1941, New York: The Modern Library, 1999, p. 82.

38The speech can be found in Rudolf Hess, ‘Der Eid auf Adolf Hitler’, Reden, Munich: Franz Eher Verlag, 1938, pp. 9–14, and reactions to it in Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1934, pp. 470–72.

39Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 387.

40BArch, NS22/425, 30 Aug. 1934, p. 149; two weeks later, after it was reported that some of the portraits were being destroyed, a new circular allowed images of other leaders provided that Hitler’s portrait prevailed in proportion and size; see p. 148, 14 Sept. 1934; on slogans in the 1935 rally see Louis Bertrand, Hitler, Paris: Arthème Fayard, 1936, p. 45.

41Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1934, pp. 10–11, 471–2, 482 and 730–31.

42Joseph Goebbels, ‘Unser Hitler!’ Signale der neuen Zeit. 25 ausgewählte Reden von Dr. Joseph Goebbels, Munich: NSDAP, 1934, pp. 141–9; see also Bramsted, Goebbels and National Socialist Propaganda 1925–1945, pp. 204–5.

43Bernd Sösemann, ‘Die Macht der allgegenwärtigen Suggestion. Die Wochensprüche der NSDAP als Propagandamittel’, Jahrbuch 1989, Berlin: Berliner Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, 1990, pp. 227–48; Victor Klemperer, To the Bitter End: The Diaries of Victor Klemperer 1942–1945, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999, p. 106.

44Wolfgang Schneider, Alltag unter Hitler, Berlin: Rowohlt Berlin Verlag, 2000, p. 83; BArch, R58/542, p. 30, Frankfurter Zeitung, 25 Aug. 1938; p. 32, Berliner Börsen Zeitung, 7 Sept. 1938; p. 38, Völkischer Beobachter, 6 Nov. 1938.

45Othmar Plöckinger, Geschichte eines Buches. Adolf Hitlers “Mein Kampf” 1922–1945, Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2006, pp. 414–15; BArch, R4901/4370, 6 Feb. and 5 April 1937.

46Ansgar Diller, Rundfunkpolitik im Dritten Reich, Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1980, pp. 62–3.

47Goebbels, Tagebücher 1924–1945, p. 772.

48On the numbers and cost of radio sets, see Wolfgang König, ‘Der Volksempfänger und die Radioindustrie. Ein Beitrag zum Verhältnis von Wirtschaft und Politik im Nationalsozialismus’ in Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 90, no. 3 (2003), p. 273; Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1934, pp. 275–7; 1936, p. 414; 1938, p. 1326; Klemperer, I Will Bear Witness, p. 155.

49Stephan Dolezel and Martin Loiperdinger, ‘Hitler in Parteitagsfilm und Wochenschau’ in Loiperdinger, Herz and Pohlmann, Führerbilder, p. 81.

50On mobile cinemas, see Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, London: Penguin Books, 2006, p. 210.

51Hoffmann, Hitler Was My Friend, p. 70; Herz, Hoffmann & Hitler, p. 244.

52Ines Schlenker, Hitler’s Salon: The Große Deutsche Kunstausstellung at the Haus der Deutschen Kunst in Munich 1937–1944, Bern: Peter Lang AG, 2007, p. 136.

53A. W. Kersbergen, Onderwijs en nationaalsocialisme, Assen: Van Gorcum, 1938, p. 21.

54Annemarie Stiehler, Die Geschichte von Adolf Hitler den deutschen Kindern erzählt, Berlin-Lichterfelde: Verlag des Hauslehrers, 1936, p. 95; Kersbergen, Onderwijs en nationaalsocialisme, p. 22.

55Paul Jennrich, Unser Hitler. Ein Jugend- und Volksbuch, Halle (Saale), Pädagogischer Verlag Hermann Schroedel, 1933, p. 75; Linda Jacobs Altman, Shattered Youth in Nazi Germany: Primary Sources from the Holocaust, Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2010, p. 95.

56Rudolf Hoke and Ilse Reiter (eds), Quellensammlung zur österreichischen und deutschen Rechtsgeschichte, Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 1993, p. 544.

57Despina Stratigakos, Hitler at Home, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015, pp. 24–46.

58Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich, New York: Macmillan, 1970, p. 103; Christa Schroeder, Er war mein Chef: Aus dem Nachlaß der Sekretärin von Adolf Hitler, Munich: Langen Müller, 1985, p. 71.

59Stratigakos, Hitler at Home, p. 59.

60Ibid., p. 84.

61Kristin Semmens, Seeing Hitler’s Germany: Tourism in the Third Reich, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, pp. 56–68; BArch, R43II/957a, 10 Oct. 1938, pp. 40–41.

62Ulrich Chaussy and Christoph Püschner, Nachbar Hitler. Führerkult und Heimatzerstörung am Obersalzberg, Berlin: Christoph Links Verlag, 2007, pp. 141–2; David Lloyd George, ‘I Talked to Hitler’ in Anson Rabinbach and Sander L. Gilman (eds), The Third Reich Sourcebook, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2013, p. 77–8.

63Chaussy and Püschner, Nachbar Hitler, p. 142.

64Andrew Nagorski, Hitlerland: American Eyewitnesses to the Nazi Rise to Power, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012, pp. 84–6.

65Kershaw, Hubris, p. 590; Max Domarus, Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945, Leonberg: Pamminger, 1988, p. 606.

66Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1936, pp. 68–70; W. E. B. Du Bois, ‘What of the Color-Line?’ in Oliver Lubrich (ed.), Travels in the Reich, 1933–1945: Foreign Authors Report from Germany, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 143.

67Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1936, pp. 68–70, 141, 409, 414 and 419; Domarus, Hitler, p. 643.

68William L. Shirer, Berlin Diary, New York: Alfred Knopf, 1942, p. 86.

69Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1937, pp. 139–40, 143–6, 603, 606, 1224 and 1531.

70Ibid., pp. 1528 and 1531.

71Ullrich, Hitler, p. 736; Kershaw, Hitler: Nemesis, pp. 110–12.

72Klemperer, I Will Bear Witness, p. 29; Goebbels, ‘Geburtstag des Führers’, 19 April 1939, Die Zeit ohne Beispiel, Munich: Franz Eher Verlag, 1942, p. 102; The Times, 20 April 1939.

73‘Aggrandizer’s Anniversary’, Time magazine, 1 May 1939; Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 149.

74‘Aggrandizer’s Anniversary’, Time magazine, 1 May 1939.

75Roger Moorhouse, ‘Germania: Hitler’s Dream Capital’, History Today, 62, issue 3 (March 2012); Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 69.

76Goebbels, Tagebücher 1924–1945, pp. 1319–20; Sebastian Haffner, The Meaning of Hitler, London: Phoenix Press, 1979, p. 34; Kershaw, Hitler: Nemesis, p. 184.

77Klemperer, I Will Bear Witness, p. 305; Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1938, pp. 406–7; Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 148.

78Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1939, p. 450; BArch, R43II/963, 15 Feb. 1939, p. 56.

79Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1938, pp. 1056–7.

80Deutschland-Berichte der Sopade, 1939, p. 442.

81Evans, The Third Reich in Power, p. 704.

82Shirer, Berlin Diary, p. 201; Hoffman, Hitler Was My Friend, p. 115.

83Hoffman, Hitler Was My Friend, p. 115.

84Shirer, Berlin Diary, p. 205; Klemperer, I Will Bear Witness, p. 315; C. W. Guillebaud, ‘How Germany Finances The War’, Spectator, 29 December 1939, p. 8.

85Shirer, Berlin Diary, p. 241.

86Ibid., p. 320.

87Shirer, Berlin Diary, p. 336; Goebbels, Tagebücher 1924–1945, p. 1450; Hitler’s instructions are in BArch, R55/20007, July 1940, pp. 8–9; see also Stephen G. Fritz, Ostkrieg: Hitler’s War of Extermination in the East, Lexington, KT: University Press of Kentucky, 2011, p. 31.

88Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich at War, London: Penguin, 2009, pp. 136–8.

89Shirer, Berlin Diary, pp. 454–5.

90Ernst Hanfstaengl, his publicist in the United States, repeatedly mentioned Hitler’s lack of strategic vision when it came to the United States; see Hanfstaengl, Unheard Witness, pp. 37 and 66.

91Evans, The Third Reich at War, p. 424.

92Ibid., p. 507; Schroeder, Er war mein Chef, pp. 74–5.

93Bramsted, Goebbels and the National Socialist Propaganda 1925–1945, pp. 223–4.

94Evans, The Third Reich at War, pp. 421–2.

95Ibid., pp. 422–3; Ulrich von Hassell, The von Hassell Diaries: The Story of the Forces against Hitler inside Germany, 1938–1945, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994, p. 304.

96BArch, NS18/842, 17 July 1942, p. 38.

97Hoffmann, Hitler Was My Friend, p. 227; Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 473.

98Evans, The Third Reich at War: 1939–1945, p. 714; Klemperer, To the Bitter End, p. 387.

99Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 473.

100Evans, The Third Reich at War, p. 732; Hans J. Mallaquoi, Destined to Witness: Growing up Black in Nazi Germany, New York: HarperCollins, 2001, p. 251; Klemperer, To the Bitter End, p. 458; see also Joachim C. Fest, Hitler, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002, pp. 753–4.

101Antony Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945, London: Penguin Books, 2002, p. 415.

CHAPTER 3 STALIN

1Henri Béraud, Ce que j’ai vu à Moscou, Paris: Les Editions de France, 1925, pp. 46–7.

2Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution, New York: Vintage Books, 1991, pp. 808–12.

3Ibid., p. 814.

4Ibid., p. 815.

5Robert Service, Stalin: A Biography, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2004, p. 132; Eugene Lyons, Stalin: Czar of all the Russians, New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1940, p. 287; Stephen Kotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928, New York: Penguin Press, 2014, p. 424.

6Kotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, p. 534.

7Fernand Corcos, Une visite à la Russie nouvelle, Paris: Editions Montaigne, 1930, pp. 404–5; Benno Ennker, ‘The Origins and Intentions of the Lenin Cult’ in Ian D. Thatcher (ed.), Regime and Society in Twentieth-Century Russia, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1999, pp. 125–6.

8Alexei Yurchak, ‘Bodies of Lenin: The Hidden Science of Communist Sovereignty’, Representations, no. 129 (Winter 2015), pp. 116–57; Béraud, Ce que j’ai vu à Moscou, p. 45.

9Kotkin, Stalin, p. 543; Robert H. McNeal, Stalin: Man and Rule, New York: New York University Press, 1988, pp. 90–93.

10Service, Stalin, pp. 223–4.

11For instance RGASPI, 17 Oct. 1925, 558-11-1158, doc. 59, p. 77.

12‘Stalin’s Word’, Time magazine, 27 April 1925.

13Kotkin, Stalin, p. 648.

14Eugene Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, London: George G. Harrap, 1938, p. 173; Service, Stalin, p. 259.

15Alexander Trachtenberg, The History of May Day, New York: International Pamphlets, 1931.

16Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 102–3.

17Service, Stalin, pp. 265–7.

18Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 206–7; Pravda, in a special issue on the Stalin Jubilee published on 21 December 1929, hailed Stalin as the ‘true inheritor’ of Marx and Lenin and the ‘leader’ of the proletarian party: RGASPI, 558-11-1352, 21 Dec. 1929, doc. 8; see also Jeffrey Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!: Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, pp. 60–61.

19RGASPI, 558-11-1352, doc. 1, 19 Dec. 1929; see also ‘Stalin’, The Life of Stalin: A Symposium, London: Modern Books Limited, 1930, pp. 12–14.

20Lazar Kaganovich, ‘Stalin and the Party’; Sergo Ordzhonikidze, ‘The “Diehard” Bolshvik’, both reproduced in The Life of Stalin, pp. 40 and 87–9.

21Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 265–6; on posters in 1929 see James L. Heizer, ‘The Cult of Stalin, 1929–1939’, doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky, 1977, p. 55 quoted in Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–1941, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 147.

22The expression ‘victor with a grudge’ comes from Stephen Kotkin’s astute analysis in Stalin, pp. 474 and 591; Kotkin, however, does not believe that the Testament was genuinely the work of Lenin.

23Leon Trotsky, My Life, New York: Charles Scribner, 1930, pp. 309, 378 and 398.

24Avel Yenukidze, ‘Leaves from my Reminiscences’ in The Life of Stalin, pp. 90–96.

25Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 381–91; ‘Russia: Stalin Laughs!’, Time magazine, 1 Dec. 1930.

26‘Soso was Good’, Time magazine, 8 Dec. 1930.

27See Stanley Weintraub, ‘GBS and the Despots’, Times Literary Supplement, 22 Aug. 2011.

28Emil Ludwig, Nine Etched from Life, New York: Robert McBride, p. 348; the vetting of Barbusse is recounted by Michael David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment: Cultural Diplomacy and Western Visitors to the Soviet Union, 1921–1941, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 231–2, as well as Jan Plamper, The Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012, p. 133; neither mention the financial transactions that took place, which can be found in RGASPI, 558-11-699, 12 Oct. 1933, doc. 6, pp. 53–4; André Gide, ‘Retouches à mon “Retour de l’URSS”’ in Souvenirs et Voyages, Paris: Gallimard, 2001, pp. 803−71, quoted in Andrew Sobanet, ‘Henri Barbusse, Official Biographer of Joseph Stalin’, French Cultural Studies, 24, no. 4 (Nov. 2013), p. 368; on other foreign writers approached by Stalin for a biography, see Roy Medvedev, ‘New Pages from the Political Biography of Stalin’ in Robert C. Tucker (ed.), Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, p. 207, note 9.

29Henri Barbusse, Stalin: A New World seen through One Man, London: John Lane, 1935, pp. viii and 291.

30On this, see, among others, David-Fox, Showcasing the Great Experiment.

31Emil Ludwig, Three Portraits: Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1940, p. 104.

32Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, pp. 340–42.

33The statues were noted by Corcos, Une Visite à la Russie Nouvelle, p. 117, and in the countryside by Malcolm Muggeridge, box 2, Hoover Institution Archives, ‘Russia, 16.9.1932-29.1.1933’, p. 125.

34Service, Stalin, pp. 312–13 and 360.

35Richard Pipes, Communism: A History of the Intellectual and Political Movement, London: Phoenix Press, p. 66.

36On ‘little Stalins’ see Malte Rolf, ‘Working towards the Centre: Leader Cults and Spatial Politics’ in Apor Balázs, Jan C. Behrends, Polly Jones and E. A. Rees (eds), The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, p. 152; E. A. Rees, ‘Leader Cults: Varieties, Preconditions and Functions’ in Balázs et al., The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships, p. 10; Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 30–31; Rumiantsev called Stalin a genius in February 1934, see XVII s’ezd Vsesojuznoj Kommunisticheskoj Partii, 26 janvarja – 10 fevralja 1934, Moscow: Partizdat, 1934, p. 143; on his cult see Jörg Baberowski, Scorched Earth: Stalin’s Reign of Terror, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016, pp. 224–7.

37Larissa Vasilieva, Kremlin Wives, New York: Arcade Publishing, 1992, pp. 122–4.

38Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!, p. 106; John Brown, I Saw for Myself, London: Selwyn and Blount, 1935, p. 260.

39Malte Rolf, ‘A Hall of Mirrors: Sovietizing Culture under Stalinism’, Slavic Review, 68, no. 3 (Fall 2009), p. 601.

40Lyons, Stalin, p. 215.

41Rolf, ‘A Hall of Mirrors’, p. 610; Anita Pisch, ‘The Personality Cult of Stalin in Soviet Posters, 1929–1953: Archetypes, Inventions and Fabrications’, doctoral dissertation, Australian National University, 2014, p. 135.

42Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!, pp. 69–77; Pisch, ‘The Personality Cult of Stalin in Soviet Posters’, p. 69.

43The encounter between Avdeenko and Mekhlis is in Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 149; the broadcast is reported in Eugene Lyons, ‘Dictators into Gods’, American Mercury, March 1939, p. 268.

44Lyons, ‘Dictators into Gods’, p. 269.

45Nadezhda Mandelstam, Hope against Hope: A Memoir, New York: Atheneum, 1983, p. 420; RGASPI, 558-11-1479, doc. 36, pp. 54–6.

46Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, New York: Knopf, 2004, p. 164; SSSR. Sezd Sovetov (chrezvychajnyj) (8). Stenograficheskij otchet, 25 nojabrja – 5 dekabrja 1936 g., Moscow: CIK SSSR, 1936, p. 208; Sergo Ordzhonikidze, Izbrannye stat’i i rechi, 1918–1937, Moscow: Ogiz, 1945, p. 240.

47David Brandenberger, ‘Stalin as Symbol: A Case Study of the Personality Cult and its Construction’ in Sarah Davies and James Harris (eds), Stalin: A New History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 249−70; see also the classic David King, The Commissar Vanishes: The Falsification of Photographs and Art in Stalin’s Russia, New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997.

48Kees Boterbloem, The Life and Times of Andrei Zhdanov, 1896–1948, Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Press, 2004, pp. 176–7 and 215.

49RGASPI, 558-11-1354, 20 Nov. 1939, pp. 29–34; all the letters are in document 21.

50The request from the Museum of the Revolution is in RGASPI, 558-11-1354, 29 July 1940, document 15, the list of gifts put on display in document 15.

51‘Foreign Statesmen Greet Stalin on 60th Birthday’, Moscow News, 1 Jan. 1940.

52Andrew Nagorski, The Greatest Battle: Stalin, Hitler, and the Desperate Struggle for Moscow that Changed the Course of World War II, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008, pp. 16–17.

53Service, Stalin, p. 403; see also David Glantz, Stumbling Colossus: The Red Army on the Eve of World War, Lawrence, KA: University Press of Kansas, 1998.

54Service, Stalin, p. 409.

55Anna Louise Strong, quoting a report from Erskine Caldwell in her The Soviets Expected It, New York: The Dial Press, 1942, p. 39; Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945: A History, New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2011, p. 165.

56Victoria E. Bonnell, Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters Under Lenin and Stalin, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998, p. 252; Service, Stalin, p. 451; Richard E. Lauterbach, These Are the Russians, New York: Harper, 1944, p. 101.

57Werth, Russia at War, p. 595; John Barber, ‘The Image of Stalin in Soviet Propaganda and Public Opinion during World War 2’ in John Garrard and Carol Garrard (eds), World War 2 and the Soviet People, New York: St Martin’s Press, 1990, p. 43.

58Plamper, The Stalin Cult, p. 54.

59Michael Neiberg, Potsdam: The End of World War II and the Remaking of Europe, New York: Basic Books, 2015, p. 58; Paul Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Western Intellectuals in Search of the Good Society, London: Routledge, 2017, p. 1; Kimberly Hupp, ‘“Uncle Joe”: What Americans thought of Joseph Stalin before and after World War II’, doctoral dissertation, University of Toledo, 2009.

60Mandelstam, Hope against Hope, p. 345.

61Casualty figures in Timothy C. Dowling (ed.), Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, vol. 1, 2015, p. 172; Richard Overy, Russia’s War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1997, p. 291; Catherine Merridale, Ivan’s War: The Red Army 1939–45, London: Faber and Faber, 2005, p. 3.

62Werth, Russia at War, p. 369.

63Merridale, Ivan’s War, pp. 67, 117–18 and 136; Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945, p. 424.

64Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945, p. 107.

65Isaac Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography, New York: Vintage Books, 1949, p. 466; Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945, pp. 425–6.

66Service, Stalin, p. 543; Brandenburg, ‘Stalin as Symbol’, pp. 265–70; Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin. Kratkaya biografiya, Moscow: OGIZ, 1947, pp. 182–222.

67Service, Stalin, pp. 508 and 564.

68Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956, New York: Doubleday, 2012; Jan C. Behrends, ‘Exporting the Leader: The Stalin Cult in Poland and East Germany (1944/45–1956)’ in Balázs et al., The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships, pp. 161–78.

69‘Mr. Stalin 70 Today, World Peace Prizes Inaugurated’, The Times, 21 Dec. 1949, p. 4; ‘Flags And Lights For Mr. Stalin Birthday Scenes in Moscow’, The Times, 22 Dec. 1949, p. 4.

70RGASPI, 558-4-596, 1950; see also McNeal, Stalin, pp. 291–2.

71RGASPI, 558-11-1379, doc. 2 and 4; see also list dated 22 April 1950 in RGASPI, 558-11-1420; RGASPI, 558-4-596, 1950.

72Service, Stalin, p. 548; Overy, Russia’s War, pp. 288 and 302; Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism, New York: Knopf, 1972, p. 508.

73Harrison E. Salisbury, ‘The Days of Stalin’s Death’, New York Times, 17 April 1983; Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!, p. 237.

CHAPTER 4 MAO ZEDONG

1On Mao’s trip to Moscow, see Paul Wingrove, ‘Mao in Moscow, 1949–50: Some New Archival Evidence’, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 11, no. 4 (Dec. 1995), pp. 309–34; David Wolff, ‘“One Finger’s Worth of Historical Events”: New Russian and Chinese Evidence on the Sino-Soviet Alliance and Split, 1948–1959’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, Working Paper no. 30 (Aug. 2002), pp. 1–74; Sergey Radchenko and David Wolff, ‘To the Summit via Proxy-Summits: New Evidence from Soviet and Chinese Archives on Mao’s Long March to Moscow, 1949’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, no. 16 (Winter 2008), pp. 105–82.

2New York Times, 15 May 1927.

3Mao Zedong, ‘Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement In Hunan’, March 1927, Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1965, vol. 1, pp. 23–4.

4Alexander V. Pantsov and Steven I. Levine, Mao: The Real Story, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012, pp. 206, 242 and 248.

5Mao Zedong, ‘On Tactics against Japanese Imperialism’, 27 Dec. 1935, translated in Stuart Schram, Mao’s Road To Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912–49, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999, vol. 5, p. 92.

6Alvin D. Coox, Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia 1939, Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988, p. 93.

7Yang Kuisong, Mao Zedong yu Mosike de enen yuanyuan (Mao and Moscow), Nanchang: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe, 1999, p. 21; Pantsov and Levine, Mao, p. 293.

8Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, London: Jonathan Cape, 2005, p. 192.

9Edgar Snow, Red Star over China: The Classic Account of the Birth of Chinese Communism, New York: Grove Press, 1994, p. 92.

10Lee Feigon, Mao: A Reinterpretation, Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2002, pp. 67–9.

11Feigon, Mao, p. 67; Robert M. Farnsworth, From Vagabond to Journalist: Edgar Snow in Asia, 1928–1941, Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1996, p. 222.

12Pantsov and Levine, Mao, p. 296.

13Jay Taylor, The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009, p. 169.

14Pantsov and Levine, Mao, p. 324.

15RGASPI, 17-170-128a, Georgii Dimitrov, Report to Stalin on the Sixth Plenum of the Central Committee of the CCP, 21 April 1939, pp. 1–3; see also report by Dmitrii Manuilsky on pp. 14–43.

16Pantsov and Levine, Mao, p. 331; Arthur A. Cohen, The Communism of Mao Tse-tung, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964, pp. 93–5.

17Gao Hua, Hong taiyang shi zenyang shengqi de. Yan’an zhengfeng yundong de lailong qumai (How did the red sun rise over Yan’an? A history of the Rectification Movement), Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2000, p. 580.

18Gao, Hong taiyang shi zenyang shengqi de, p. 530; see also Chen Yung-fa, Yan’an de yinying (Yan’an’s Shadow), Taipei: Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, 1990.

19Gao, Hong taiyang shi zenyang shengqi de, p. 593.

20Gao Wenqian, Zhou Enlai: The Last Perfect Revolutionary, New York: PublicAffairs, 2007, p. 88.

21Raymond F. Wylie, The Emergence of Maoism: Mao Tse-tung, Ch’en Po-ta, and the Search for Chinese Theory, 1935–1945, Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980, pp. 205–6; Gao, Hong taiyang shi zenyang shengqi de, pp. 607–9; Li Jihua, ‘Dui Mao Zedong geren chongbai de zisheng’ (The propagation of Mao’s cult of personality), Yanhuang chunqiu, no. 3 (March 2010), pp. 40–45; Theodore H. White and Annalee Jacoby, Thunder out of China, London: Victor Gollanz, 1947, p. 217.

22PRO, FO 371/35777, 1 Feb. 1943, p. 21.

23Stuart R. Schram, ‘Party Leader or True Ruler? Foundations and Significance of Mao Zedong’s Personal Power’ in Stuart R. Schram (ed.), Foundations and Limits of State Power in China, London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1987, p. 213.

24Frank Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation: A History of the Chinese Revolution, 1945–1957, London: Bloomsbury, 2013, pp. 16–17.

25Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation, pp. 3 and 22–3.

26PRO, FO 371/92192, 20 Nov. 1950, p. 19; Robert Guillain, ‘China under the Red Flag’ in Otto B. Van der Sprenkel, Robert Guillain and Michael Lindsay (eds), New China: Three Views, London: Turnstile Press, 1950, pp. 91–2; on rules in the display of portraits see, for instance, SMA, 9 Sept. 1952, A22-2-74, pp. 6–7; 29 Dec. 1951, B1-2-3620, p. 61; Hung Chang-tai, ‘Mao’s Parades: State Spectacles in China in the 1950s’, China Quarterly, no. 190 (June 2007), pp. 411–31.

27Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation, pp. 134–7.

28Ibid., p. 83.

29Ibid., pp. 47–8.

30Ibid., pp. 99–100.

31Ibid., p. 190; William Kinmond, No Dogs in China: A Report on China Today, New York: Thomas Nelson, 1957, pp. 192–4.

32John Gitting, ‘Monster at the Beach’, Guardian, 10 April 2004.

33The classic work on this subject is Cohen, The Communism of Mao Tse-tung; the author was ostracised, of course, as learned professors from Harvard University wrote learned books about the ‘Sinification of Marxism’.

34Valentin Chu, The Inside Story of Communist China: Ta Ta, Tan Tan, London: Allen & Unwin, 1964, p. 228.

35See Richard Curt Kraus, Brushes with Power: Modern Politics and the Chinese Art of Calligraphy, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991.

36Chow Ching-wen, Ten Years of Storm: The True Story of the Communist Regime in China, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960, p. 81.

37Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation, p. 227.

38William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and his Era, London, Free Press, 2003, pp. 271–2.

39Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation, pp. 275–6.

40Pang Xianzhi and Jin Chongji (eds), Mao Zedong zhuan, 1949–1976 (A biography of Mao Zedong, 1949–1976), Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2003, p. 534; Li Zhisui, The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Mao’s Personal Physician, New York: Random House, 1994, pp. 182–4.

41Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation, p. 291.

42GSPA, Mao’s speech on 10 March 1958 at Chengdu, 91-18-495, p. 211.

43Li Rui, Dayuejin qin liji (A witness account of the Great Leap Forward), Haikou: Nanfang chubanshe, 1999, vol. 2, p. 288.

44Frank Dikötter, Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–1962, London: Bloomsbury, 2010, p. 20.

45Ibid., pp. 22–3.

46Li Rui, Lushan huiyi shilu (A true record of the Lushan plenum), Hong Kong: Tiandi tushu youxian gongsi, 2nd edn, 2009, pp. 232 and 389–90; Li, The Private Life of Chairman Mao, p. 381.

47Li, Lushan huiyi shilu, p. 232.

48Gao, Zhou Enlai, pp. 187–8; Liu Tong, ‘Jieshi Zhongnanhai gaoceng zhengzhi de yiba yaoshi: Lin Biao biji de hengli yu yanjiu’ (A key to understanding high politics in Zhongnanhai: Sorting out and studying Lin Biao’s notes), paper presented at the International Conference on Chinese War and Revolution in the Twentieth Century, Shanghai Communications University, 8–9 Nov. 2008.

49Dikötter, Mao’s Great Famine, p. 102.

50Ibid., pp. 116–23.

51See Frank Dikötter, The Cultural Revolution: A People’s History, 1962–1976, London: Bloomsbury, 2016, p. 12.

52The People’s Daily, 7 Feb. 1963, quoted in Cohen, The Communism of Mao Tse-tung, p. 203.

53David Milton and Nancy D. Milton, The Wind Will Not Subside: Years in Revolutionary China, 1964–1969, New York: Pantheon Books, 1976, pp. 63–5; see also Jacques Marcuse, The Peking Papers: Leaves from the Notebook of a China Correspondent, London: Arthur Barker, 1968, pp. 235–46.

54Lu Hong, Junbao neibu xiaoxi: ‘Wenge’ qinli shilu (An Insider’s Story of the PLA Daily), Hong Kong, Shidai guoji chubanshe, 2006, pp. 14–17; Daniel Leese, Mao Cult: Rhetoric and Ritual in China’s Cultural Revolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp. 111–13.

55Li, The Private Life of Chairman Mao, p. 412; Lynn T. White III, Policies of Chaos: The Organizational Causes of Violence in China’s Cultural Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989, pp. 194–5, 206, 214–16.

56Letter by D. K. Timms, 6 Oct. 1964, FO 371/175973; see also Laszlo Ladany, The Communist Party of China and Marxism, 1921–1985: A Self-Portrait, London: Hurst, 1988, p. 273.

57Dikötter, The Cultural Revolution, p. xi.

58Ibid., pp. 71–4.

59Ibid., pp. 107–9.

60Chang Jung, Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China, Clearwater, FL: Touchstone, 2003, p. 413.

61Dikötter, The Cultural Revolution, p. 89.

62PRO, FO 371-186983, Leonard Appleyard to John Benson, ‘Manifestations of the Mao Cult’, 28 Sept. 1966.

63Louis Barcata, China in the Throes of the Cultural Revolution: An Eye Witness Report, New York: Hart Publishing, 1968, p. 48.

64SMA, 11 Dec. 1967, B167-3-21, pp. 70–3; NMA, Instructions from the Centre, 5 April and 12 July 1967, 5038-2-107, pp. 2 and 58–9.

65HBPA, Directive from the Ministry of Trade, 30 Aug. 1966, 999-4-761, p. 149.

66SMA, 2 May 1967, B182-2-8, pp. 5–8.

67Helen Wang, Chairman Mao Badges: Symbols and Slogans of the Cultural Revolution, London: British Museum, 2008, p. 21.

68PRO, FCO 21/41, Donald C. Hopson, ‘Letter from Beijing’, 7 Oct. 1967.

69For instance Pamela Tan, The Chinese Factor: An Australian Chinese Woman’s Life in China from 1950 to 1979, Dural, New South Wales: Roseberg, 2008, p. 131.

70PRO, FCO 21/19, Percy Cradock, ‘Letter from Peking’, 3 June 1968.

71SMA, B103-4-1, 11 July 1967, pp. 1–3; B98-5-100, 9 Dec. 1969, pp. 10–11; B109-4-80, 1 Aug. 1968, p. 31; on statues in Shanghai, one should read Jin Dalu, Feichang yu zhengchang: Shanghai ‘wenge’ shiqi de shehui bianqian (The extraordinary and the ordinary: Social change in Shanghai during the Cultural Revolution), Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 2011, vol. 2, pp. 198–228.

72Dikötter, The Cultural Revolution, pp. 240–41.

73‘Zhongyang zhuan’an shencha xiaozu “guanyu pantu, neijian, gongzei Liu Shaoqi zuixing de shencha baogao” ji “pantu, neijian, gongzei Liu Shaoqi zuizheng”’ (Report on Liu Shaoqi by the Central Case Examination Group), 18 Oct. 1968, Cultural Revolution Database; with a few minor changes, I have used the translation in Milton and Milton, The Wind Will Not Subside, pp. 335–9; on the composition of the congress, see Roderick MacFarquhar and Michael Schoenhals, Mao’s Last Revolution, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006, pp. 292–3.

74GDPA, 296-A2.1-25, Report on Shanghai, 7 March 1973, pp. 189–98; PRO, FCO 21/962, Michael J. Richardson, ‘Naming of Streets’, 26 Jan. 1972.

75Chang and Halliday, Mao, p. 583.

76Chang, Wild Swans, p. 651.

77Jean Hong, interview, 7 Nov. 2012, Hong Kong; Rowena Xiaoqing He, ‘Reading Havel in Beijing’, Wall Street Journal, 29 Dec. 2011.

78Ai Xiaoming interviewed by Zhang Tiezhi, 22 Dec. 2010, Guangzhou.

79Wu Guoping interviewed by Dong Guoqiang, 1 Dec. 2013, Zongyang county, Anhui.

CHAPTER 5 KIM IL-SUNG

1Robert A. Scalapino and Chong-sik Lee, Communism in Korea. Part I: The Movement, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1972, pp. 324–5; Lim Un, The Founding of a Dynasty in North Korea: An Authentic Biography of Kim Il-song, Tokyo: Jiyu-sha, 1982, p. 149.

2Hongkoo Han, ‘Wounded Nationalism: The Minsaengdan Incident and Kim Il-sung in Eastern Manchuria’, University of Washington, doctoral disertation, 1999, p. 347.

3Han, ‘Wounded Nationalism’, pp. 365–7; Scalapino and Lee, Communism in Korea, pp. 202–3; Dae-sook Suh, Kim Il-sung: The North Korean Leader, New York: Columbia University Press, 1988, pp. 37–47.

4Charles Armstrong, The North Korean Revolution: 1945–50, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002, chapter 2.

5Lim, The Founding of a Dynasty in North Korea, p. 152.

6Bradley K. Martin, Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty, New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2004, p. 53; Armstrong, The North Korean Revolution, p. 223; John N. Washburn, ‘Russia Looks at Northern Korea’, Pacific Affairs, 20, no. 2 (June 1947), p. 160.

7Armstrong, The North Korean Revolution, p. 150; the estimate of one million is in Byoung-Lo Philo Kim, Two Koreas in Development: A Comparative Study of Principles and Strategies of Capitalist and Communist Third World Development, quoted in Martin, Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader, p. 56.

8David Allen Hatch, ‘The Cult of Personality of Kim Il-Song: Functional Analysis of a State Myth’, doctoral dissertation, Washington, DC: The American University, 1986, pp. 106–9.

9Benoit Berthelier, ‘Symbolic Truth: Epic, Legends, and the Making of the Baekdusan Generals’, 17 May 2013, Sino-NK.

10Hatch, ‘The Cult of Personality of Kim Il-Song’, pp. 83 and 104.

11Chen Jian, China’s Road to the Korean War, New York: Columbia University Press, 1996, p. 110; Sergei N. Goncharov, John W. Lewis and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993, pp. 142–5.

12Max Hastings, The Korean War, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987, p. 53; Hatch, ‘The Cult of Personality of Kim Il-Song’, p. 153.

13Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 123–6; Lim, The Founding of a Dynasty in North Korea, p. 215.

14Hatch, ‘The Cult of Personality of Kim Il-Song’, pp. 159–60.

15Scalapino and Lee, Communism in Korea, pp. 428–9.

16Andrei Lankov, The Real North Korea: Life and Politics in the Failed Stalinist Utopia, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 37–9.

17Blaine Harden, The Great Leader and the Fighter Pilot: A True Story About the Birth of Tyranny in North Korea, New York: Penguin Books, 2016, pp. 6–7; Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 127–30; Andrei Lankov, From Stalin to Kim Il Sung: The Formation of North Korea, 1945–1960, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002, pp. 95–6.

18See MfAA, A 5631, Information Report from Embassy, 23 March 1955, pp. 63–4.

19MfAA, A 5631, Information Report from Embassy, 23 March 1955, p. 54; RGANI, 5-28-411, Diary of Ambassador V. I. Ivanov, 21 March 1956, pp. 165–8; a rock encased in glass is mentioned in Horst Kurnitzky, Chollima Korea: A Visit in the Year 23, Lulu Press Inc., 2006 (first published in 1972), p. 19.

20Hatch, ‘The Cult of Personality of Kim Il-Song’, pp. 172–5; Hunter, Kim Il-song’s North Korea, p. 13.

21Hatch, ‘The Cult of Personality of Kim Il-Song’, pp. 176–80.

22RGANI, 5-28-410, pp. 233–5; this document has been translated by Gary Goldberg in ‘New Evidence on North Korea in 1956’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, no. 16 (Fall 2007/Winter 2008), pp. 492–4.

23RGANI, 5-28-412, 30 May 1956, pp. 190–96; this document has also been translated by Gary Goldberg in ‘New Evidence on North Korea in 1956’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, no. 16 (Fall 2007/Winter 2008), p. 471; on this incident, see Andrei Lankov, Crisis in North Korea: The Failure of De-Stalinization, 1956, Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2005; Balázs Szalontai, Kim Il Sung in the Khrushchev Era: Soviet-DPRK Relations and the Roots of North Korean Despotism, 1953–1964, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.

24Lankov, Crisis in North Korea, p. 154.

25Ibid., pp. 152–4.

26Curiously, there are hardly any explicit acknowledgements in the secondary literature that the songbun system was based on the one devised under Mao; for an exception, see Judy Sun and Greg Wang, ‘Human Resource Development in China and North Korea’ in Thomas N. Garavan, Alma M. McCarthy and Michael J. Morley (eds), Global Human Resource Development: Regional and Country Perspectives, London: Routledge, 2016, p. 92; on the persecutions, see Lankov, Crisis in North Korea, p. 164.

27Lankov, Crisis in North Korea, p. 182.

28RGANI, 5-28-314, Letter from S. Suzdalev, Ambassador of the Soviet Union, to N. T. Fedorenko, 23 March 1955, pp. 13–15; RGANI, 5-28-412, 10 May 1956, Report of conversation of I. Biakov, First Secretary of the Soviet Embassy, with director of Museum of the History of the Revolutionary Struggle of the Korean People, pp. 249–52; BArch, DY30 IV 2/2.035/137, Information Bulletin, 14 March 1961, p. 72.

29Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 168–71.

30BArch, DY30 IV 2/2.035/137, Information Bulletin, 14 March 1961, pp. 72–3 and 79; see also Hatch, ‘The Cult of Personality of Kim Il-Song’, pp. 183–92; on his withdrawal from public life, see Suh, Kim Il-sung, p. 187.

31MfAA, A 7137, Information on National Day, 16 Sept. 1963, pp. 45–9.

32On the December 1955 speech, one should read Brian R. Myers, ‘The Watershed that Wasn’t: Re-Evaluating Kim Il-sung’s “Juche Speech” of 1955’, Acta Koreana, 9, no. 1 (Jan. 2006), pp. 89–115.

33James F. Person, ‘North Korea’s chuch’e philosophy’ in Michael J. Seth, Routledge Handbook of Modern Korean History, London: Routledge, 2016, pp. 705–98.

34MfAA, C 1088/70, Ingeborg Göthel, Report on Information, 29 July 1966, p. 100.

35Person, ‘North Korea’s chuch’e philosophy’, pp. 725–67; MfAA, G-A 344, 10 Nov. 1967, Letter from Embassy, pp. 1–7, notes how the cult increased with the purges.

36MfAA, C 1092/70, Information Report from Embassy, 19 Aug. 1968, pp. 19–20; PRO, FCO 51/80, ‘North Korea in 1968’, 3 July 1969, p. 13; FCO 21-307, ‘Kim Il-sung, the “Prefabricated Hero”’, 3 June 1967.

37Suh, Kim Il-sung, p. 197; PRO, FCO 51/80, ‘North Korea in 1968’, 3 July 1969, p. 13.

38MfAA, C 1088/70, Ingeborg Göthel, Report on May Day, 5 May 1967, pp. 55–8.

39MfAA, C 1088/70, Hermann, Information Report from the Embassy, 5 Jan. 1968, pp. 76–7 as well as Ingeborg Göthel, Report on Information, 3 Nov. 1967, pp. 16–17; Ingeborg Göthel, Information Report from Embassy, 22 Sept. 1967, pp. 18–19; C 1023/73, Information Report from Embassy, 22 May 1968, pp. 98–9; on dedicated study rooms, see also Rinn-Sup Shinn et al., Area Handbook for North Korea, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969, p. 276.

40MfAA, C 1088/70, Ingeborg Göthel, Report on May Day, 5 May 1967, pp. 55–8; Ingeborg Göthel, Report on Information, 3 Nov. 1967, pp. 16–17.

41Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 231–4.

42MfAA, G-A 347, Barthel, Report on Discussion with Samoilov, 17 May 1972, pp. 16–18; see also Suh, Kim Il-sung, p. 242.

43‘Talk to the Officials of the Propaganda and Agitation Department of the Central Committee of the Workers’, 29 October 1971, document from the Korean Friendship Association website retrieved on 15 January 2016; Suh, Kim Il-sung, p. 319.

44Harrison E. Salisbury, To Peking and Beyond: A Report On The New Asia, New York: Quadrangle Books, 1973, p. 207; Suh, Kim Il-sung, p. 319.

45MfAA, C 6877, 6 March 1972, pp. 76–7; MfAA, G-A 347, Letter from Embassy, 11 Jan. 1972, p. 14.

46Salisbury, To Peking and Beyond, pp. 208–9; see also Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 316–17; both mention 240,000 square metres for the museum’s overall surface, which seems unlikely for ninety-two rooms; the figure of 50,000 square metres comes from Helen-Louise Hunter, Kim Il-song’s North Korea, Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1999, p. 23.

47MfAA, C 6877, 6 March 1972, pp. 76–7; Sonia Ryang, Writing Selves in Diaspora: Ethnography of Autobiographics of Korean Women in Japan and the United States, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008, p. 88.

48Salisbury, To Peking and Beyond, pp. 208–9; Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 316–19.

49SMA, B158-2-365, 20 Dec. 1971, pp. 107–111 and B163-4-317, 1 Dec. 1971, pp. 134–5; for an overview of badges in later years, see Andrei Lankov, North of the DMZ: Essays on Daily Life in North Korea, Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2007, pp. 7–9.

50Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 270–71.

51MfAA, C 6877, Information Bulletin, 28 April 1972, pp. 66–7.

52Salisbury, To Peking and Beyond, pp. 196–7 and 204–5.

53Ibid., pp. 214 and 219.

54MfAA, C 315/78, 8 April 1970, pp. 155–8.

55Suh, Kim Il-sung, p. 262.

56Lim, The Founding of a Dynasty in North Korea, p. 269; Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 267–8.

57Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 267–8.

58Philippe Grangereau, Au pays du grand mensonge. Voyage en Corée, Paris: Payot, 2003, pp. 134–7; Hunter, Kim Il-song’s North Korea, p. 22.

59C 6926, Kirsch, Letter from Embassy, 21 Nov. 1975, pp. 1–3.

60Suh, Kim Il-sung, pp. 278–82.

61Hans Maretzki, Kim-ismus in Nordkorea: Analyse des letzten DDR-Botschafters in Pjöngjang, Böblingen: Anika Tykve Verlag, 1991, pp. 34 and 55; Lankov, North of the DMZ, pp. 40–41.

62Don Oberdorfer, The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997, pp. 341–2; Barbara Demick, Nothing to Envy: Ordinary Lives in North Korea, New York: Spiegel and Grau, 2009, pp. 100–101.

CHAPTER 6 DUVALIER

1On the early history of Haiti, see Philippe Girard, Haiti: The Tumultuous History – From Pearl of the Caribbean to Broken Nation, New York: St Martin’s Press, 2010.

2Eric H. Cushway, ‘The Ideology of François Duvalier’, MA dissertation, University of Alberta, 1976, pp. 79 and 96–7; Martin Munro, Tropical Apocalypse: Haiti and the Caribbean End, Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2015, p. 36.

3John Marquis, Papa Doc: Portrait of a Haitian Tyrant 1907–1971, Kingston: LMH Publishing Limited, 2007, p. 92.

4Paul Christopher Johnson, ‘Secretism and the Apotheosis of Duvalier’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 74, no. 2 (June 2006), p. 428; Cushway, ‘The Ideology of François Duvalier’, pp. 78–83.

5François Duvalier, Guide des ‘Oeuvres Essentielles’ du Docteur François Duvalier, Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1967, p. 58.

6Trevor Armbrister, ‘Is There Any Hope for Haiti?’, Saturday Evening Post, 236, no. 23 (15 June 1963), p. 80; see also Bleecker Dee, ‘Duvalier’s Haiti: A Case Study of National Disintegration’, doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, 1967, p. 70.

7NARA, RG 59, Box 3090, Gerald A. Drew, ‘Political Situation in Haiti’, 3 Aug. 1957.

8Bernard Diederich, The Price of Blood: History of Repression and Rebellion in Haiti Under Dr. François Duvalier, 1957–1961, Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2011, pp. 17–18.

9NARA, RG 59, Box 3090, Gerald A. Drew, ‘Political Situation in Haiti’, 3 Aug. 1957.

10Mats Lundahl, ‘Papa Doc: Innovator in the Predatory State’, Scandia, 50, no. 1 (1984), p. 48.

11MAE, 96QO/24, Lucien Félix, ‘Conférence de presse de Duvalier’, 4 Oct. 1957; MAE, 96QO/24, Lucien Félix, ‘Un mois de pouvoir du président Duvalier’, 22 Nov. 1957; NARA, RG 59, Box 3090, ‘Harassment of Haitian Labor Leaders’, 10 Jan. 1958; Virgil P. Randolph, ‘Haitian Political Situation’, 30 Jan. 1958.

12Haiti Sun, 24 Dec. 1957, p. 11; Louis E. Lomax, ‘Afro Man Chased out of Haiti’, Baltimore Afro-American, 15 Oct. 1957; Stephen Jay Berman, ‘Duvalier and the Press’, MA in Journalism, University of Southern California, 1974, p. 28.

13NARA, RG 59, Box 3090, Virgil P. Randolph, ‘Haitian Political Situation’, 30 Jan. 1958; Louis E. Lomax, ‘Afro Man Chased out of Haiti’, Baltimore Afro-American, 15 Oct. 1957.

14MAE, 96QO/24, Lucien Félix, ‘Un mois de pouvoir du président Duvalier’, 22 Nov. 1957; NARA, RG 59, Box 3090, ‘Harassment of Haitian Labor Leaders’, 10 Jan. 1958; Virgil P. Randolph, ‘Haitian Political Situation’, 30 Jan. 1958.

15MAE, 96QO/25, Lucien Félix, telegram, 13 March 1958; NARA, RG 59, Box 3090, Virgil P. Randolph, ‘Haitian Political Situation’, 30 Jan. 1958.

16NARA, RG 59, Box 3092, Virgil P. Randolph, ‘Joint Weeka No. 32’, 6 Aug. 1958; MAE, 96QO/25, ‘Lucien Félix, ‘Le coup de main du 29 juillet 1958’, 31 July 1958.

17Robert D. Heinl and Nancy Gordon Heinl, Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1995, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1998, p. 572; Robert I. Rotberg, Haiti: The Politics of Squalor, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971, pp. 215–16.

18MAE, 96QO/25, Lucien Félix, ‘La nouvelle constitution de la République d’Haiti’, 17 April 1958; Lundahl, ‘Papa Doc’, p. 60.

19Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988, pp. 91–2.

20Bernard Diederich and Al Burt, Papa Doc: Haiti and its Dictator, London: Bodley Head, 1969, p. 139; Rotberg, Haiti, p. 218.

21Lundahl, ‘Papa Doc’, p. 60.

22MAE, 96QO/25, Lucien Félix, ‘La situation politique et économique en Haiti’, 3 Feb. 1959; ‘Voyage du Président’, 18 March 1959.

23NARA, RG 59, Box 3092, ‘Joint Weeka No. 22’, 5 June 1959; NARA, RG 59, Box 3093, Gerald A. Drew ‘Embtel 423’, 3 June 1959; Rotberg, Haiti, p. 218.

24NARA, RG 59, Box 3093, Gerald A. Drew, ‘President François Duvalier Resumes Active Duty’, 7 July 1959.

25NARA, RG 59, Box 3091, Philip P. Williams, ‘Executive-Legislative Relations’, 23 Sept. 1959; Rotberg, Haiti, pp. 220–21.

26NARA, RG 59 Box 7, Caspar D. Green, ‘Memorandum’, United States Operations Mission, 13 May 1960.

27MAE, 96QO/26, ‘Evolution vers l’extrémisme de gauche’, 9 Aug. 1960; also Charles le Genissel, ‘Arrestation de M. Clément Barbot’, 6 Aug. 1960; NARA, RG 59, Box 1633, Letter to Secretary of State from Haitian Ambassador, 15 July 1960; ‘Civilian Militia Palace Parade’, Haiti Sun, 7 Dec. 1960, pp. 1 and 20.

28MAE, 96QO/26, ‘Bulletin Mensuel d’Information’, 13 April 1961; NARA, RG 59, Box 1633, Letter to Secretary of State from Haitian Ambassador, Charles Wm Thomas, ‘Haiti Re-Elects President’, 9 May 1961.

29NARA, RG 59, Box 1633, David. R Thomson, ‘Political Events in Haiti’, 21 May 1961.

30MAE, 96QO/26, Charles le Genissel, ‘Prestation de serment du docteur Duvalier’, 25 May 1961; NARA, RG 59, Box 1634, Ambassy Port-au-Prince, ‘Joint Weeka No. 21’, 26 May 1961.

31NARA, RG 59, Box 3922, ‘Joint Weeka No. 29’, 20 July 1963; Berman, ‘Duvalier and the Press’, p. 57.

32Dee, ‘Duvalier’s Haiti’, pp. 154–7; Diederich, Papa Doc, pp. 216–17; Berman, ‘Duvalier and the Press’, p. 62.

33MAE, 96QO/27, Charles le Genissel, ‘Mesures exceptionelles’, 29 Aug. 1963; NARA, RG 59, Box 3922, ‘Joint Weeka No. 38’, 22 Sept. 1963.

34Rotberg, Haiti, p. 233; NARA, RG 59, Box 3923, Norman E. Warner, ‘Duvalier Speech on September 30, 1963’, 8 Oct. 1963; Hispanic American Report, vol. 16, no. 8 (Sept. 1963), p. 869; NARA, RG 59, Box 1634, ‘Joint Weekas No. 24 and 29’, 16 June and 21 July 1961.

35MAE, 96QO/54, ‘Présidence à vie’, 13 April 1964; Dee, ‘Duvalier’s Haiti’, pp. 177–8.

36NARA, RG 59, Box 2262, ‘Joint Weeka No. 26’, 26 June 1964; NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Build-Up Begins for May 22 Celebrations’, 20 May 1964.

37Jean Fourcand, Catéchisme de la révolution, Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l’Etat, 1964, p. 17.

38NARA, RG 59, Box 2262, ‘Joint Weeka No. 38’, 18 Sept. 1964.

39Rotberg, Haiti, pp. 239–42.

40Richard West, ‘Haiti: Hell on Earth’, New Statesman, 29 April 1966, translation into French in MAE, 96QO/54, ‘Articles et documents’, 12–19 Aug. 1966; ‘Crushing a Country’, Time magazine, 27 Aug. 1965; starvation reports in NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 46’, 12 Nov. 1965.

41Rotberg, Haiti, p. 243; Millery Polyné, From Douglass to Duvalier: U. S. African Americans, Haiti, and Pan Americanism, 1870–1964, Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 2010, p. 190.

42Rotberg, Haiti, p. 344; Michel Soukar, Un général parle: Entretien avec un Chef d’état-major sous François Duvalier, Port-au-Prince: Le Natal, 1987, p. 56.

43NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 25’, 20 June 1965.

44NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 46’, 12 Nov. 1965.

45Rotberg, Haiti, p. 247; NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 16’, 24 April 1966.

46NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 16’, 24 April 1966; Confidential telegram to Department of State, 26 April 1966.

47NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 24’, 19 June 1966.

48NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Alleged Statement by Haile Sellasie’, 8 May 1966.

49NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, Confidential telegram to Department of State, 9 June 1966; ‘Duvalier October 26 Speech’, 18 Dec. 1966.

50NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 30’, 31 July 1966; ‘Joint Weeka No. 36’, 9 Sept. 1966.

51NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 30’, 31 July 1966; ‘Confidential Report’, 2 Sept. 1966; NARA, RG 59, Box 2172, ‘Joint Weeka No. 43’, 29 Oct. 1967.

52NARA, RG 59, Box 2263, ‘Joint Weeka No. 30’, 31 July 1966; ‘Confidential Report’, 2 Sept. 1966.

53NARA, RG 59, Box 2172, ‘Joint Weeka No. 15’, 16 April 1967; ‘The Birthday Blowout’, Time magazine, 28 April 1967.

54Abbott, Haiti, p. 144; ‘Coming to a Boil’, Time magazine, 25 Aug. 1967.

55NARA, RG 59, Box 2172, ‘Joint Weeka No. 25’, 25 June 1967; see also, Abbott, Haiti, p. 145.

56NARA, RG 59, Box 2172, ‘Joint Weeka No. 11’, 19 March 1967; NARA, RG 59, Box 2172, ‘Joint Weeka No. 37’, 24 Sept. 1967; NARA, RG 59 Box 5, ‘Haiti’, 26 Sept. 1967.

57NARA, RG 59, Box 2173, ‘Duvalier Speaks Extemporaneously Again’, 5 Nov. 1967; ‘Joint Weeka No. 37’, 24 Sept. 1967.

58On radio see NARA, RG 59, Box 2172, ‘Joint Weeka No. 2’, 14 Jan. 1968.

59Rotberg, Haiti, pp. 350–66.

60NARA, RG 59, Box 2172, ‘Trip Report: Northwest Department of Haiti’, 29 Dec. 1968.

61Rotberg, Haiti, p. 235.

62MAE, 96QO/56, Philippe Koening, ‘La rébellion du 24 avril’, 10 June 1970; ‘Action anti-communiste’, 30 April 1969; Abbott, Haiti, p. 152; Marquis, Papa Doc, p. 264.

63MAE, 96QO/73, Philippe Koenig, ‘Haiti après la mort du Président François Duvalier’, 28 April 1971; NARA, RG 59, Box 2346, ‘Political/Economic Summary No. 3’, 21 Feb. 1971; ‘Political/Economic Summary No. 8’, 8 May 1971.

CHAPTER 7 CEAUŞESCU

1‘Obituary: Anca Petrescu’, Daily Telegraph, 1 Nov. 2013; Robert Bevan, The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War, London: Reaktion Books, 2006, pp. 127–31.

2John Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceauşescu, London: Hutchinson, 1991, pp. 44–51.

3Dennis Deletant, Communist Terror in Romania: Gheorghiu-Dej and the Police State, 1948–1965, New York: St Martin’s Press, 1999.

4Alice Mocanescu, ‘Surviving 1956: Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej and the “Cult of Personality” in Romania’ in Apor Balázs, Jan C. Behrends, Polly Jones and E. A. Rees (eds), The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, p. 256; ‘Rumania: Want amid Plenty’, Time magazine, 8 June 1962.

5Mary Ellen Fisher, Ceauşescu: A Study in Political Leadership, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989, pp. 49–52; Vladimir Tismaneanu, Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003, p. 176.

6Fisher, Ceauşescu, p. 69.

7MAE, 201QO/167, Jean-Louis Pons, ‘50eme anniversaire de Mr. Ceausescu’, 30 Jan. 1968.

8Fisher, Ceauşescu, pp. 133–9.

9Ibid., pp. 143–5.

10Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceausescu, p. 95.

11Strictly speaking, one other leader remained from the Gheorghiu Dej Politburo, namely Emil Bodnaras, but he was sick and did not attend the congress; Fisher, Ceauşescu, pp. 154–7.

12Fisher, Ceauşescu, pp. 92–3; OSA, 300-8-3-5811, ‘Nicolae Ceausescu and the Politics of Leadership’, 29 March 1973, pp. 16–18.

13ANR, 2574-72-1971, Minutes of the Executive Committee (Politburo) meeting, 25 June 1971, p. 11.

14Ibid.

15Ibid., pp. 45–6; OSA, 300-8-47-188-23, Rumanian Situation Report, 13 July 1971, pp. 9–11.

16Fisher, Ceauşescu, p. 126.

17OSA, 300-8-47-188-23, Rumanian Situation Report, 13 July 1971, pp. 9–11; the reference to a ‘New Man’ is from party secretary Popescu; see OSA, 300-8-47-188-24, Rumanian Situation Report, 20 July 1971, p. 13.

18The row between Ceauşescu and Iliescu is mentioned in Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceausescu, p. 102.

19Michel-Pierre Hamelet, Nicolae Ceausescu: Présentation, choix de textes, aperçu historique, documents photographiques, Paris: Seghers, 1971.

20ANR, 2898-19-1976, List of books on Nicolae Ceauşescu published abroad, 4 March 1976, pp. 1–6; OSA, 300-8-47-201-3, ‘Situation Report’, 9 Feb. 1978, p. 9.

21ANR, 2898-10-1973, Note of the Foreign Relations Section, 28 May 1973, pp. 12–13.

22The exact amount was 7.5 million lire; see ANR, 2898-21-1971, Note of the Foreign Relations Section of the Central Committee, 4 Sept. 1971, p. 102; see also Günther Heyden, Report on a visit to the Romanian Institute for Historical and Social-Political Studies, 27 Sept. 1971, DY 30/IVA 2/20/357, pp. 377–8.

23OSA, 300-8-3-5811, ‘Nicolae Ceausescu and the Politics of Leadership’, 29 March 1973, pp. 3–15.

24ANR, 2574-31-1974, Transcript of the Executive Committee (Politburo) of the Central Committee meeting, 27 March 1974, p. 50–59.

25Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceausescu, p. 105.

26Fisher, Ceauşescu, pp. 184–5 and 212–13; Anneli Ute Gabanyi, The Ceauşescu Cult: Propaganda and Power Policy in Communist Romania, Bucharest: The Romanian Cultural Foundation Publishing House, 2000, pp. 17–18; Thomas J. Keil, Romania’s Tortured Road toward Modernity, New York: Columbia University Press, 2006, p. 301.

27ANR, 2898-19-1976, List of books on Nicolae Ceauşescu published abroad, 4 March 1976, pp. 1–6.

28OSA, 300-8-3-5850, ‘Ceausescu’s Ideological Role is Strengthened’, 29 July 1976, pp. 1–9.

29Ibid., p. 7.

30OSA, 300-8-47-201-3, ‘Situation Report’, 9 Feb. 1978, p. 2.

31OSA, 300-8-47-201-3, ‘Situation Report’, 9 Feb. 1978, p. 3; PRO, FCO 28/3444, R. A. Burns, ‘President Ceauşescu’s 60th Birthday’, 8 Feb. 1978, pp. 4–5.

32OSA, 300-8-47-201-3, ‘Situation Report’, 9 Feb. 1978, pp. 6–10.

33PRO, FCO 28/3407, R. L. Secondé, ‘President Ceausescu of Romania: A Summary’, 24 April 1978, pp. 4–5; Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceausescu, pp. 111–20.

34Pacepa went on to write a damning memoir of the Ceauşescu regime, entitled Red Horizons: The True Story of Nicolae and Elena Ceausescus’ Crimes, Lifestyle, and Corruption, Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 1990.

35ANR, 2898-28-1977, Inventories of foreign medals and decorations awarded to Elena and Nicolae Ceauşescu, 21 Nov. 1977, pp. 1–16.

36The East Germans described the Pirvulescu affair in BArch, DY 30/IV 2/2.035/52, 23 Nov. 1979, pp. 2–7; see also Fisher, Ceauşescu, p. 240.

37Jonathan Eyal, ‘Why Romania Could Not Avoid Bloodshed’ in Gwyn Prins (ed.), Spring in Winter: The 1989 Revolutions, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990, pp. 149–50.

38OSA, 300-8-47-204-10, ‘Situation Report’, 22 July 1980, pp. 2–5; MAE, 1929INVA/4629, Pierre Cerles, Ambassador’s Report, 22 Dec. 1980.

39MAE, 1929INVA/4630, ‘Situation en Roumanie’, 20 Dec. 1980.

40Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceausescu, pp. 130–33.

41OSA, 300-8-3-5914, Anneli Maier, ‘Anniversary of the 1965 RCP Congress’, 11 Aug. 1982, pp. 1–4.

42BArch, DY 30/11599, June 1982, pp. 87–9.

43MAE, 1930INVA/5471, Michel Rougagnou, ‘Célébration du vingtième anniversaire’, 23 July 1985.

44ANR, 2898-80-1984, Rules for displaying the official portrait of Nicolae Ceauşescu, 7 March 1984, pp. 1–4; ANR, 2989-21-1984, Note on the new ABECEDAR, 1984, p. 8.

45ANR, 2898-32-1985, Report on special programmes dedicated to the sixty-fifth anniversary of the foundation of the communist party, 1985, pp. 1–4.

46David Binder, ‘The Cult of Ceausescu’, New York Times, 30 Nov. 1986.

47ANR, 2898-36-1984, Transcript of a meeting between Nicolae Ceauşescu and representatives of the Union of Visual Artist, 18 Sept. 1984, pp. 2–6.

48Lucian Boia, Romania: Borderland of Europe, London: Reaktion Books, 2001, pp. 288–90.

49Gabriel Ronay, ‘Romania Plans Village Blitz’, Sunday Times, 23 May 1988; OSA, 300-8-47-212-11, ‘The Rural Resettlement Plan’, 16 Sept. 1988, p. 13.

50Binder, ‘The Cult of Ceausescu’.

51MAE, 1930INVA/5471, Michel Rougagnou, ‘Célébration du vingtième anniversaire’, 23 July 1985; Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceausescu, pp. 157–8.

52Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceausescu, p. 158.

53The numbers are from MAE, 1930INVA/5471, Michel Rougagnou, ‘La vie du parti dans l’entreprise’, 6 Oct. 1983.

54MAE, 1930INVA/4630, Pierre Cerles, ‘Le communisme à la roumaine’, 24 May 1978.

55OSA, 300-8-47-211-1, ‘Ceausescu Rejects Soviet-Style Reform’, 6 Feb. 1980, pp. 3–6.

56Sweeney, The Life and Evil Times of Nicolae Ceausescu, pp. 172–4.

57MAE, 1935INVA/6478, Jean-Marie Le Breton, ‘Campagne d’élections’, 16 Nov. 1989.

58Peter Siani-Davies, The Romanian Revolution of December 1989, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007, pp. 81–2; Emma Graham-Harrison, ‘“I’m Still Nervous”, Says Soldier who Shot Nicolae Ceausescu’, Guardian, 7 Dec. 2014.

CHAPTER 8 MENGISTU

1Estelle Sohier, ‘Politiques de l’image et pouvoir royal en Éthiopie de Menilek II à Haylä Sellasé (1880–1936)’, doctoral dissertation, University of Paris 1, 2007, pp. 159–69.

2PRO, FCO 31/1829, Willie Morris, ‘Annual Review for 1974’, 6 Feb. 1975.

3Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, London: James Currey, 2001, p. 234.

4PRO, FCO 31/1829, Willie Morris, ‘Annual Review for 1974’, 6 Feb. 1975.

5Ibid.

6Richard J. Reid, Frontiers of Violence in North-East Africa: Genealogies of Conflict since c.1800, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 174; Christopher Clapham, Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 41.

7Shambel Tesfaye Reste Mekonnen, Misikirnet be Derg Abalat (Testimonies of Derg members), Addis Ababa, 2007, p. 164; PRO, FCO 31/2093, D. M. Day, ‘Mengistu’, 15 June 1977.

8Ethiopian Herald, 21 Dec. 1974 and 30 Jan. 1975; Paul B. Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, London: Hurst, 2000, p. 290; Andargatchew Tiruneh, The Ethiopian Revolution 1974–87, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 102–3.

9Begashaw Gobaw Tashu, Yecoloel Mengistu Haile Maryam ena Yederggemenawoch (Secrets of Mengistu Haile Mariam and the Derg), Addis Ababa: Far East Trading, 2008, p. 220.

10Babile Tola, To Kill a Generation: The Red Terror in Ethiopia, Washington, DC: Free Ethiopia Press, 1989, pp. 38–9; PRO, FCO 31-2098, ‘Annual Review for 1976’, 3 Jan. 1977.

11Ethiopian Herald, 29 Sept. 1976; PRO, FCO 31/2098, ‘Annual Review for 1976’, 3 Jan. 1977; Henze, Layers of Time, p. 291.

12Eshetu Wendemu Hailesselasie, Heiwot Be Mengistu Betemengist (Life at the palace during Mengistu’s time), Addis Ababa: Zed Printing House, 2010, pp. 81–90.

13Ethiopian Herald, 5 Feb. 1977.

14Feseha Desta, Abyotuna Tezetaye (My reminiscences of the revolution), Addis Ababa: Tsehay Asatami Derejet, 2008, p. 80; Geset Techane (pen name Zenebe Feleke), Neber (Was), Addis Ababa: Hetemet Alfa Asatamewoch, 2007, p. 238; Baalu Girma, Oromay (The end), Addis Ababa: Mankusa Asatami, 1983, pp. 21 and 50.

15Fekreselasie Wegderes, Egnana Abyotu (We and the Revolution), Addis Ababa: Tsehay Akefafay Derejet, 2006, pp. 75–6; Baalu, Oromay, pp. 24 and 50–54.

16Ethiopian Herald, 5 Feb. 1977; Begashaw, Yecoloel Mengistu Haile Maryam, p. 291.

17Marina and David Ottaway, Ethiopia: Empire in Revolution, New York: Africana Publishing, 1978, pp. 142–6; Judith Ashakih, Gift of Incense: A Story of Love and Revolution in Ethiopia, Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2005, p. 290; Stéphane Courtois et al. (eds), The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999, p. 691.

18‘Farewell to American Arms’, Time magazine, 9 May 1977.

19David A. Korn, Ethiopia, the United States and the Soviet Union, Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986, pp. 28–9.

20NARA, RG 59, 1978STATE106159, 26 April 1978.

21PRO, FCO 31-2251, C. M. Carruthers, ‘Leading Personalities of Ethiopia’, 19 May 1978; NARA, RG 59, 1978ADDIS02129, 11 May 1978.

22NARA, RG 59, 1979ADDIS01388, 19 April 1979; Donald L. Donham, ‘Revolution and Modernity in Maale: Ethiopia, 1974 to 1987’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34, no. 1 (Jan. 1992), p. 43.

23Paul Henze archives, Hoover Institution, box 71, ‘A Communist Ethiopia?’, 1981.

24NARA, RG 59, 1979ADDIS01388, 19 April 1979.

25Shambel, Misikirnet be Derg Abalat, p. 327.

26Habtamu Alebachew, Ye Kesar Enba (Tears of Cesar), Addis Ababa: Far East Trading Publishing, 2007, pp. 122, 142–3, 145 and 150.

27Dawit Wolde Giorgis, Red Tears: War, Famine and Revolution in Ethiopia, Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1989, p. 58; BArch, DY 30/IV 2/2.035/127, Report on Propaganda, 4 April 1978, pp. 253–6; Baalu wrote the critical memoir entitled Oromay, used elsewhere in this chapter, and vanished in 1984, presumably killed.

28Dawit Shifaw, The Diary of Terror: Ethiopia 1974 to 1991, Bloomington, IN: Trafford Publishing, 2012, p. 72; Begashaw, Yecoloel Mengistu Haile Maryam ena Yederggemenawoch, p. 378.

29Paul Henze archives, Hoover Institution, box 68, ‘Revolution Day’, 12 Sept. 1977, pp. 16–17; the fines are mentioned in PRO, FCO 31-2093, D. M. Day, ‘Mengistu’, 15 June 1977; see also Giorgis, Red Tears, p. 59.

30MAE, 326QONT/28, Pierre Nolet, ‘Chronique mensuelle’, 11 Dec. 1979; Habtamu, Ye Kesar Enba, p. 122.

31MAE, 326QONT/28, ‘Note: Situation intérieure de l’Ethiopie’, 27 Feb. 1981.

32Clapham, Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia, pp. 70–77.

33Ibid., p. 77.

34François Jean, Éthiopie: Du bon usage de la famine, Paris: Médecins Sans Frontières, 1986, pp. 21–5; Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994, pp. 204–5.

35BArch, DY 30/11498, 6 May 1982, p. 12; BArch, DY 30/27158, 3 Dec. 1982, p. 3; PRO, FCO 31-3895, D. C. B. Beaumont, ‘Meeting of EC Ambassadors’, 23 Sept. 1983.

36Ethiopian Herald, 6 and 26 July 1984.

37Henze, Layers of Time, pp. 306–7; Paul Henze archives, Hoover Institution, box 72, ‘Communist Ethiopia: Is it Succeeding?’, Jan. 1985; Giorgis, Red Tears, p. 135, mentions ‘hundreds’ of North Koreans; see also p. 59 for the trip to North Korea in 1982.

38Paul Henze archives, Hoover Institution, box 71, ‘A Communist Ethiopia?’, 1981; Korn, Ethiopia, the United States and the Soviet Union, pp. 122–3.

39Ethiopian Herald, 4 and 7 Sept. 1984; the biography is mentioned in Giorgis, Red Tears, p. 172.

40Korn, Ethiopia, the United States and the Soviet Union, pp. 122–3.

41‘Ethiopians Mark 10th Anniversary of Socialist Revolution’, United Press International, 12 Sept. 1984; Ethiopian Herald, 16 Sept. 1984.

42MfAA, C 1852, Travel Report, April 1978, p. 58; Donham, ‘Revolution and Modernity in Maale’, p. 29.

43Korn, Ethiopia, the United States and the Soviet Union, pp. 123–4.

44Henze, Layers of Time, p. 307; Paul Henze archives, Hoover Institution, box 72, ‘Communist Ethiopia: Is it Succeeding?’, Jan. 1985; box 73, ‘Exploiting Famine and Capitalizing on Western Generosity’, March 1986, p. 91; Korn, Ethiopia, the United States and the Soviet Union, pp. 124–6.

45Laurence Binet (ed.), Famine et transferts forcés de populations en Ethiopie 1984–1986, Paris: Médecins Sans Frontières, 2013; Alex de Waal, ‘Is the Era of Great Famines Over?’, New York Times, 8 May 2016.

46Gebru Tareke, The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009, pp. 218–61.

47Charles Mitchell, ‘“Operation Red Star”: Soviet Union, Libya back Ethiopia in Eritrean War’, 20 March 1982, UPI; Messay Kebede, Ideology and Elite Conflicts: Autopsy of the Ethiopian Revolution, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011, pp. 307–24.

48Alex de Waal, Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia, New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991, pp. 302–7.

49Henze, Layers of Time, pp. 327–9.

50Paul Henze archives, Hoover Institution, box 68, ‘Travel Diary, 1991 June’.

AFTERWORD

1Elleni Centime Zeleke, ‘Addis Ababa as Modernist Ruin’, Callaloo, 33, no. 1 (Spring 2010), p. 125.

2‘How Kim Jong Un Builds his Personality Cult’, The Economist, 8 June 2017.

3Joseph Willits, ‘The Cult of Bashar al-Assad’, Guardian, 1 July 2011.

4Kadri Gursel, ‘The Cult of Erdogan’, Al-Monitor, 6 Aug. 2014.

5Tom Phillips, ‘Xi Jinping: Does China Truly Love “Big Daddy Xi” – or Fear Him?’, Guardian, 19 Sept. 2015.

6Rowan Callick, ‘No Turning Back the Tide on Xi Jinping Personality Cult’, Australian, 25 Nov. 2017; Viola Zhou, ‘“Into the Brains” of China’s Children: Xi Jinping’s “Thought” to Become Compulsory School Topic’, South China Morning Post, 23 Oct. 2017; Jamil Anderlini, ‘Under Xi Jinping, China is Turning Back to Dictatorship’, Financial Times, 11 Oct. 2017.