There are two ways to travel around the world: the first consists of crossing the threshold of your house in order to take a journey and return home; the second consists of never budging from your house.
Whether you travel or not, you always remain the same distance from its heart, and as everything is built based on a unique plan, the inert path makes it possible to go quicker and farther in the quest of the universal form.
Nor should we forget that the Earth, rotating once every twenty-four hours, remains our fastest vehicle, and that adding one movement to another runs the risk of cancelling both of them out.
In comforting apocalyptic times (apocalypse means revelation), natural catastrophes—tidal waves, earthquakes, floods—are often the parents of changes in geography and climate, and famines and epidemics that force man and beast to undertake long, painful exoduses in which the wolf can become prey to wolf.
Man, who most of the time is a man for man—in other words a wolf toward his peers—can witness this stupid tendency accentuate … or go the way of the etymological meaning of apocalypse that is revealed to us, if we finally decide to live as human beings.
It is my hope that this chapter will help all the survivors of good will to find their way.
The Earth makes a complete rotation every twenty-four hours. The terrestrial rotation turns around an axis passing by two points: the poles. These are the only points that do not move in this rotation.
Geographic north is the direction in which an observer anywhere can look toward the point called the North Pole. This direction will differ from different parts of the world.
The cardinal points (north, south, east, and west) are the points from which the other points on the horizon can be located. Once north has been identified, the other points will be as well. For example, if north is before us, south is behind, east is on our right, and west is on our left.
By knowing how to recognize the constellations, it becomes possible to get directions at night. The most convenient method for identifying them is called the alignment method, based on the absolute certainty that the Pole Star always designates north.
THE BIG AND LITTLE DIPPER The Big Dipper is a group of seven stars of average magnitude that lie close together. Four of these stars form a trapezium (a convex square whose two sides are parallel but unequal in length), whose most acute angle is accompanied by the other three stars on the outside. The Big Dipper is also known as the Grand Cart (the four stars of the trapezium would be the points of the cart’s four wheels and the other three stars the hitch).
Once you recognize this constellation, you can find the Pole Star by drawing an imaginary line passing through the two stars at the end of the Big Dipper, a line that is four or five times longer than the distance separating these two stars.
The Little Dipper is also made up of seven stars drawing the same figure as the previous constellation, but in which the Pole Star forms the outermost point of the hitch. The Little Dipper is also known as the Little Cart.
THE SEASONAL CONSTELLATIONS OF THE ZODIAC The Pole Star is the only star in the sky that does not rise or set. Clearly identified, it makes it possible to know other star groupings: recognition of other constellations will therefore certify its actual position.
The constellation of Cassiopeia sketches a sort of downstroke in the shape of an M or a W—it is symmetrically located an equal distance from the Pole Star and the Big Dipper.
In autumn, using the Pole Star as your reference point and one and one half times the distance between it and the Big Dipper, you can find the constellations of Aries and Pisces, then Aquarius. Following the ecliptic line (the circle described by the Earth), you can find the constellation of Capricorn.
In winter, start from the Little Dipper and by using the three and one half times the distance between its most separated stars, you will find the constellation of Taurus. Then following the elliptical line, you can find the constellations of Gemini and Cancer.
In summer, by following the line that separates the two stars farthest apart of the Little Dipper and multiplying that distance by four and one half in the direction opposite the Pole Star, you will find the constellations of Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius.
Note: I would like to recommend the excellent movable celestial chart created by Pierre Bourge, which offers the aspects of the sky for each hour of every night of the year.
By observing the Moon’s different phases at different hours, we can find several different directions (see the diagram below).
In the first quarter at 6 p.m., the Moon is in the south; it is in the east at 12:00.
Several Other Ways to Find North
WITH A WATCH With a watch indicating the solar hour, place the small hand in the direction of the Sun; the bissextile or line dividing the center of the angle formed by the small hand and the line meeting the center of the watch at 12 will indicate the north/south direction, with south being inside the angle.
BY THE SUN You should know that the Sun is in the east at six o’clock in the morning, in the south at noon, and in the west at six o’clock in the evening (using solar hours, of course).
BY THE MERIDIAN LINE See chapter 1.2 on Time, in the section on Sundials: the meridian line indicates the direction of north/south.
Have you ever given orders to the morning, or shown the dawn its place so that she knows the edges of earth? —Job 38: 12–14
The east-west rotation causes the Sun to progress from the east to the west and thereby cause the alternation of days and nights. For a long time, clocks were regulated by the real local hour. Then in 1834, an identical hour for a unified region was adopted, which varied only from one region to the next. This gave birth to the time zone system, according to which, starting from the originating meridian line (that of Greenwich), the world is divided into twenty-four slices with a 15° opening. Each slice corresponds to the angle of the Earth’s rotation in one hour.
The traveler moving eastward is ahead of the Sun; if he moves westward, he is following its apparent progression. A traveler heading east at the appropriate speed will remain continuously in the light, as if the Sun was suspended in its course. His journal will then indicate one more day than in reality; if he goes westward, he will find himself a day behind. In practice, this operation takes place when the traveler crosses the International Date Line, an arbitrary line that follows the antipodal meridian to that of the Greenwich meridian.
This device ordinarily consists of a mobile magnetic needle in a horizontal plane. This needle is placed in a copper container (a non-magnetic metal) sealed by a piece of glass. The bottom of the container consists of a dial that bears the cardinal points and a gradation of degrees. The tip of the magnetic needle indicates north.
There now exist dials in degrees or grades, and oil bath compasses characterized by easily read screens with increasing gradations preventing all error.
During the war, prisoners (knowing the necessity of this instrument) manufactured compasses by any possible means in the event they could escape.
Here are the various elements they obtained: a razor blade, a compass needle pierced in the center with a hole for the pivot, a safety pin found in Red Cross packages (this would be firmly centered in a box of matches to balance the compass needle), a non-magnetic copper strip from the electric light bulbs stolen from the German shacks, a magnetic cylinder sent under the Germans’ noses in the packages, and finally the matchbox marked with the cardinal points. It is good to note that despite the precarious nature of the materials used and the obstacles encountered, the creative imagination of these prisoners was exemplarily vigorous and efficient.
I personally tried to create a compass by rubbing a needle, always in the same direction, with a piece of silk, from the eye to the tip. I placed this pierced needle crosswise over a piece of paper in a small tub of water, delicately placing the paper on the surface of the liquid. I immediately observed that the needle oriented to a north/south line. Of course, this experiment will be valid for any calm water surface (pond, lake, puddle) sheltered from the wind and in a spot where no magnetic influence is at work.
There is a plant known as prickly lettuce or the compass plant (Lactuca serriola) that indicates the direction with its leaves. This wild plant can reach heights several inches over four feet. Its bluish-green leaves are cut into jagged fairly narrow segments along rigid stems and they obliquely turn in such a way to indicate noon by their sides while their surfaces indicate east and west.
Other Precision Measuring Devices
THE PEDOMETER A precision instrument used to measure the distance traveled by foot. Its operating principle is quite simple: each step produces an impulse that is recorded on a dial indicating the distance traveled. It can be carried on the person, pressed against the body or in a case attached to the belt.
THE ALTIMETER A high-precision instrument for determining mountain altitude. Precautions should be taken when using it.
THE TOPOFIL This is a thread-measuring device with a counter that measures the length of thread that has been unreeled from the device. The operator attaches the end of the thread to a fixed point. After the measurement has been taken, the thread is cut off and thrown away.
THE CURVIMETER An instrument used to measure exact distances on a map. You should know that on a scale of 1/5000 a turn of the dial represents 5 kilometers and for 1/10,000, 10 kilometers.
THE DECLENSION We should first recall that there is a difference between the north of the Pole Star (astronomical north) and the north of the compass (magnetic north, determined by terrestrial magnetic field). This difference is called the declension and does not exist on the agonic line (from the Greek gonia meaning angle).
For all points located east of this line, the north end of the needle is drawn toward the west; for those located on the west side, it is drawn toward the east.
To determine the declension of a place, we need to locate the Pole Star, which will indicate where the north is and allow us to establish the north/south line. Plant a stake and place the compass on it in such a way that the line of sight is pointed toward astronomical north. When the compass needle has stabilized, read the number of degrees; this will indicate this spot’s declension.
ORIENTATION OF A MAP Orienting a map means moving it in such a way that its meridians and parallels are in the same direction as those over the terrain.
The parallels (lines parallel to the equator) and the meridians (all demi-circles traveling through the two poles) demarcate a square on the Earth with curved lines. Maps therefore appear like square surfaces whose sides are the parallels and meridians (a meridian always indicates the direction of geographical north). The direction of magnetic north and geographical north are generally indicated by an arrow on the edge of the map. The margin also contains the value of their declension and its annual variation. To orient the map, place a compass with the N/S line of its dial in the direction of a meridian, then turn the map and compass together until the blue tip of the needle makes an angle with the N/S direction equal to the declension.
HOW TO FIND A LOCATION ON THE MAP Once the map has been oriented with the help of a compass, all you need to do is find two noteworthy points in the landscape. Let’s note, for example, a church with a pin on the map and trace the sight line with a pencil, then find another point and draw a second line. The meeting point of these two sight lines will then indicate the site from which the observation was made.
THE NUMERICAL SCALE OF A MAP A map’s numerical scale is equal to the following ratio:
real distance separating two points on the map
real distance separating two points on the terrain
It is indicated by a fraction whose numerator is always equal to 1. For example, the scale 1/10,000 means it is enough to multiply the measured length of the map by 10,000 to obtain the actual length on the terrain.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES There are two numbering systems: Grade numbering (gr): each grade is divided into 100 minutes whose symbol is: '. Each minute is divided into seconds, whose symbol is: ".
Numbering in degrees: (—°): each degree is divided into 60 minutes whose symbol is: '. Each minute is divided into 60 seconds whose symbol is: ".
A point can be defined thanks to its geographical coordinates.
Longitude: In order to define longitude, the distance separating the closest meridian point (the vertical line on the map) is measured. This distance is measured to the left of this point if it is east of the originating meridian, and to the right if it is in the west. This length transferred to the graded scale at the bottom of the map gives the number of minutes to add to the number of grades (or degrees). Each segment of the scale, which is depicted in alternating white and striped squares, corresponds to a minute. This is how one determines the longitude of a point.
Latitude: This is figured the same way by taking as the base parallel the closest southern point for the northern hemisphere and the closest northern one for the southern hemisphere, while observing the graded scale from bottom to top.
DEFINITION To establish a point on a map, knowledge of these coordinates is essential, but to establish its altitude, we need a third direction.
The total of bumps and hollows on a land surface forms the relief. International standards recommend that the average sea level be taken as level 0 (known as the Clarke ellipsoid).
The relief is depicted on maps by curves that orient in the direction of the slope (the steeper the slope, the closer the curved lines).
CONTOURS A level line is one that connects the points of the same altitude; it is therefore easy to imagine a land surface carved into horizontal planes that are spaced out according to a shared difference in altitude.
On each of these points, the altitude is constant; thicker level lines correspond to the altitudes expressed by a simple number (25 – 50); they are known as master curves. These lines therefore carry the direction of their altitude. The difference of altitude between two contours is called equidistance.
Note: The summits of hills or mountains are generally not located on a contour. This information is explicitly identified by a number; such points are survey points. It is easy, thanks to these contours, to know the altitude of a specific point by proportionally dividing the altitude between the values of the contours and their distance from the point.
THE SLOPE OF THE TERRAIN Two points, A and B, located on a sloping road are separated by one hundred meters on a horizontal plane AC, for example.
This gradient will be defined as the ratio BC/A, which is therefore the relationship of the height difference (10 meters here) to the horizontal distance (100 meters).
To calculate the gradient of the terrain, contours indicating the height differential are helpful. As the map always provides the distances reckoned horizontally, we can therefore read, thanks to the numerical scale, the horizontal distance between two points on the map. It is then enough to transfer these distances as shown earlier, and once the ratio has been obtained, it can be translated into percentage points. As the contours are not regularly spaced out, the gradient is variable.
The construction of a gradient scale: All this requires is to establish the percentage of the gradient. So for a map on which equidistance is ten meters, it involves looking for the horizontal distance × that separates two points located on two consecutive contours for the gradient to be 1%.
A horizontal distance of 1000 meters on the map therefore defines a gradient of 1% if the gradient is 10 meters.
DRAWING A PROFILE To obtain a terrain’s profile, make a diagram that contains the horizontal distances between the consecutive points and their corresponding altitudes. As the choice of the scales for distance and altitude is arbitrary, you can stress the relief.
Reconstituting the Relief on the Map
A MOUNTAIN The base of the mountain is a closed contour that completely encircles the one following it.
A DEPRESSION is also represented by closed contour lines.
A PASS This is the passage between two mountains. The contour lines on a map increase while following two opposing directions and diminish while following two others: the passes are often survey points.
A MOUNTAINOUS SPUR OR ROUNDED HILLTOP It is indicated by contours in a V whose tip is pointing at the diminishing altitudes.
A NOTCH is indicated by contour lines whose tip is directed toward increasing altitudes.
RIDGE LINES A mountainous knoll can be followed, on the downward terrain on the left or right, by drawing a line that passes through the summit of the V that outlines the contour lines.
THALWEGS The valley bottoms can be followed, using the rising terrain on the right or left, by drawing a line that passes through the summits of the V that outline the contours. The largest are marked by waterways.
Before going on a hike, it makes sense to determine the journey you plan on making in advance in order to avoid unplanned deviations and going astray.
Walking with a compass means hiking without using any natural reference points for getting your bearings. The compass includes a travel arrow that glows at night indicating the direction in which you are moving, a dial with an index for reading the bearings, and a magnetic needle that is also luminous at night. The angle formed by the direction of north in a Lambert square with the direction in which the individual is moving is called the directional bearings. This angle is measured in grades or degrees in a clockwise direction. To walk in a predetermined direction, this direction will be drawn on the map, then the bearings of this direction will be measured with the help of a compass. For example, if the bearings obtained are at 250 grades, turn the compass in its housing until this reading is in line with the directional arrow. To locate this direction, turn your body while keeping the compass horizontal with it open and the directional arrow in front of you until the magnetic needle hits this reading, while keeping in mind the value of the declination and the angle formed by Lambert north and geographical north. You will then be facing the direction in which you wish to go.
Note: Lambert coordinates were the standard grid pattern used before international standards were agreed upon. Any map created before 1955 will use this grid as well as the geographical coordinates, but current maps still carry the Lambert coordinates. While geographical north is always indicated on the edge of a map by a parallel arrow, magnetic north and Lambert north are also often indicated.
ITINERARIES We must know how to take advantage of the different scales. This is why a map at the scale of 1/25,000 is strongly advised for all walks and hikes in order to avoid any drastic errors. For the study and preparation of an itinerary, various routes should be chosen in accordance with capacities and the materials used: the ones that are the shortest distance, the ones offering the least exposure to threats (rockslides, avalanches), and those that are the shortest in time.
THE TIME OF THE ITINERARY On average, you should plan an hour to make an ascent with a height difference of 1000–1,350 feet, and an hour for a descent with a height difference of 2,300–2,650 feet. On average, an additional hour can be foreseen for every three miles of horizontal distance.
WEATHER CONDITIONS In summer, the existing paths should be used, while in winter, it is necessary to use the compass for guidance and to follow a straight line except where the slopes are too steep. At these points a horizontal course needs to be followed to rejoin the existing footpath at the end of the itinerary.
Walk as much as you can down here and explore the woods in every direction, forests shall teach you more about your soul than books.
— Saint Bernard
Walking is a physical exertion in which all parts of the body are in motion, the arms serving as a counterbalance to the legs. The forward movement of our legs maintains blood circulation through the head and torso. The Greek philosopher Aristotle, in fact, taught his disciples during daily strolls.
I would like to note in this regard the Peripatetic school formed by partisans of Aristotle’s doctrine who philosophized while walking (peripatetikos is Greek for walking), which later gave birth to a sobriquet for streetwalkers: peripaticians.
Thoughts flow smoothly with this rhythmic irrigation of the brain and it is conducive for reflection, but this independence of the mind can only be obtained by perfect mastery of the physical body, and most importantly, breathing. We should therefore avoid making excessive efforts that will cause our breathing rate to break down and create imbalance throughout our entire being. When you come across an obstacle, it does not necessarily mean taking a deep breath the better to leap over it. Often this can result in falling flat on your face.
Every hindrance on our route needs to be envisioned and observed so it can be stepped over or skirted. This is one of walking’s principal benefits: discovering nature not by thwarting it but by adapting to its whims, without raping it like an unwilling bride. This will allow our entire body to gradually accustom itself to the changes in climate, vegetation, and atmosphere. Our civilization denies the handicap shared by all humans of having to adapt to a new land, a new horizon; walking alone helps this transmutation.
It is interesting in this regard to take a look at the human skeleton. In fact, the body is conceived in such a way that each of its limbs, by the arrangements of its bones, forms a pyramid, but if the base of this pyramid is formed by the largest number of bones, these bones are the narrowest and the best articulated.
We should note though that the weight of the pyramidal object is concentrated in the base, thus opposite that of the bony pyramid in which the weight resting on the extremities is “concentrated” at the top of the limb. This is how, while the general shape is similar, the determinants of this shape, such as weight for one and the complexity for the other, are reversed.
The anatomy of our limbs thereby allows us to support our bodies while touching and delicately exploring outside forms. We should therefore try to remain constantly aware of all the sensations we can receive from our extremities.
Toponymy is the study of the origin of place names: an expert in this field therefore searches for the meaning of the names of places, their etymology, and their origin. The names of villages, hamlets, and localities have not just been written down due to the pleasant sound they make when spoken aloud. Many factors went into their creation. This study sometimes offers valuable information about unknown regions. We should note, though, that the reason for the name may no longer be in evidence, as dwellings, plant life, and crops are always subject to change. In the U.S. and Canada, many names, such as the ubiquitous Springfield, are not necessarily indicative of a natural feature in their location, as they are often names transplanted by colonists from their home countries. Names in North America of Native American origin, however, can offer revealing information about the geographical nature of their locations: Neodesha in Oklahoma, for example, takes its name from the Osage ni-o-sho-de: “the river is smoky with mud.” The old English word from which Liverpool was derived (Liuerpol) means much the same thing: “pool with thick or muddy water.”
NAMES FROM NATURE These are often the oldest and hence the most difficult to explain.
The nature of the terrain: grasslands, swamps or marshes, for example Marshfield, or Plainfield.
Valleys: Sunnydale, Airedale (Aire River Valley), Mill Valley, Passyunk (from Lenape “in the valley,” which is also the source for the name Passaic, in New Jersey); Laval (Quebec, French for “the valley”—from the Latin valles); Welcombe (from the Old English wella + comb meaning “valley with a spring”).
Springs: Springfield, Welburn (OE wella + burna meaning “stream fed by a spring”).
Mountains: Vermont (green mountain), Taconic Mountains (Natick for “steep ascent”), Monadnock (Abnaki: “mountain that sticks up like an island”), Nittany (Lenape: “single mountain”), Tacoma (Lushootseed: “snow-covered mountain”), Attala, Alabama (from the Cherokee otali: “mountain”). The state of Montana.
Stones or piles of stones: The Montpellier in France, from which the state capital of Vermont, Montpelier, takes its name, means “the large rock pile.” The Shunock River in Connecticut takes its name from a Mohegan word meaning “stony place.” The city Stamford in Connecticut takes its name from the English town of the same name, which derived its name from the German word for stone: stein. The name of Conneaut, Ohio, comes from the Seneca ga-nen-yot, meaning “standing stone.” Chattahoochee (as in the river) comes from the Greek, cato hocce, means “marked rock.”
NAMES FROM TREES Oak: Oakland, Oak Ridge, Oakville, Oak Island, Kildare (which takes its name from the Gaelic Cill Dara, meaning “Oak Church”). The Irish Derry means “oak grove.” Similar configurations are found with other trees such as beech, willow, maple, elm, and so forth.
NAMES FROM PLANTS Ferns: Ferndale, Fern Rock, Fern Cascades, Fern Creek, and so forth. Farleigh is derived from the Old English ferlega meaning “woodland clearing where ferns grow.”
Towns simply named “Thorn” appear in North America and Great Britain; for example, Thorne in Yorkshire. Thornbury, Blackthorn, Thornbank, and Thornfeld are also common.
NAMES FROM ANIMALS Animals appear in place names far less frequently than plants and geographical features of the landscape. Mohegan means “hungry animal or wolf,” while there are several sites in Maine whose Abnaki meanings are animal-related, such as Squapan, which means “bear’s den,” and Ulmcolcus, which means “whistling duck.” The Jamaica that gives its name to Jamaica Plain (and pond) in Boston is actually a Natick word for “beaver.” Domestic animals can be found in place names like Cow Creek, Colorado (which also has a Coyote Creek), and Horse Lake, New Mexico.
Distinctive regional architecture is much more in evidence in Europe, Africa, and Asia than in North America, where extensive development has created a similar approach to building across the entire continent. The term “generic” was coined to express the dreary sameness of this architecture, which has replaced the earlier regional styles in large part. However, some regions still have distinctive styles that reflect the once-amazing diversity that characterized this land. The adobe structures of the Southwest, the stone houses of the mid-Atlantic states, the classic New England wooden farmhouses, the stilted houses on the southern seaboards still exist, but have been replaced by and large by cookie-cutter suburban developments and retail strip malls that border endless miles of our highways. These developments owe nothing to regional character save in their names, which echo distinctive regional features that no longer exist.
The beauty of regional architecture primarily stems from the purity of the local material used, which lets the buildings integrate harmoniously into the landscape. Their lines work with rather than against the natural contours of their landscapes. They form a bond with the landscape that is reflected in the intimacy of their interiors.
Preparations for Traveling by Foot
FOODS Dried fruits and nuts are the most preferable foods because they keep for a long time and are highly nutritious (dates, figs, hazelnuts, almonds, walnuts). Pilgrim wafers (see the paragraph on these in the Cooking chapter) also represent a good food that will not take up much space, as are raw, organic honey and pollen. It is helpful to know the various wild plants and fruits that can be used to supplement your diet throughout your trip, depending on the season (for more, see the chapter on Gathering). To avoid suffering from thirst you should carry a stainless steel canteen or waterskin.
EQUIPMENT What to wear—clothing should obviously be light during the summer (shorts or canvas pants, a pullover or T-shirt) and warm during the winter (thick wool socks and long johns). The best walking shoes remain the leather shoes with heavy tread like ranger parachute boots, which provide protection for the feet and good support for the ankles.
Things to carry—the best knapsack to carry is the Sherpa kind with the metal frame and several overlapping pockets, which avoids the need of unpacking everything when you just need one thing. Inside you should carry spares for all your clothing (shoes, long underwear, T-shirts, pullovers, and so on), a pair of espadrilles, a small emergency medical kit (with lemon juice instead of alcohol, an Ace bandage, Band-Aids), a raincoat (the best are the Alpine variety with hoods that seal at the wrist and a zipper that can be opened by zipping up or down, and which can be folded easily to fit inside a pouch). For cooking, the best option is the enameled mess kit that can be hermetically sealed; a small butane cook stove does not take up too much space and can ensure a quick backup source of heat for hot drinks or a quick meal. A large hunting knife and a small hatchet can also prove extremely useful.
SHELTER OVERNIGHT If you have a down jacket, you can avoid carrying a down sleeping bag; the superlight half bag called the Elephant’s Foot is fully sufficient.
Portable Igloo
It is so light it can be carried on your back, hung from the backpack frame. At night, place it on the ground and use your hat to seal the opening at the top.
If you want a tent, a very practical model is the individual inflatable igloo tent, which is extremely light and takes up little space. There are also two good models for protection that appear in the Survival Scrapbook series published by my English and American friends at Unicorn Editions (Brighton and Seattle).
An igloo is an extremely light block of Styrofoam that can be molded directly over the rock. It is a dwelling that is not very cumbersome when hiking and provides an excellent rest stop; it is comparable to the natural shelter of the turtle.
To manufacture this object, refer to the next plate:
The other model is a device made from a transparent plastic material, Rainshell, which can be used as a raincoat or a bivouac for the night. When folded, it can be carried around the shoulder like a garden hose.
If you do not have a tent or some other means of protection against the rain or dew, you need to keep your sleeping bag in a waterproof bag.
ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT Long, harsh winters have inspired the use of certain devices that make it possible to travel without sinking into the snow, by spreading one’s body weight over a larger surface.
Skis are long wooden or metal skates that come to a point at the front and are worn under one’s shoes for gliding or walking over the snow. Their use would be impossible without the help of ski poles, which end in a round surface over a point that can be used for getting a purchase on the surface, for generating momentum, and for keeping your balance.
Snowshoes are large oval soles (around three feet long and fifteen inches wide) that fit onto your shoes with straps and allow you to walk more easily over the snow. The two edges of these soles are connected by sticks that cross from one side to the other, or by taut, interwoven cords.
The luge is a small one-person sled, equipped with skates, that makes rapid movement over snowy slopes possible.
Don’t blindly trust the directions the signposts might offer. During wars, many groups and even entire armies were led astray from their path by the moving of these signposts. In fact, they had been moved by the opposing armies.
It is always a better idea to travel in groups with trustworthy companions because during hard times the major routes will be teeming with bandits.
PASSIVE DEFENSE A good way to avoid the danger of kill or be killed is obviously by being able to run away, which requires long legs and not easily losing your breath. If a person carries no aggressive tendencies inside, as Lao-Tzu says: “neither the hand of the criminal nor the tooth of the tiger is to be feared.” As an illustration of this concept, here is an anecdote featuring two Franciscans:
One day, for example, when two monks had gone out together, they came across a mad man who began throwing stones at them. One of the monks, seeing that his companion was about to be struck, hurled himself in front of him to take the blows in his stead, wishing to suffer the injury instead of his brother. However, his companion shared the same feelings, and also pushed himself forward. Between them they created a back and forth movement that stupefied the lunatic and caused him to stop, thinking he was hitting brothers even madder than he was.
Animals, when defending themselves, do not hesitate to use their full physical strength and the blows they give or receive are unrestrained. So could we be like the animal we have to attack in defense of our life and that of our friends, or would we have some kind of strength within that makes it pointless to come to blows? In any kind of quarrel, our thoughts clash, for if truth is one, it appears in different guises, and to view someone else’s opinion as worse than your own is itself the very sign of how little we understand our own faith.
We are sparks from the same fire and if discord is present, understanding will only emerge when each individual realizes that our pain at not being understood by another can be traced back to the fact that our true enemy is ourselves. Passive resistance should not be mistaken for an act of cowardice: one opposes an adversary by accepting the bad treatment that follows. This refusal to fight supports the power to fight as it is specifically the mastery of one’s violent actions that releases all the strength that will topple one’s antagonist. “And the vanquished enemy shall arise victorious.”
When there are more than one or two assailants, it becomes harder to convince them of the benefits of nonviolence by our presence alone, as these assailants are stimulated by their numbers and have no hesitation about committing the most shameful actions in order to show their companions how brave and virile they are. Everyone is also familiar with the irresistible movement of a crowd, where those in the back keep pushing those in front forward.
Note: I recently came up with another form of passive defense, one based both on humor and love. It has proven quite effective at times. I call it the measure.
It involves hanging a dressmaker’s measuring tape, and if an assailant bothers you, you simply take his measurements—literally: the length of his arms, his shoulders, or his weapons, while carefully noting down the measurements like a good surveyor. After a few seconds of alarm, he’ll pop out the question: “What are you doing?” While continuing to do this, you can say, “I measure everything I do.” You can also strike the measuring tape. It is good to take measures against violent acts, which are always disproportionate. This is another way of turning the other cheek in order to highlight the inanity of all violence.
ACTIVE DEFENSE For a sage, it is always better to die than kill, although it is equally important to prevent the other from becoming a killer. When fighting alone, our decision only involves ourselves, but if we are with other individuals who need protection (women, children, the elderly, animals), it becomes obvious we need to avoid being pushed around.
Out of a host of options, I have selected two effective defense methods.
Combat Cane: This is a specific sport that is often compared to French boxing, in which, unlike English boxing, the feet are just as effective as weapons as the fists. It is practical to carry a cane when traveling (made of oak or chestnut, for example) and shod in iron, like an alpenstock. This cane can be used to create an impassable war in front of a foe when held in the center by constant wrist motion and proper placement of your feet. Dashiell Hammett describes this object in motion:
The stick spun sidewise with thud of knob on temple […] He spun his stick and battered a passage to the thin man […] and the ebony stick whirled swifter in his hand—spun as quarter staves once spun in Sherwood Forest. Spun to the clicking tune of wood on bone, on metal weapons, to the duller rhythm of wood on flesh. Spun never in full circles, but in short arcs—one end’s recovery from a blow adding velocity to the other’s stroke. Where an instant ago knob had swished from left to right, now weighted ferrule struck from right to left—struck under up-thrown arms, over low-thrown arms—put into space a forty-inch sphere, whose radii were whirling black flails.
Behind his stick that had become a living part of him, Steve Threefall knew happiness—that rare happiness that only the expert ever finds—the joy in doing a thing that he can do supremely well.
—“Nightmare Town,” Dashiell Hammett, Crime Stories and Other Writings, New York: Penguin (Library of America), 2001.
This method combines dance, fencing, and wielding an orchestra conductor’s or a majorette’s baton. Those who wish to learn more on this martial art can find books specifically on cane combat as well as a plethora of books on other forms of stick fighting. There are also many associations and dojos across North America that can offer instruction in these self-defense methods.
Jiu-Jitsu: Jiu-Jitsu combines all barehanded combat arts. Jiu means suppleness and jitsu means technique. What makes this fighter unbeatable is his great self-mastery that allows him to dominate his animal reflexes and compel his body to obey the smallest requirement of his mind. Because his mind has been stripped clean of all preconceived notions and technique, he retains flexibility in his movements and is free to take initiative throughout the entire fight. Teaching jiu-jitsu requires an alliance of two opposites: flexibility (dodges and evasions) and rigor (parries and strikes). It is therefore a way of winning through being flexible, not using might against might but adding your own force to the other intelligently, thereby attuning your movements with those of your assailant. When skillfully practiced, this combat technique can lead to the attainment of a spirit of peace and nonviolence. In fact, a person who knows how to master his mental and physical strength can back down with no humiliation, thereby avoiding a pointless fight.
Books and study centers are plentiful across the U.S. and Canada for those seeking more extensive information on this martial art.
When humanity is going through a challenging period, starvation is not the only major threat—epidemics often rage during times when the social order has broken down.
PLAGUE The great epidemics that raged through Europe centuries ago were called plagues (from the Late Latin plaga) or pestilences (from the Latin pestis meaning “scourge”). Today, this name is confined to a specific infectious disease, one that is highly contagious and prone to creating epidemics now primarily found in Central Asia and Africa, though small outbreaks have been found in the southwest corner of the United States.
The general symptoms are tachycardia, a feeling of suffocation, delirium, and, depending on the case: buboes on the groin and armpits, pulmonary inflammations, and hemorrhaging through various mucus membranes and tegument layers, often general signs of rapidly fatal septicemia. It is caused by a coccobacillus (Pasteurella pestis) and rats, one of man’s most faithful companions, which played an essential role in its spread through the intermediary of its fleas. It is said that the rats of cities—putrefying traps—always have a few disease carriers in reserve among their population, which they will release among men once their life conditions become too hard. The current methods used to fight plague include vaccines and serums.
It is thanks to the great plagues that ravaged Europe during the Middle Ages that we owe the introduction of the cat into domestic life, as it alone was effective in stopping them by eliminating their direct cause—rats.
CHOLERA The name is derived from the Greek gouttiere: an allusion to the incessant flowing of stools. Cholera is an acute intestinal infection that is highly contagious and still exists in an epidemic state in Asia, although it has appeared in Europe within the last forty years, including an outbreak in Italy in the 1970s. Cholera is caused by the vibrio bacteria (Vibrio cholerae, Eltor strain).
Its symptoms are copious diarrhea, vomiting, considerable loss of fluids and electrolytes, muscle cramps, hypothermia, sudden collapse, and anuria. In serious cases, death can come in twelve to thirty-six hours.
SEVERAL OTHER POSSIBLE EPIDEMICS It is a near certainty, given the degenerate state of modern humanity thanks to the lack of breast-feeding; the overuse of vaccines, medications, and adulterated foods; the pollution of our air and water, and the hatred many individuals carefully nurture within themselves (despite the cultural promotion of so many exemplary lives from Christ to Gandhi), that any kind of apocalyptic period will be accompanied by completely new epidemics.
(From Bernard Assiniwi, Survival in the Bush, Toronto: Copp Clark, 1972.)
ON THE PLAINS Don’t get upset: don’t walk unnecessarily—you do not want to lose yourself more—and think as lucidly as possible. No one is ever lost definitively if he/she is not worn out from walking around trying to find one’s way. Continuing to walk, you risk getting farther away from your camp and you decrease your chances of being found by the rescuers.
Sit down and think while observing. If you departed from the east and have traveled west then, even without the Sun, you can get back to where you started because the conifers, firs, pines and spruce (when they are exposed to the wind) generally lean toward the east. The west wind being the strongest, these shallow-rooted trees slant and let it pass.
If you left from the south toward the north, knowing which way is east, you only have to direct yourself toward the right of the inclination of these trees.
Note: It is also very helpful to know that the mossy side of a tree is always facing north.
IN THE MOUNTAINS Cut a birch branch that is around six inches in diameter and make a staff that is four to six feet long. By lifting it vertically and letting it fall heavily to the floor, you can specify on which side of the mountain you are. The ground on the south side has an echo due to the Sun’s drying out everything. On the other hand, the north side is mute because of the humidity—the Sun only penetrates there a very little or none at all. The east side very often has an echo but less than the south side.
The west, if it is lush with trees, is nearly as mute as the north, but maybe a lot less if it is uncovered and windswept; but the ground is moist enough anyway not to confuse the south and east slopes.
A Shelter from the Night Made of Plants
a) Choose a site that is slightly elevated with good drainage and sheltered from the wind. Plan the shelter so that the opening is facing south or southeast.
b) Cut four young birch or cedar saplings, or chop off four extremely straight branches from another species of tree; tie them to each other to form a rectangle that is about seven by five feet. Fibers from the stalks of cardoons (artichoke thistle) or a similar plant can be used as ties. Place this frame next to a tree or between two trees whose trunks can be used for support.
c) Place a straight branch between these two trees, tying it to a low branch around six feet above the ground; when using only one tree for support or if no suitable trees are available, make one or two V-shaped bundles to support this branch.
d) Next, place the bottom end of the poles or straight sticks on the ground so that the tops go over the cross branch.
e) Place the other poles vertically along the sides of the shelter.
f) Cover the bottom of the frame with conifer branches whose needles are quite dry, which will guarantee good bedding that is both comfortable and insulating.
g) Cover both the walls and the roof of this lean-to with branches, foliage, and bark that is closely packed together.
h) Make a fire, if necessary, facing a wall that will reflect the heat (for more see the chapter on heating).
“La vie est une chose grave, il faut gravir,” (“Life is a serious business, it must be climbed,”) Pierre Reverdy said, and it is a good thing that this statement still echoes in the hearts of certain men whose aim in walking is also to go higher and overcome gravity, because while, scientifically speaking, speleology and mountain climbing are fairly recent sports, mountainsides have been scaled since time immemorial.
There are two kinds of travel by foot through the mountains: the first is hiking and consists of moving through the more or less steep terrains to midway up a mountain. It does not require equipment different from that of hiking on the plains (but you could carry mountain boots, an ice ax, and a good rope for ensuring your safety over any delicate terrain you encounter). The hike remains a relatively simple affair until you reach glacial terrain, which is trickier to navigate and requires more complicated equipment. A simple hike is called an approach when its purpose is to lead you to the base of a vertical mountain face you have decided to climb. This is alpinism, or mountain climbing, strictly speaking. It is certain that the armies of Caesar and Napoleon, which owed the majority of their victories to the speed with which they moved, never took the north face of the mountains when marching through the Alps. Like you or me, whether on a stroll or exodus, these armies took the safest, least rectilinear, but quickest ways: footpaths, ridgelines, streambeds, passes …
Mountain climbing is a complete sport in which the whole being takes part in a slow vertical dance that weds you to the slightest rough patch on the rock. It also offers the joy of a real intimacy with the other members of your party, and the absolute ability to forget time. There are no memories and conscious premeditation; you are living in the instant. This fullness is also acquired on the hard task of fighting yourself, and overcoming that fear of the abyss that never grows old. This vertiginous sport is one that is always permissible to practice with a trained guide and, of course, with the highest quality materials (two hundred feet of nylon rope, rope rings, hammer, pitons, carabiners, ladders …). Organizations like the American Alpine Club in Golden, Colorado are a source for more information on this sport.
I will not leave this topic, though, without telling you the first golden rule of mountain climbing: always have three points of support (both feet and one hand, or both hands and one foot). Mountain climbers in difficulty have even added additional points to these like the chin, and even the teeth!
It is common knowledge that most of the skeletons of our earliest ancestors have been discovered in the caves they used to live in: from the Australopithecus, the first Homo faber to the Neanderthal, the first Homo sapiens.
Today, caves still offer damp but serene shelter to several primitive peoples in many regions of the Earth, as well as animals like wolves, foxes, bears, bats, and mountain lions …
These natural, deep crevices created through the erosion of rock by water are still offering their hospitality. They can be seen on the sides of hills and mountains or detected by the flight of those birds who make their nests in them, or by the chilly air that spills out of them. Springs sometimes reveal the presence of underground corridors (which their waters have hollowed out); these waters are often quite pure.
It is easy to detect the existence of underground passageways when waterways are absent on the heights, yet present in the valleys. This implies the subterranean transport of atmospheric precipitation.
The formation of underground cavities is practically exclusive to limestone, as this rock is soluble in water charged with carbon dioxide. Its residue is weak and does not encumber the hollowed-out area. Frequent fissuring allows the water, which is an important dissolving agent, to penetrate more deeply. Corrosion in an underwater network would be practically nonexistent if the water did not circulate.
The substantial corrosion of rock in hot, humid regions is due to the development of vegetation, which creates a source of carbon dioxide accompanied by the fermentation of plant debris.
Speleologist Michel Siffre intentionally lived in caves for a period of sixty-three days in the 1960s. He tells of his experience in his book Hors du temps (Outside Time). Like mountaineering, speleology (or spelunking) requires very complex, professional equipment, although it is possible to stay in caves near the surface and the upper areas of grottos without any special tools. Professional speleology associations can provide more information for those who are interested in exploring this topic further.
Anyone who has not seen Mammoth Cave or Carlsbad Caverns (or Padirac in France), or any of the other amazing cave systems and grottoes that abound across the planet, will have a hard time grasping the tenacious passion for discovering new things that animates spelunkers.
Basic Swimming: The Breaststroke
Performing the breaststroke requires the swimmer’s body to be fully immersed in the water in a horizontal position, on his chest.
ARM MOVEMENT The arms are held straight out in front of the body (in a gliding position), with the palms turned down. The palms and forearms part slightly and abruptly point down to push the water backwards; at the end of the stroke, the palms are turned toward the back and the elbows are high (but never higher than the shoulders), then the elbows go back toward the rib cage. The hands will gradually come back together while moving back to the front.
LEG MOVEMENT The legs are relaxed, more or less joined with the knees at their normal extension. The legs are brought back by bending the thighs at the torso and the legs at the thighs; the knees should not sink below the vertical line formed by the hips to prevent the thighs from creating too much drag; the heels will approach the buttocks. Then, with an inner rotation of the thigh, push the feet outside the hips and knees. The outside directed movement of the legs has to be continuous until knees and thighs are fully extended.
COORDINATION OF ARMS AND LEGS The propulsive movement of the arms should be followed immediately by that of the legs.
Teaching this swimming stroke can be made much easier with the help of a life belt, life jacket, or a person supporting the student’s chin.
To breathe, the head should be lifted from the chin up after the thrust. The swimmer takes a breath at the end of the thrust and exhales into the water during the glide. He or she should never put their head completely under the water.
Large expanses of water do not always have bridges or fords conveniently nearby. Rivers, streams, lakes, and estuaries can all require long detours when crossing them by swimming is not feasible or no boats are available.
UBA “INNER TUBE” This boat, which is identical to those of the ancient Incas, requires the following materials: two inner tubes (preferably for truck tires), a sheet of plywood, a large plastic drop cloth, cord, and adhesive tape that is about two inches wide and water-resistant. The two inflated inner tubes are placed next to each other on the plywood sheet so a piece conforming to their outer dimensions can be cut out. Holes are then drilled in the plywood so the inner tubes can be attached to it with cords. The plastic sheet or drop cloth can then be placed over it and folded so that it covers the full length of the tubes up to their tops. The plastic will be then securely attached using an adhesive tape such as duct tape.
SIX-BARREL RAFT This raft is solid and stable, but it is heavy and hard to steer. It is mainly recommended for deep water and rapids. Its construction requires the following materials:
6 metal barrels (preferably 50-gallon oil drums)
4 roof beams of 8 × 5 by 2.25 m.
4 roof beams of 8 × 5 by 3.06 m.
16 bolts of 140 × 10
32 washers
2 open-ended wrenches
2 saws
2 chisels of 30
2 mallets
2 braces
2 drill bits of 10 mm in diameter
PADDLE, BOATHOOK, AND POLE A so-called Mississippi paddle is formed of a plywood blade that is four inches in diameter with a hardwood handle (such as chestnut), in which a slot has been carved. Cover the slot with wood glue before inserting the paddle blade at the bottom of the handle. Screw it on with brass screws (4 × 25). Sand the paddle, then varnish it with three layers. Sand it again after the first layer dries.
POLE A pole is useful for propelling a raft through shallow water. Its ideal length is ten feet. Ash or chestnut wood is best. Its end can be equipped with a strengthened iron cap that will get a good grip on the river or lake bottom.
BOATHOOK A boathook is a forked shaft or pole that is about seven to eight feet in length. It is equipped with a ferule that has two well-rounded points for easily pulling in to or pushing off from shore.
ROPE BRIDGE This is useful for establishing a passage over waterways that are not too wide. Three riggings, about one and a half inches in diameter each, are placed parallel to the ground. They are connected to each other by ropes arranged in opposing Vs, whose tip will follow alongside the lateral ropes. The distance between the riggings is determined by the size of an average man, meaning that when crossing over the central rigging, the two lateral ones should pass under his arms. The ropes should be solidly attached to branches or tree trunks on either bank by an eight or double key knot (see the chapter on knots).
STILTS This mode of locomotion is primarily used by the inhabitants of marshy areas and by shepherds. They make it possible to cross through wetlands while keeping your feet dry, and to expand your field of vision. Stilts consist of two long staffs provided with forks or stirrups, with the whole contraption made from a resistant hardwood. Small stilts about ten to twenty inches high are used to learn how to walk on them. As a general rule they are between five and ten feet high. Some stilts extend far above their stirrups in such a way that their upper end can be easily grabbed by hand. A more reasonable length is that of the stilts whose extension goes no higher above the stirrups than the knees.
The walker firmly straps on the stilts at the ankles above the stirrups and below the knees. A pole, which can be wielded like a long cane, provides better balance and the possibility of standing with no support, as if it were a third leg. To put on stilts, an equally tall point of support is necessary (a tree, a bridge, a roof …) except for stilts that can be strapped on. To put these on, you strap them on while sitting with the pole planted in the ground between your thighs. You will gradually lift yourself up by successively moving your hands and arms up the pole.
For a long time the duration of the search for those lost at sea was no more than ten days, after which they were considered dead. But this changed in 1952 thanks to the experience of Doctor Bombard, who willingly set out on a small inflatable life raft built in accordance with his instructions. Alain Bombard would spend 113 days on the Mediterranean and then the Atlantic, with a scarcity of material and without cutting into his emergency supplies, by subsisting on raw fish, plankton, birds, seawater, and rainwater.
Bombard recounts a wonderful story about his difficult journey in a book titled Intentional Castaway. He shows that a man in the worst conditions can survive not days but weeks with a minimum amount of nutrients and a maximum amount of faith, courage, and ingenuity.
Note: Without having to place ourselves in the circumstances of surviving a similar odyssey, it is interesting to know that a book exists called Les Instructions nautiques, which lists the particular features of all the world’s coastlines including information on the weather and hydrography (currents) for each spot. If these coasts are not made unrecognizable by natural catastrophes, these nautical instructions could prove highly useful for those who seek to ply the open sea and make landfall safely.
Note: While canoes and rafts are specifically designed for freshwater travels, the passengers of the Kon Tiki (a balsa wood raft—balsa is a remarkably light, equatorial, Peruvian wood that has a vexing tendency to absorb water) have shown they are capable of making long sea voyages.
