While currency as we know it today emerged in the Kingdom of Lydia (modern-day Turkey) around 600 B.C.E. with the creation of metal coins, paper currency was not developed until the seventh century C.E. under the Tang dynasty. Thus, (C) is correct. The rise of nomad confederations influenced the growth of trade along the Silk Road, as the Han dynasty sought to acquire horses that could put them on more equal footing with those ridden by the people on their periphery, and to separate potential nomadic allies in modern-day Mongolia and Tibet. Thus, (A) is incorrect. Knives and swords were known to exist as far back as 7000 B.C.E., but bronze smelting began around 2800 B.C.E., and iron metallurgy began in 1500 B.C.E. under the Hittites. Therefore, (B) is incorrect. Many of the earliest civilizations were built on trade; to keep accurate records, writing systems developed independently in many major civilizations. (D) is incorrect, as the earliest known example is cuneiform, the wedge-shaped writing of Mesopotamia.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire is only minimally due to foreign invasion, as the Romans had successfully fended off many such attacks in the past. Instead, the Roman Empire had been internally weakened ahead of the invasions. The breakdown of the tax and trade systems, political instability, the death of large numbers of the population due to disease, and the inability to recruit citizens to serve in the Legions leading to the hiring of Germanic mercenaries—all these factors weakened the Roman Empire enough for it to collapse when faced with a traditional challenge. Thus, (D) is correct. The Phoenicians were successively conquered by the Babylonians, Persians, and Macedonians. Finally, they and their colonies were absorbed by the Romans. Thus, (A) is incorrect. The exact cause of the downfall of the Minoans around 1450 C.E. is disputed, but is widely thought to be due to an earthquake, volcanic eruption, or other natural disaster. As these are natural causes and not internal problems, (B) is incorrect. The Gupta Empire suffered an invasion by the Huns, which fatally weakened it. This is the reverse of the Western Roman Empire. Thus, (C) is incorrect.
The Ancient World provided modern society with many valuable contributions in virtually every field. The idea of a direct democracy, in which people directly influence laws through voting and active participation, originated the sixth or fifth centuries B.C.E. in the Greek city-states. The very first democracy is a matter of speculation, but Athens, while its system came later in 508 or 507 B.C.E, is the most lasting and influential example. Since the question asked for an incorrect pairing, (A) is the correct answer. Rome was not a direct democracy but instead a republic. (B), (C), and (D) are all proper pairings. Paper as we know it was first manufactured in China between 179 B.C.E. and 105 C.E., and it quickly spread throughout the known world thereafter. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was first smelted in Mesopotamia around 3000 B.C.E. Other civilizations perfected this powerful alloy to build tools and weapons in the following centuries. Because of the predictable flooding cycle of the Nile River, and a knowledge of astronomy, the Egyptians were able to create a 12-month, 30-day calendar with designated seasons based on the solar cycle.
Confucianism stressed the importance of harmony and order in relationships, focusing on five fundamental ones: ruler and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, siblings, and between friends. An alternate way to approach this question is to remember that Confucianism stresses the importance of filial piety as well as political stability. However, (D) refers to a religious relationship, and Confucianism is not considered a religion. (A), (B), and (C) are counted among the fundamental Confucian relationships.
In both Confucianism and Hinduism, scholars are highly regarded. Thus, (D) is correct. The highest caste in Hinduism is the Brahmin class, which consists of priests and scholars. Confucius taught that learning separated the inferior man from the superior man. Peasants were rarely educated and, in Hinduism, were part of the very lowest caste; (A) is incorrect. Artisans, while possibly educated, were part of the second-lowest caste, the Vaisyas, along with merchants and farmers. Therefore, (B) is incorrect. Government officials were part of the Kshatriyas, the second-highest caste, which included rulers, administrators, and warriors. Thus, (C) is incorrect.
Ashoka was an emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty (322–180 B.C.E.) in India who, after witnessing a bloody battle and feeling great sorrow and regret that the relatives of the dead would have to suffer, converted to Buddhism. Ashoka then issued a series of edicts that reference dharma. Thus, (D) is correct. Sikhism was founded in the fifteenth century C.E., well after the end of the Mauryan Dynasty; (A) is incorrect. Ashoka wanted to counteract the rising influence of the caste system, a key tenet of Hinduism; (B) is incorrect. Zoroastrians have long been minority in India, where they today belong to either the Parsi or Irani communities. (C) is incorrect.
In Ashoka’s time, the Brahmin, the priestly and highest caste of Hinduism, was experiencing greater power. Buddhism was designed to reject the caste system, and by centralizing his government, Ashoka displaced the Brahmin in favor of a more egalitarian belief system. Therefore, (C) is correct. Ashoka converted to Buddhism after suffering the effects of a bloody war. He reinforced the Aryan reverence of cattle by prohibiting animal slaughter, leading to the modern Indian belief in the sanctity of the cow. Therefore, (A) is incorrect. Over thirty engraved tablets and columns have been found throughout South Asia; furthermore, Ashoka funded the construction of shrines called stupas, where Buddhist relics are kept. Thus, (B) is incorrect. The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Roads started when Ashoka sponsored missions to present-day Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. (D) is incorrect
After the fall of Rome, nomadic invasions continued, making it very difficult for the area to recover. As a result, a decentralized form of government developed that provided protection for its inhabitants. Thus, (B) is correct. Both Rome and the Han permanently lost political control of their respective empires; thus, (A) and (D) are incorrect. Rome’s population decreased as a result of the spread of disease, rather than increasing as (C) indicates.
The Han dynasty was rife with dynastic intrigue, with many emperors deposed. Actual power often resided in whichever group had helped secure the throne for young puppet emperors. Thus, (A) is correct. While regencies could in theory provide stable government, they often exposed the dynasty to more infighting as different groups sought to install child emperors and rule through them; thus, (B) is incorrect. It cannot be inferred that the dynastic line was an unbroken patrilineal line, and the youth of so many emperors makes such an arrangement unlikely, eliminating (C). Religious beliefs and popular sentiments played no part in the installation of such young emperors; thus, (D) is incorrect.
The Yellow Turban Rebellion (184–205 C.E.) was a peasant revolt in Han China. Therefore, (C) is correct. Along with numerous other factors, such as political corruption and infighting at the highest levels of government, this rebellion contributed to the downfall of the Han dynasty. As the rebellion was confined strictly to opposing Han rule in China, (A), (B), and (D) are incorrect.