Early civilizations were mostly polytheistic. Often, gods or goddesses were associated with nature, and sacrifices were made to these gods to ensure good fortune, such as plentiful harvests. Over time, religious practices became more complex. Even after the emergence of codified religious beliefs, shamanism and animism continued to be important in many peoples understanding of the forces of nature. In addition, ancestor veneration remained a part of religious belief in East Asia, Africa, and the Mediterranean world.
Around 600 B.C.E., new religions and philosophies emerged to address some new questions or concerns that previous traditions had not sufficiently answered. Philosopher Karl Jaspers called this time period the Axial Age. The axial represents the core ideas around which a society revolves. Great philosophers emerged during this period, with new answers to difficult questions. These axial ideas went on to make indelible marks on the civilizations in which they developed.
Hinduism originated in India, but we cannot link a specific time or person to its creation. It is a belief system that evolved over time and actually refers to a wide variety of beliefs and practices that developed in South Asia. Hinduism is often described not as merely a religion but, because of the important effect it has on its followers, a way of life.
At the most basic level, Hindus believe they have a dharma, which roughly translates as duty, to perform in life. If all follow their dharma, the world works smoothly. If it is violated, the natural order falls out of sync. This dharma is determined by birth and ones stage in life. If one follows his or her dharma, then good karma (the sum of all good and bad deeds performed) will be the result. It is the accumulation of this good karma that allows someone to move up in the level of Saṃsāra in their next life.
Hindus believe they will be reincarnated (reborn) after death. The new position they assume in the next life will depend on how well they performed their dharma in the past life. The ultimate goal for Hindus is to end the cycle of reincarnation by finally reaching moksha, or oneness with the universe. Hinduism is a polytheistic religion that believes in Brahma, the creator god, and his various incarnations including Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi. Bhatki is a popular practice in which followers have a personal devotion to a particular deity.
The social structure known as the caste system has had an enormous impact on the followers of Hinduism. The four varnas are the basis for the caste system (discussed previously under "Aryans") The caste system is based on the concepts of purity and pollution, including pure foods, sounds, and sights. Jobs are ranked because purity is associated with those who work with their minds, and pollution is associated with those who come in contact with polluted items such as sweat or human excrement. To ensure this purity, people have been to marry only members of their own caste.
Hinduism remains important in India and a few areas of Southeast Asia to which the religion spread. Some of the core ideas of Hinduism were reformed by Siddhartha Gautama, creating the worldwide religion of Buddhism.
Siddhartha Gautama, who lived from approximately 563 B.C.E. to 483 B.C.E., became an important Axial Age thinker. He was raised as a prince in a small state near present-day Nepal. After living a sheltered life, he decided to leave the palace in search of answers to questions such as: Why is there so much suffering in the world? and Is there a way out of suffering? According to Buddhist teachings, after meditating under a pipal tree, the prince reached enlightenment and became known as the Buddha (translated variously as "Awakened One" or "Enlightened One").
The Buddha made a crucial decision that helped transform his ideas from the thoughts of one man into a world religion: he decided to teach what he had learned to others. The Buddha taught that there were four noble truths:
The Eightfold Path includes right understanding, purpose, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, awareness, and concentration. The idea was that if a person wants to stop suffering, he or she must stop desiring, and after the person stops desiring, he or she must live in a righteous manner by following the Eightfold Path. The ultimate goal for Buddhists is to reach nirvana, which is the release from the cycles of reincarnation and the achievement of union with the universe.
Buddhism took the central ideas of Hinduism such as dharma, karma, and Saṃsāra, but altered them significantly. According to Buddhism, people did not need the rituals of the Brahmins. Gods and goddesses are not necessaryeveryone can seek enlightenment on his or her own, and no one is an outcast by birth. This belief challenges the very important caste system in India. There is, Buddhism espouses, complete equality among all believers.
The Mauryan emperor Ashoka actively encouraged the spread of Buddhism. Back in India, however, some Buddhist beliefs were absorbed into Hinduism, which remained the dominant religion. Buddhism spread throughout Asia along the Silk Road, where it met with great success. It greatly influenced Central Asia, China, Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia. As it spread, it blended with the native ideas of the lands it encountered The followers of the Buddha acted as missionaries, preaching his message. These ideas particularly appealed to low-caste Hindus as well as to women. Buddhisms flexibility and message of universal acceptance helped transform it into a major world religion.
Confucius (551479 B.C.E.) was a philosopher who believed that his answers to the questions of why we are here and how we should live could bring an end to the warfare that existed in his time. The key to ending the chaos and to bringing back peace, he felt, was to find the right kind of leadership to rule China.
His two most important concepts were ren (appropriate feelings) and li (correct actions), which must be used together in order to have any effect. Additionally, filial piety (respect for ones parents) was a key concept.
Confucius taught that order would be achieved when people knew their proper roles and relationships to others. Rulers would govern by moral example. People would learn to behave properly through the example of those superior to them. According to Confucius, there are five key relationships:
Confucianism became the most influential philosophy in China. During the Han dynasty, Confucian ideas were used (in addition to some Daoism and Legalism) to bring peace and order. These ideas left a permanent mark on China and were continually used by subsequent dynasties throughout the countrys history. These ideas also spread to Korea and Japan, where they became very influential.
Some claim that the Chinese sage Laozi founded the Daoist school of thought during the sixth century B.C.E., around the same time as Confucius; however, its ideas can be traced back further in Chinese history. The Tao te Ching or Dao de Jing, a collection of Daoist wisdom, is attributed to Laozi. Daoist ideas represent a protest movement during the troubled times of the Warring States period. Laozi gained many disciples in China, though some mixed his ideas with magic and attempted to search for immortality.
The literal translation of the Dao is the way. According to Daoism, all life is interdependent, and human beings should exist in harmony with nature. Its advice is to relax and be in harmony with the Dao. In order to solve the problems of the day, Daoists taught the concept of wu wei, which means act by not acting. Do nothing and problems will solve themselves, like in nature. Be like water—soft and yielding—but at the same time, very naturally powerful.
Daoists believe it is useless to try to build institutions to govern men, because institutions (or anything that rewards knowledge) are dangerous. Institutions lead to competition and, eventually, to fighting. The less government interference, the better; the ideal state is a small, self-sufficient town. The ultimate goal should be to cultivate the virtues of patience, selflessness, and concern for all.
In Chinese society, Daoism provided a counterpoint to the proper behavior of Confucianismit encouraged people to take time off, relax, and just let things happen. It allowed the Chinese to be Confucian at work and Daoist while not at work. Daoisms attitude toward war was that it should be used only for defensive purposes. The Han followed this idea by stationing troops along the Great Wall to maintain the safety of trade routes.
The philosophy of Legalism was based on the principle that man was inherently evil and needed strict laws and punishment to behave properly. Additionally, a strong central government with an absolute leader would ensure a more stable society. Legalism was adopted by the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang, who created Chinas first centralized government and ended the Warring States period.
The Hebrews believe that they are protected by YHWH (God), with whom they have a special relationship. This name was considered too holy a word to say aloud.
According to the Torah, the Hebrews are Gods chosen people. As a result, they entered into a covenant with God; they were forbidden from worshiping any other god and were obligated to follow certain religious laws, like the Ten Commandments. Some of these commandments include a prohibition against murder, adultery, or theft. Most important, the Hebrews followed a monotheistic tradition, which claims there is only one creator (God) who made the world and all life. As a monotheistic religion, Judaism would go on to influence the development of Christianity and Islam.
According to religious tradition, the prophet Moses led the Hebrews back to the Promised Land on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean after a period of enslavement in Egypt. The kingdom of Israel was established, led by a monarchy. The height of Israelite power came during the reigns of King David and his son Solomon around 1000 B.C.E. Later, the Neo-Babylonian Empire invaded, destroyed Solomons Temple in Jerusalem, and scattered the population. Thousands of Jews were deported to Babylon, where they would remain in captivity until their liberation in 539 B.C.E. by the Persians under King Cyrus II.
Centuries later, in 63 B.C.E., the Roman Empire would conquer the Jews. Uprisings against the Romans in 66 C.E. and 135 C.E. were violently suppressed with large military campaigns. Many Jews were killed and their holiest temple was leveled. In 135 C.E., the Romans drove the Jews out of their homeland. This scattering of the Jews is referred to as the Diaspora. Jews survived in scattered communities around the Mediterranean region, Persia, and Central Asia.
Due to the loss of many written records over the ages, the exact founding of Zoroastrianism can only be narrowed to a time span of 1500–1000 B.C.E., but evidence points to it being one of the oldest religions still practiced in the modern day. A Persian prophet named Zoroaster attempted to explain the wars, conquests, and famines that had plagued the Fertile Crescent since the rise of the first Sumerian city-states. He saw Earth as a battleground between the forces of good and evil in which each person must participate.
Zoroastrianism, like Judaism, was a monotheistic religion. According to Zoroaster, each persons actions battling for the forces of good would be judged at the end of time by the one god: Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord). The influence of Zoroastrianism is found in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam; for example, in the concept of Satan, heaven and hell, and the Messiah. Historians believe Babylonian captivity of the Jews led to cross-cultural pollination of these religious ideas.
Jesus was born to Jewish parents between 6 and 4 B.C.E. in the area known as Judea (modern-day Israel), which was part of the Roman Empire. At the time, tension existed between Rome and its Jewish subjects.
Christian teachings describe Jesus as being concerned with the growing cosmopolitan nature of Jewish society and preaching a simple message of love and compassion. The faithful would experience eternal life in heaven with God. These ideas appealed to the lower class, slaves, and women. Men and women were considered spiritually equal before God. For many, this message gave them a sense of purpose. Christian tradition attributes Jesus the power to perform miracles, such as healing the sick and raising the dead.
This message of the Kingdom of God alarmed Roman authorities, however, and to quell a potential rebellion, they had Jesus executed by crucifixion around 30 C.E. His followers believed that Jesus rose from the dead and that he was the son of God. As such, they compiled a body of writings about his life and his messages, which became the New Testament.
The earliest followers of Jesus were all Jews, but in the mid first century C.E., a Roman citizen named Paul began to spread Jesus message to non-Jews (gentiles). He and other missionaries used the Roman roads and sea lanes to spread this new religion. Disciples became known as Christians.
However, Christians, much like the Jews, refused to honor the state cults or to worship the Roman emperor as a god. As a result, they were often persecuted. Even so, the religion continued to spread throughout the empire until Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 C.E., making Christianity legal in the Roman Empire. Emperor Theodosius went on to later make it the official religion of the empire.
Christianity also spread to Mesopotamia, Iran, and even parts of India. Over time, the Southwest Asian Christians and the Western (or Roman) Christians grew apart. Southwest Asian Christians followed a form of the religion called Nestorianism. This form of Christianity continued to spread across the Silk Road into Central Asia, India, and China.
Another form of Christianity developed in Northern Africa and is called Coptic Christianity based on the Coptic language its followers use. Coptic Christian kingdoms existed in Ethiopia since the sixth century, and the religion still thrives in Egypt and Ethiopia to the modern-day.
| COMPARATIVE CLOSE-UP: ROLE OF WOMEN IN RELIGION | ||
| Religion | Role of Women | |
| Buddhism | Women could achieve nirvana. An alternative lifestyle was available for women as nuns in a monastery. | |
| Christianity | Men and women were equal in the eyes of God. Women could go to heaven. Many early converts were women. Women could live in convents. | |
| Confucianism | Men were superior to women. One of five key relationships was that of husband to wife. | |
| Hinduism | Men were superior to women. Women were not allowed to read the sacred prayers, the Vedas. Only a male Brahmin could reach moksha. | |