The Ghana Empire, or Awkar, began as a series of interconnected agricultural villages along the Niger River. It became heavily involved with trans-Saharan trade around 500 C.E., as Ghana had abundant supplies of gold that it traded for salt. Its kings controlled and taxed the gold trade. Ghana’s merchants also traded with Berbers (nomadic peoples from North Africa who often used camel caravans for transportation) and Arab merchants from North Africa for Mediterranean items such as cloth, weapons, and manufactured items.
As Ghana’s wealth and power increased, it built a large army funded by taxes. In the 900s C.E., the kings, elites, and traders converted to Islam, which led to improved relations with Muslim merchants. Ghana’s kings did not force their people to adopt Islam, however, and traditional animistic beliefs endured among a minority.
Around 1076–77 C.E., northern Berbers and other tribal groups assaulted and weakened the Ghana Empire. Ghana was eventually absorbed by the growing West African kingdoms, especially the Mali Empire.
Sundiata Keita established the Mali Empire in 1230 C.E., but it was not until his victory at the Battle of Kirina in 1235 C.E. against the rival Sosso that he cemented his nation's place as the strongest West African state during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries C.E. The poem known as The Epic of Sundiata describes how Sundiata Keita founded Mali. This poem exemplifies African oral traditions; it was composed and recited by Mali griots (storytellers).
Although most people in Mali were engaged in agriculture, the kingdom of Mali prospered from its participation in the trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt. The kings of Mali controlled and taxed trade within their territories. Local Mali rulers served in religious and economic roles; they honored Islam, provided protection and lodging for merchants, and ensured that the kings of Mali received their tax income. The people of Mali were encouraged, but not forced, to convert to Islam.
Mansa Musa ruled Mali from 1312 C.E. to 1337 C.E. A devout Muslim, Mansa Musa fulfilled one of the five pillars of faith and went on a pilgrimage, or hajj, to Mecca. He brought thousands of soldiers, attendants, subjects, and slaves with him, as well as hundreds of camels carrying satchels of gold. Mansa Musa created a period of inflation, which affected many regions along major trade routes, because he distributed so much gold to other peoples during his journey. Inspired by his travels, Mansa Musa built libraries, Islamic schools, and mosques throughout the kingdom. Timbuktu became Mali’s political capital and West Africa’s cultural center of Islamic scholarship and art.
Following 1350 C.E., after a series of kings that spent lavishly and misruled, provinces began to assert their independence and separate from the Mali Empire, and its power and influence declined.
Many inhabitants of North Africa converted to Islam after 700 C.E. as Arab travelers spread their religious beliefs. Christianity also endured, however, especially in Egypt and Ethiopia. Ethiopia evolved into a kingdom with strong Christian traditions. Coptic Christianity stayed popular in Ethiopia, and in Egypt a minority of Coptic Christians remained even after the introduction of Islam.