In 1368, the Mongol Yuan dynasty collapsed and Emperor Hongwu started the Ming dynasty. Hongwu eliminated evidence of Mongol rule, reinstated the Confucian education system and civil service exam, and tightened central authority. The Ming relied on mandarins, a class of powerful officials, to implement their policies on the local level. They also conscripted laborers to rebuild irrigation systems; as a result, agricultural production increased. Though the Ming did not actively promote trade, private merchants traded manufactured porcelain, silk, and cotton.
The Ming dynasty strongly promoted Chinese cultural traditions and established Neo-Confucian schools which stressed Confucian values such as self-discipline, filial piety, and obedience to rulers. They also funded projects that emphasized Chinese cultural traditions, such as the Yongle Encyclopedia. This encyclopedia was the largest general encyclopedia of its time, and it covered a wide array of subjects, including agriculture, art, astronomy, drama, geology, history, literature, medicine, natural sciences, religion, and technology. More than 2,000 scholars contributed to its development. Increased printing contributed to the growth of popular culture. The Ming dynasty saw three of the “Four Great Classical Novels” of Chinese literature published: The Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Journey to the West. The often banned yet landmark work The Plum in the Golden Vase also saw publication.
Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci arrived in China, introducing European science and technology. However, the Jesuit goal of converting the Chinese population to Christianity proved to be unsuccessful.
The increased interaction with regions outside Europe ignited a major intellectual and artistic movement known as the Renaissance. Contact with the Islamic world, such as the Muslim territory al-Andalus in the Iberian Peninsula, reintroduced the ancient Greek and Roman texts that had been preserved and developed by Arabs. From the 1300s C.E. through the 1500s C.E., European painters, sculptors, and writers drew inspiration from the Greek and Roman classical past.
The study of these classical texts became known as Renaissance humanism or studia humanitatis (the “studies of humanity”). Renaissance humanism stressed the achievements of human beings. While medieval scholars and artists focused their works on revealing God, humanist scholars and artists attempted to reveal human nature. In Italy, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo used perspective to create realistic masterpieces. Noble families, such as the Medici family, who had grown wealthy from lucrative trade with the Islamic and Byzantine cultures, became patrons of painters, sculptors, and scientists.
After reestablishing authority over China, the Ming decided to refurbish their country's large navy. From 1405 to 1433 C.E., they sponsored seven massive naval expeditions, in order to reinforce Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean, impose imperial control over trade, and impress foreign peoples with the authority of the Ming dynasty.
The mariner Zheng He led these expeditions. His first trip alone involved 28,000 troops. Zheng He sailed to Southeast Asia, India, the Persian Gulf, Arabia, and East Africa. Zheng He dispensed and received gifts throughout these travels. However, Confucian officials convinced the Chinese emperor that the voyages were too expensive and unprofitable, especially because of renewed concern over the northern Mongol border. Thus, in 1433 C.E., the voyages ended, Zheng He’s records were destroyed, and the ships were allowed to rot.
In the 1400s C.E., the ideas of the Renaissance inspired some Europeans to explore. These explorations were not diplomatic, but instead focused on profits, the spread of Christianity, and the desire for adventure. The goods from the East, such as spices, which Europeans desired were very expensive because of the long overland journey between Asia and Europe.
However, what if Europeans could find their own route to Asia by sea and cut out the Muslim middlemen’s profits? The Portuguese were early leaders in exploration, under the leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator, who established Portuguese schools and sponsored expeditions along the West African coast.
Competition increased among European powers, and a race to dominate the seas began. This competition continued well into our next period, with the European involvement in the Indian Ocean trade and their encounter with the Americas.