The gospel has the power of rescuing any human being—Jew or Gentile—from sin’s power and establishing that person in a new “right” relationship with God. But the gospel is also intended to transform the way people live. In 12:3–15:13, Paul sketches a few of the characteristics of the transformed believer. But, first, in 12:1–2, he issues a general call for believers to respond to that transforming power of God.
I urge you (12:1). The Greek behind the NIV “urge” is parakaleō. The word is stronger than “ask” and weaker than “command.” It is the perfect word to express the moral imperative of the gospel. This word was widely used in ancient Greek moral treatises, where it often signaled a shift from one topic to another.119
Living sacrifices (12:1). The sacrifice of animals was central to most ancient religions, including, of course, Judaism. In calling for Christians to present themselves to God as “living sacrifices,” therefore, Paul is employing a metaphor that is universally understood in his day. Nor is Paul the first to use the language of sacrifice in a metaphorical way. Such metaphors are common in both the Old Testament and Judaism.120 But Paul takes the metaphor a step further. Old Testament or Jewish use of the sacrificial metaphor implies, of course, that literal sacrifices will continue to be offered. But for Paul and the other early Christians, Jesus’ once-for-all death on the cross puts an end to any further sacrifice (cf. Heb. 10:1–14).
This is your spiritual act of worship (12:1). The NIV “spiritual” translates a Greek word (logikēn) that is difficult to render in English (note the NIV footnote, “reasonable”). The word itself is rare in the New Testament, occurring elsewhere only in 1 Peter 2:2 (where its meaning is also debated). But the word does have a rich background in Greek and Hellenistic Jewish philosophy and religion. Arguing that God and human beings share logos, some Greek philosophers argued that only logikos worship could be pleasing to God. They contrasted this “rational” worship with what they considered to be the silly superstitions of many Greek and Near Eastern religions. Two texts can serve to demonstrate this idea:
If I were a nightingale, I should be singing as a nightingale; if a swan, as a swan. But as it is I am a rational [logikos] being, therefore I must be singing hymns of praise to God.121
That which is precious in the sight of God is not the number of victims immolated but the true purity of a rational [logikon] spirit in him who makes the sacrifice.122
The word “spiritual” can bring out this sense, but perhaps better is the rendering “rational.” The worship God seeks from us in our everyday lives is a worship offered with a full understanding of the gospel and its implications. It flows from a renewed heart and mind.
One way in which believers reveal their transformed way of thinking is in an attitude of realistic humility toward themselves and of dedicated service to the community.
Think of yourself with sober judgment (12:3). “Think” translates a verb (phroneō) that indicates the basic orientation of a person (in Romans, see also 8:5; 11:20; the cognate noun occurs in 8:6, 7, 27, and a cognate adjective in 11:25). It indicates not just one’s mental state, but one’s “mind-set” or attitude. Paul wants believers to form an accurate picture of themselves in their own minds. They should not consider themselves more important than they are; but neither should they think too little of themselves. Sincere and unreserved service of God and the church begins with a realistic appraisal of one’s own strengths and weaknesses.
In Christ we who are many form one body (12:5). Paul’s comparison of the church to the human body is well known. But the source of this comparison is not clear. The significance of Christ’s own body, given in sacrifice on the cross and memorialized frequently in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper, must have been a key factor. But the use of the human body to illustrate the unity and diversity of a group of people was known from other sources in the ancient world. The Roman historian Livy cites a parable of Menenius Agrippa that compares the body politic of his day with a human body.123
In proportion to his faith (12:6). Paul cites the different gifts God has given the church to illustrate the diversity of the Christian church. He urges those who have been given such gifts to use them effectively to serve the community. The prophet is to use his gift “in proportion to his faith.” “Proportion” translates analogia, a word drawn from the world of mathematics and logic, where it denoted the correct proportion or right relationship. Josephus, for instance, claims that the porticos of the temple in Jerusalem were in “right proportion” to the temple as a whole.124 The language of this text has furnished theology with its slogan “the analogy of faith,” the principle that Scripture must always be interpreted in light of other Scripture. But Paul simply means that the prophet should exercise his or her gift in “right proportion” to the faith about the prophecy that God has given the prophet. Prophets should say no more and no less than what God has given them.
Let him give generously (12:8). The person with the gift of giving should exercise that gift by giving “with haplotēs.” This word is usually translated “generously” (see NIV); but its root meaning is simply “singleness.”125 Some intertestamental Jewish texts hold up this quality of “singleness” as a key moral virtue (the entire T. Iss. is about this virtue). Those who give, suggests Paul, should do so with a single, undivided intent. No ulterior motives or secondary concerns should be involved.
This section of Paul’s exhortations to the Roman Christians appears to unfold rather haphazardly. No clear theme dominates the section. Paul seems to move back and forth between admonitions about believers’ relationships to other believers (12:9–13, 15–16) and to unbelievers (12:14, 17–21). The lack of clear organization may reflect Paul’s use of a popular ancient style, called paraenesis. Found in both Greek and Jewish sources, paraenesis “strings together admonitions of a general ethical content.”126 The writer moves quickly through a variety of themes and issues, not always relating them to one another.
Paraenesis is characterized by another feature that is prominent in 12:9–21: eclecticism, or borrowing from a variety of sources. Paul quotes the Old Testament in this passage (12:19, 20), and much of what he says has parallels in Jewish and Greek ethical and wisdom sayings. But particularly striking are the parallels between 12:9–21 and the teaching of Jesus (see esp. 12:14, 17, 18, and 21). Paul absorbs some of the key ethical emphases into his own instruction and passes them on to the Romans.
Love must be sincere (12:9). The NIV, along with most English versions, supplies a verb where, in fact, none appears in the Greek text. The addition may be justified; but it is also possible that Paul views the simple “Sincere Love” as the heading for the exhortations that follow. “Love” translates the well-known Greek word agapē. One sometimes hears that this word is a distinctive term for the Christian conception of love. But that claim must be carefully nuanced. The word was certainly not invented by the early Christians; it occurs twenty times in the LXX, while the cognate verb is found over 250 times. But it may be true that the early Christians used this word in preference to other Greek words for “love” because it lacked some of the “baggage” (sexual and other) that other terms carried.
“Sincere” translates anypokritos, which is more literally translated “without hypocrisy” or “without playing a role” (such as an actor does on stage).
Be devoted to one another in brotherly love (12:10). “Brotherly love” reflects another basic Greek word for love: philia, here in a compound form, philadephia. No difference between the concept of love denoted by philia and that denoted by agapē is evident here. But the word does remind readers that the church is to be characterized by the tender love evident in the best of human families. The word “devoted” (philostorgoi) conveys the same nuance. See 4 Maccabees 15:13: “O sacred nature and affection of parental love, yearning of parents toward offspring, nurture and indomitable suffering by mothers!”
Practice hospitality (12:13). Hospitality was especially important in the first-century world, where motels and hotels were virtually unknown. Christians traveling on ordinary business and in the service of the church depended on fellow Christians for lodging and food. Paul not only commands believers to exercise hospitality; he urges them to “pursue” it.
Bless those who persecute you; bless and do not curse (12:14). Paul’s admonition echoes the teaching of Jesus, combining versions found in Matthew and Luke:
“But I tell you: Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (Matt. 5:44).
“But I tell you who hear me: Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you” (Luke 6:27–28).
Jesus’ command that his followers respond to persecution and hatred with love and blessing was unprecedented in the ancient world, so Paul’s dependence on Jesus is almost certain. Paul has no need to introduce the words as a quotation since they would have been well known in the early church.
Rejoice with those who rejoice; mourn with those who mourn (12:15). After instructing Christians to respond to outsiders with love and forgiveness, Paul now turns back to the Christian community, enjoining a sincere identification with others whatever their state might be. Note how Paul’s commands here echo what he says about relations within the body of Christ in 1 Corinthians 12:26: “If one part suffers, every part suffers with it; if one part is honored, every part rejoices with it.” But the need for such mutual identification is found in Jewish sources as well. See, for instance, Sirach 7:34: “Do not avoid those who weep, but mourn with those who mourn.”127
Be willing to associate with people of low position (12:16). “People of low position” can also be translated “humble activities” (the Gk. word can be either masculine or neuter). If Paul’s reference is to people who rank low on the world’s socioeconomic scale, he is urging Christians to imitate their Father in heaven, who frequently stresses his own concern for the “down and out” (e.g., Judg. 6:15; Ps. 10:18).128
Do not repay anyone evil for evil (12:17). Prohibitions of retaliation are found widely in Judaism; see, for instance, Joseph and Aseneth 23:9: “And we are men who worship God, and it does not befit us to repay evil with evil.” But other references to Jesus’ teaching in this same context argue that Paul depends directly here on Jesus’ prohibition of retaliation from the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:38–42).
You will heap burning coals on his head (12:20). These words come from Proverbs 25:21–22a, which Paul quotes as the response that believers are to make to their enemies. The words “coals” and “fire” in the Old Testament are usually used metaphorically to refer to God’s awesome presence and especially to his judgment.129 A few scholars, therefore, think that the Proverbs text refers to God’s judgment and that Paul views the believers’ kindness to enemies as ultimately increasing the degree of judgment that they will receive.130 But the context seems to require that “heap[ing] burning coals” has a positive rather than a negative impact on the unbeliever. Thus, some scholars have theorized that the imagery in Proverbs may go back to an Egyptian ritual, in which a penitent carried coals of fire on the head as a sign of repentance.131