INTRODUCTION
1. Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 2nd ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 48–64.
2. “An Act to Set Apart a Certain Tract of Land Lying Near the Headwaters of the Yellowstone River as a Public Park,” approved March 1, 1872 (17 Stat. 32), in Lary M. Dilsaver, ed., America's National Park System: The Critical Documents (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1994), 28.
1 WILDERNESS AND THE ORIGINS OF NATIONAL PARKS
1. See Paul Schullery and Lee Whittlesey, Myth and History in the Creation of Yellowstone National Park (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003).
2. Roderick Frazier Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 4th ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 108.
3. Quoted in Hans Huth, Nature and the American: Three Centuries of Changing Attitudes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957), 135.
4. Henry David Thoreau, Walden, Jeffrey S. Cramer, ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 306.
5. Henry David Thoreau, cited in Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 102.
6. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 108.
7. Alfred Runte, Yosemite: The Embattled Wilderness (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 13–27.
8. Schullery and Whittlesey, Myth and History in the Creation of Yellowstone National Park, 95.
9. Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 11–47.
10. Robert M. Utley, “Commentary on the ‘Worthless Lands’ Thesis,” Journal of Forest History 27, no. 3 (July 1983): 142.
11. John Muir, To Yosemite and Beyond: Writings from the Years 1863 to 1875, Robert Engberg and Donald Wesling, eds. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980), 159.
12. Ibid., 138.
13. Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Movement (Boston: Little Brown, 1981), 86–99.
14. John Muir, “The Treasures of the Yosemite,” in William R. Jones, ed., The Proposed Yosemite National Park—Treasures and Features (Golden, CO: Outbooks, 1986), 1.
15. Ibid.
16. Michael Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 264.
17. Ibid., 267.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid., 287.
20. John Muir, Our National Parks (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1901), 1.
21. Ibid., 100–101.
22. Muir to Howard Palmer, December 12, 1912, in Terry Gifford, ed., John Muir: His Life and Letters and Other Writings (Seattle: Mountaineers, 1996), 360.
23. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 113.
24. Ibid., 115. See also Chris J. Magoc, Yellowstone: The Creation and Selling of an American Landscape, 1870–1903 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999).
25. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 121.
26. Ed Zahniser, “The Adirondack Roots of America's Wilderness Preservation Movement” (unpublished manuscript), 2.
27. Congressional Record, 49th Cong., 2nd Sess., December 11, 1896, 94; December 14, 150. Quoted in Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 115.
28. Aboriginal people had changed these and other landscapes that were to become national parks and wilderness. See Robert H. Keller and Michael F. Turek, American Indians and National Parks (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1998), and Mark David Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Making of the National Parks (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). For discussion of the concept of the “sublime,” see Marjorie Hope Nicolson, Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory: The Development of the Aesthetics of the Infinite (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997; first published 1959 by Cornell University).
29. Magoc, Yellowstone: The Creation and Selling of an American Landscape, 6, 9.
30. Theodore Catton, Wonderland: An Administrative History of Mount Rainier National Park (Seattle: National Park Service, 1996), 53.
31. See Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890–1920 (New York: Atheneum, 1980).
32. James P. Gilligan, “The Development of Policy and Administration of Forest Service Primitive and Wilderness Areas in the Western United States, Vol. 1” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1953), 54–55.
33. For a history of the park, see C. W. Buchholtz, Rocky Mountain National Park: A History (Boulder, CO: Associated University Press, 1983). The definitive biography of Enos Mills is Alexander Drummond, Enos Mills: Citizen of Nature (Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado, 1995).
34. Quoted in Drummond, Enos Mills: Citizen of Nature, 174.
35. Ibid., 381.
36. Roderick Frazier Nash, The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 41.
37. Gifford Pinchot, Breaking New Ground (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1947), 116.
38. Carsten Lien, Olympic Battleground: The Power Politics of Timber Preservation (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1991), 31.
39. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., “The Distinction between National Parks and National Forests,” Landscape Architecture 6, no. 3 (April 1916): 114–15.
40. Ibid.
41. Throughout this discussion, the term “conservationists” will be used to refer to those advocating preservation of wilderness. A distinction is made in much of the conservation literature between utilitarian conservationists of the Gifford Pinchot school of conservation thought and preservationists associated with John Muir. Throughout the research on park wilderness, the author found the activists for park wilderness referring to themselves as “conservationists.” In view of this, they will be called “conservationists” here.
42. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency, 192–98.
43. Donald C. Swain, “The Passage of the National Park Service Act of 1916,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 50 (Fall 1966): 5.
44. U.S. Department of the Interior, Proceedings of the National Park Conference Held at Yosemite National Park, October 14, 15, and 16, 1912 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1913), 33.
45. Ibid., 139.
46. Horace M. Albright and Marian Albright Schenck, Creating the National Park Service: The Missing Years (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 59.
47. Ibid., 127.
48. Ibid.
2 WILDERNESS AND THE NEW AGENCY
1. Gifford Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967; originally published 1910), 40–52.
2. U.S. Statutes at Large, 34 (1906): 225.
3. See Hal Rothman, America's National Monuments: The Politics of Preservation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989).
4. Ibid., 89–118.
5. For an overview of the standards debate, see John C. Miles, Guardians of the Parks: A History of the National Parks and Conservation Association (Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis, 1995), 71–93.
6. Robert Sterling Yard, National Parks Portfolio, 6th ed. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1931), 7.
7. Ibid., 9.
8. U.S. Statutes at Large 39 (1916): 535.
9. Richard Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 43.
10. For an account of this period, see Albright and Schenck, Creating the National Park Service: The Missing Years, and Horace M. Albright and Robert Cahn, The Birth of the National Park Service: The Founding Years, 1913–33 (Salt Lake City: Howe Brothers, 1985), 53–93.
11. This comes through in Albright's memoirs, though he does not state it outright. An example: writing in Creating the National Park Service of Yellowstone in 1918, “I told the commissioners that for the time being, and probably the foreseeable future, Yellowstone would get along just fine with General Chittenden's army roads…. All the wondrous sights were on Chittenden's loop route, which left the vast majority of the park in wilderness. That could be visited on horse or on foot” (294–95).
12. Paul S. Sutter, Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 21.
13. Ibid., 27.
14. Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1957), 125.
15. Hal K. Rothman, Devil's Bargains: Tourism in the Twentieth-Century American West (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1998), 146.
16. Ibid., 147–48.
17. Ibid., 149.
18. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Report of the Director of the National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1925 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1925), 64–65.
19. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Report of the Director of the National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1921 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1921), 120–21.
20. Albright and Schenck, Creating the National Park Service, 299.
21. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1923 Annual Report (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1926), 48–49.
22. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 61.
23. Ethan Carr, Wilderness by Design: Landscape Architecture and the National Park Service (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 86–87.
24. Ibid., 146.
25. Ibid., 148.
26. Harold K. Steen, The U.S. Forest Service: A History (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976), 113.
27. Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 62–65.
28. Paul S. Sutter, “‘A Blank Spot on the Map’: Aldo Leopold, Wilderness, and U.S. Forest Service Recreation Policy, 1909–1924,” Western Historical Quarterly 29 (Summer 1998): 187–214.
29. Donald C. Swain, Wilderness Defender: Horace M. Albright and Conservation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 98.
30. Frank A. Waugh, “Recreational Uses on the National Forests—A Report to Henry S. Graves,” 1917, typescript. Quoted in Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 75.
31. Henry Graves, “Policy Letter from the Forester, No. 5—National Parks,” January 1919, Record Group 95–4, Records of the Forest Service, National Archives, Washington, DC. Summarized in Steen, The U.S. Forest Service: A History, 121–22.
32. For instance, it authorized a Mount Baker Recreation Area, which effectively ended a drive for a Mount Baker National Park that had reached Congress in 1916.
33. Stephen T. Mather, “The National Parks on a Business Basis,” Review of Reviews 51 (April 1915): 429–31.
34. Stephen T. Mather, “The Ideals and Policy of the National Park Service Particularly in Relation to Yosemite National Park,” in Ansel F. Hall, ed., Handbook of Yosemite National Park (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1921), 81.
3 WILDERNESS BECOMES AN ISSUE FOR THE PARK SERVICE
1. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Report of the Director of the National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1920 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1921), 13.
2. Ibid.
3. For a description of conservation policy during this period, see Donald C. Swain, Federal Conservation Policy, 1921–1933 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963).
4. Robert Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 3rd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), 219.
5. Swain, Federal Conservation Policy, 170.
6. Sutter, “A Blank Spot on the Map,” 193–96.
7. Aldo Leopold, “The Wilderness and Its Place in Forest Recreation Policy,” Journal of Forestry 19 (November 1921): 718–21. Reprinted in Susan L. Flader and J. Baird Callicott, eds., The River of the Mother of God and Other Essays by Aldo Leopold (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), 78.
8. Ibid., 79.
9. Ibid., 80.
10. Sutter, Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement, 58.
11. Leopold, “The Wilderness and Its Place in Forest Recreation Policy,” 79.
12. Aldo Leopold, “Wilderness as a Form of Land Use,” Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 1, no. 4 (October 1925): 398–404. Reprinted in Flader and Callicott, The River of the Mother of God, 135.
13. Aldo Leopold, “The River of the Mother of God,” in Flader and Callicott, The River of the Mother of God, 125.
14. Ibid., 140.
15. Sutter, Driven Wild: How the Fight against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement, 85.
16. It should be noted that nowhere in the Park Service documents the author has reviewed from this period is Aldo Leopold even mentioned. Still, debate in the National Conferences on Outdoor Recreation reveals that Leopold's thinking was widely examined by people struggling to define roles in outdoor recreation for the Park Service and Forest Service.
17. Dilsaver, America's National Park System: The Critical Documents, 53.
18. National Park Service Conference, November 13–17, 1922. “Superintendents Resolution on Overdevelopment,” NPS History Collection, Harpers Ferry, Box K5410 (hereafter cited as HFC).
19. Ibid.
20. Quoted in Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 243.
21. Swain, Federal Conservation Policy, 128.
22. For an overview of the growing conflict, see Steen, The U.S. Forest Service: A History, 152–62.
23. Quoted in James B. Trefethen, “The 1928 ORRRC,” American Forests 68 (March 1962): 38.
24. National Conference on Outdoor Recreation, Proceedings of the National Conference on Outdoor Recreation, 1926. 69th Cong., 1st Sess., Senate, 1926, Document No. 117, 32.
25. Ibid., 64.
26. Ibid., 64–65.
27. Ibid., 65.
28. Joint Committee on Recreational Survey of Federal Lands of the American Forestry Association and National Parks Association, National Conference on Outdoor Recreation: Report of the Joint Committee on Recreational Survey of Federal Lands of the American Forestry Association and the National Parks Association to the National Conference on Outdoor Recreation: Recreation Resources of Federal Lands (Washington, DC, 1928), 90.
29. Ibid., 102.
30. Ibid., 109.
31. Ibid.
32. John C. Merriam, speech delivered to the National Parks Association, 1931. JM.
33. Horace M. Albright and Frank J. Taylor, “The Everlasting Wilderness,” Saturday Evening Post 201 (September 29, 1928): 28, 63, 66, 68.
34. Ibid.
35. Carr, Wilderness By Design, 189–247.
36. O. A. Tomlinson to Director, June 11, 1928. Quoted in Catton, Wonderland, 238.
37. A. E. Demaray to O. A. Tomlinson, July 10, 1928. In Catton, Wonderland, 238.
38. O. A. Tomlinson to Director, July 17, 1928. In Catton, Wonderland, 239.
39. Runte, Yosemite: The Embattled Wilderness, 143.
40. Ibid., 157.
41. Acting Superintendent Leavitt to Director, National Park Service, October 8, 1927. Quoted in Runte, Yosemite: The Embattled Wilderness, 147.
42. Ibid., 148.
43. Ibid., 158.
44. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 108–12.
45. Ibid., 91–148.
46. L. F. Kneipp, “Recreational Value of National Forests,” Parks and Recreation 8, no. 4 (March–April 1925): 300.
47. From a statement issued by Associate Forester E. A. Sherman, in an editorial, “Recreation Principles for the National Forests,” American Forests and Forest Life 31 (July 1925): 424.
48. W. B. Greeley to District Foresters, December 30, 1926. Quoted in Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 100.
49. Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 108.
50. W. B. Greeley, “What Shall We Do with Our Mountains?” Sunset 59 (December 1927): 14.
51. Mimeographed supplement to the Forest Service Administrative Manual distributed June 29, 1929. Quoted in Craig W. Allin, The Politics of Wilderness Preservation (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 74.
52. Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 127; Allin, The Politics of Wilderness Preservation, 74.
4 PRESERVATION OF THE PRIMEVAL IN THE POST-MATHER ERA
1. Robert W. Righter, Crucible for Conservation: The Creation of Grand Teton National Park (Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press, 1982), 39–40.
2. U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, 71st Cong, 3rd Sess., 6791. Quoted in John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), 333.
3. Adolph Murie, “Report on the Qualifications and Development of Isle Royale as a National Park,” June 13, 1935. Box ISRO, HFC.
4. John J. Little, “Island Wilderness: A History of Isle Royale National Park” (PhD dissertation, University of Toledo, 1978), 201.
5. Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 300.
6. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, The National Parks: Shaping the System (Washington, DC: NPS Division of Publications, 1991), 21.
7. Rothman, America's National Monuments: The Politics of Preservation, 202.
8. Horace M. Albright, “The National Park System and Its Future,” in Harlean James, ed., American Planning and Civic Annual (Washington, DC: American Planning and Civic Association, 1939), 225.
9. Rosalie Edge, Roads and More Roads in the National Parks and National Forests. Pamphlet No. 54, Emergency Conservation Committee. In Dilsaver, America's National Park System: The Critical Documents, 137–41.
10. John Roberts White, “Wilderness Policies,” in James, American Planning and Civic Annual (1936), 35.
11. Arno B. Cammerer, “Standards and Policies in National Parks,” in James, American Planning and Civic Annual (1936), 20.
12. National Parks Association, “Losing Our Primeval System in Vast Expansion,” National Parks Bulletin 13, no. 61 (February 1936): 2.
13. Minutes of the Board of Trustees, National Parks Association, May 14, 1936. Nation al Parks Conservation Association Papers, Washington, DC (hereafter cited as NPCA).
14. Miles, Guardians of the Parks, 71–95.
15. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 93.
16. Ibid., 98.
17. Carr, Wilderness by Design, 194–95.
18. Ibid., 241.
19. Thomas C. Vint, “Development of National Parks for Conservation,” in James, American Planning and Civic Annual (1938), 71.
20. Ibid., 69.
21. Carr, Wilderness by Design, 242.
22. Ben W. Twight, Organizational Values and Political Power: The Forest Service versus the Olympic National Park (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1983), 13.
23. Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 144.
24. F. A. Silcox Letter to Regional Foresters, June 30, 1934. Quoted in Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 182.
25. F. A. Silcox Memo to Mr. Kneipp and Mr. Granger, November 13, 1935. Quoted in Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 135–36.
26. Robert Marshall to William P. Wharton, December 14, 1937, Washington Office Files. Quoted in Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 192.
27. James P. Gilligan interview with L. F. Kneipp, November 8, 1952. In Gilligan, “The Development of Policy,” 196.
28. Ibid., 199.
29. Arno B. Cammerer, “Standards and Policies in National Parks,” in James, American Planning and Civic Annual (1936), 19.
30. Arno B. Cammerer, “Maintenance of the Primeval in National Parks,” Appalachia 22 (December 1938): 207.
5 MORE FERMENT AND EXPANSION
1. John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History, 370.
2. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and William P. Wharton, “The Florida Everglades,” American Forests 38 (March 1932): 143, 147. Quoted in Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 134.
3. Ibid.
4. U.S. Statutes at Large 48 (1934): 817.
5. National Park Service Memorandum, Arno B. Cammerer, April 2, 1934. Quoted in Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 135.
6. Quoted in Twight, Organizational Values and Political Power, 46.
7. Henry S. Graves to Herbert A. Smith, December 29, 1936. Quoted in Twight, Organizational Values and Political Power, 88–89.
8. Harold L. Ickes, “The Olympic National Park.” In James, American Planning and Civic Annual (1938), 11.
9. Ibid., 16.
10. Ibid., 12.
11. Ibid., 15–16.
12. Cammerer to Moore, September 27, 1938. RG 79, National Archives (hereafter cited as NA). Quoted in Olympic National Park: An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Region, 1990), 91.
13. Quoted in Cammerer, “Maintenance of the Primeval in National Parks,” 212.
14. Lary M. Dilsaver and William C. Tweed, Challenge of the Big Trees: A Resource History of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks (Three Rivers, CA: Sequoia Natural History Association, 1990), 204–5.
15. For the long story of congressional struggles over the Gearhart bill, see Irving Brant, Adventures in Conservation with Franklin D. Roosevelt (Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Publishing, 1988), 147–218.
16. Ibid., 165–66.
17. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Proceedings of the First National Conference, November 1–30, 1929. HFC.
18. See Stephen J. Pyne, Year of the Fires: The Story of the Great Fires of 1910 (New York: Penguin Books, 2001), 9 passim.
19. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 91–148.
20. Ibid., 93.
21. Shankland, Steve Mather of the National Parks, 248–49.
22. John R. White, Annual Report of the General Grant Park, 1922, 122. HFC.
23. Rick Hydrick, “The Genesis of National Park Management: John Roberts White and Sequoia National Park, 1920–1947,” Journal of Forest History, 28, no. 2 (April 1984): 75.
24. John R. White, “Standards and Policies Applied to Wilderness Values,” January 23, 1936. Quoted in Hydrick, “The Genesis of National Park Management,” 72.
25. Dilsaver and Tweed, Challenge of the Big Trees, 167.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid., 184.
28. White to Farquhar, February 7, 1945. Quoted in Hydrick, “The Genesis of National Park Management,” 81.
29. Dilsaver and Tweed, Challenge of the Big Trees, 196.
30. David Louter, Windshield Wilderness: Cars, Roads, and Nature in Washington's National Parks (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006), 50.
31. Arthur Demaray to Field Officers, November 11, 1936. Box L48, Wilderness, to 1938. HFC.
32. E. Lowell Sumner Jr., “The Wilderness Problem in the National Parks.” Excerpt from Special Report on a Wildlife Study of the High Sierra in Sequoia and Yosemite National Parks and Adjacent Territory. Attached to memo to field officers from Acting Director Demaray, November 11, 1936. HFC.
33. E. Lowell Sumner Jr., “Losing the Wilderness Which We Set Out to Preserve.” Box L48, Wilderness, to 1938. HFC.
34. Ibid., 16.
35. Arno Cammerer to Henry Baldwin Ward, June 4, 1935. File: Correspondence, Arno Cammerer, RG79. NA.
36. Horace Albright, “A National Park Platform,” in James, American Planning and Civic Annual (1938), 32.
37. Sumner, “Losing the Wilderness,” 15.
6 FROM THE WAR TO DIRECTOR WIRTH
1. Olympic National Park 1940 Master Plan, Folder No. 1, Cartographic Collection. NA.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Report on Round Table Discussion Participated in by Conservationists, Directors of the Sierra Club, Park Superintendents, and Regional Office Officials, March 12, 1940. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Region IV, San Francisco. RG 79, Records of Newton B. Drury, Box 23, Entry 19. NA.
5. See Dilsaver and Tweed, Challenge of the Big Trees, 227–328.
6. Donald C. Swain, “The National Park Service and the New Deal,” Pacific Historical Review 41 (August 1972): 331.
7. Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History, 448.
8. Report on a Master Plan Conference on Kings Canyon, July 11, 1941. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Washington office. RG 79, Records of Newton B. Drury, Box 11, Entry 19, Kings Canyon File. NA.
9. The author examined the Kings Canyon Master Plans and others at the National Archives, Cartographic Division, College Park. The specific plan cited is Kings Canyon Master Plan, 1941.
10. Yard to John Sieker, January 12, 1942. Box 4:410, Correspondence File, Wilderness 1939–59. TWS.
11. Yard to Conrad Wirth, January 22, 1943. RG 79, Records of Newton B. Drury, Box 25, Entry 19, Wilderness Society File. NA.
12. Drury to Yard (draft), February 15, 1943. RG 79, Records of Newton B. Drury, Box 25, Entry 19, Wilderness Society File. NA.
13. Ibid.
14. Quoted in Stephen Fox, “We Want No Straddlers,” The Living Wilderness 48 (Winter 1984): 12.
15. Murie to Robert F. Griggs, May 30, 1945. Box 1: 100–200. TWS.
16. Fox, John Muir and His Legacy, 12.
17. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Annual Reports of the Director, 1945–1955.
18. Minutes, National Parks Association Executive Committee, April 18, 1946. NPCA.
19. Bernard DeVoto, “The National Parks,” Fortune 35 (June 1947): 135.
20. Minutes, National Parks Association Annual Meeting, April 9, 1946. NPCA.
21. See Mark Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994); Elmo Richardson, Dams, Parks and Politics: Resource Development and Preservation in the Truman-Eisenhower Era (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1973); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York: Pantheon, 1985).
22. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 177.
23. Dennis M. Roth, The Wilderness Movement and the National Forests (College Station, TX: Intaglio Press, 1988), 7.
24. Drury to W. C. Gilbert, Acting Director, Legislative Reference Service, November 30, 1948. Box 4:300, File: Correspondence, USDI-NPS, 1936–49. TWS.
25. Ibid.
26. C. Frank Keyser, “The Preservation of Wilderness Areas (An Analysis of Opinion on the Problem),” Washington, DC: Legislative Reference Service, Library of Congress, August 24, 1949.
27. Roth, The Wilderness Movement and the National Forests, 7.
28. David Brower, Wildlands in Our Civilization (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1964), 135.
29. Quoted by Timothy Rawson, Changing Tracks: Predators and Politics in Mt. McKinley National Park (Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 2001), 234.
30. Michael Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club: 1892–1970 (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1988), 125.
31. Newton B. Drury, “National Parks in Wartime,” American Forests 49, no. 8 (August 1943): 375.
32. Waldo G. Leland, “Newton Bishop Drury,” National Parks Magazine 25, no. 105 (April–June 1951): 63–64.
33. Ibid., 66.
34. Ibid., 65.
35. Packard to William Wharton, January 17, 1951. Box 4:103, File: Correspondence, Newton B. Drury, 1951–60. TWS.
36. Swain, Wilderness Defender, 292. See also Conrad L. Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980).
37. Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club, 120.
38. Swain, Wilderness Defender, 292.
39. Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness, 290.
40. Ibid.
41. John Muir, A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf, William F. Bade, ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1916), 354.
42. Brower, Wildlands in Our Civilization, 151.
43. Ibid., 158.
44. Cohen, The History of the Sierra Club, 133.
45. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Annual Report of the Director, National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1954 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1955), 331.
46. Bernard DeVoto, “Let's Close the National Parks,” Harper's 27 (October 1953): 51.
47. Ibid., 52.
48. Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People, 261–62.
49. Ibid., 259.
50. Editorial, “The Park Service and Wilderness,” National Parks Magazine, 31, no. 130 (July–September 1957): 104; David R. Brower, “Mission 65 Is Proposed by Reviewer of the Park Service's New Brochure on Wilderness,” National Parks Magazine 32, no. 132 (January 1958): 3.
51. Lemuel A. Garrison, The Making of a Ranger: Forty Years in the National Parks (Salt Lake City: Howe Brothers, 1983), 259.
52. Ibid., 260.
53. Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People, 290–91.
54. Minutes of the Board of Trustees, National Parks Association, May 10, 1956. NPCA.
55. Garrison, The Making of a Ranger, 259.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 202.
59. Ibid.
7 THE DRIVE FOR A WILDERNESS ACT
1. Howard Zahniser, “The Need for Wilderness Areas.” Reprinted by The Wilderness Society. Box 4:300, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, 1970s. TWS.
2. Michael McCloskey, “The Wilderness Act of 1964: Its Background and Meaning,” Oregon Law Review 45, no. 4 (1966): 294.
3. Roth, The Wilderness Movement and the National Forests, 9.
4. Wirth to Howard Zahniser, March 19, 1956. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Council of Conservationists, 1956–59. TWS.
5. Memorandum from Director, National Park Service, to Legislative Council, Office of the Solicitor, n.d. Box L48, Wilderness, 1960–. HFC.
6. Olson to Hubert Humphrey, April 3, 1956. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, 1956. TWS.
7. Fred Smith to Howard Zahniser, April 16, 1956. Box 5:100, File: National wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, Council of Conservationists, 1956–59. TWS.
8. Albright to David Brower, April 24, 1956. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, Council of Conservationists, 1956–59. TWS.
9. Memorandum from Fred Smith to Albright, Brower, Gabrielson, Penfold, and Zahniser, December 17, 1956. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, Council of Conservationists, 1956–59. TWS.
10. Zahniser to John Oakes, January 8, 1957. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, Council of Conservationists, 1956–59. TWS.
11. Brower to Howard Elliott, May 24, 1957. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, Council of Conservationists, 1956–59. TWS.
12. Howard Zahniser, “One-Page Statement.” Box 1:100–200, File: Governing Council Correspondence, 1956–59. TWS.
13. Ibid.
14. See Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind; Michael Frome, Battle for the Wilderness (New York: Praeger, 1974); Allin, The Politics of Wilderness Preservation; and Roth, The Wilderness Movement and the National Forests.
15. Roth, The Wilderness Movement and the National Forests, 10.
16. An Address by Conrad L. Wirth, Director, National Park Service, Before the Fifth Biennial Conference on Wild Lands in Our Civilization, March 16, 1957. Box 5:202–300, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Campaign Speeches, 1957–70. TWS.
17. Ibid.
18. Humphrey to Alexander Hildebrand, March 14, 1957. Box 5:500, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, January–April 1957. TWS.
19. Quoted in Brower, Wildlands in Our Civilization, 175.
20. Quoted by Howard Zahniser in his statement “Our Outdoor Recreation Inventory,” May 14, 1957. Box 202–300, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Legislation: Statements, Congressional Hearings, 1957–59. TWS.
21. Statement to Committee Chair Claire Engle from Undersecretary of the Interior Hatfield Chilton, June 18, 1957. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Statements before Committees, 1957. TWS.
22. Zahniser to Horace Albright, July 3, 1957. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, May–July 1957. TWS.
23. Quoted in an editorial, “The Park Service and Wilderness,” National Parks Magazine 31, no. 130 (July–September 1957): 129–10.
24. Zahniser to Howard Elliott, July 5, 1957. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, May–July 1957. TWS.
25. National Park Service, The National Park Wilderness (Washington, DC, 1957), 25. This was explicitly not a government publication. It stated, “Publication of this Brochure was made possible through a donation by a friend of the National Park Service.”
26. Brower, “Mission 65 Is Proposed by Reviewer of the Park Service's New Brochure on Wilderness,” 3.
27. Scoyen to Conrad Wirth, January 15, 1958. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, January–May 1958. TWS.
28. Zahniser to Harvey Broome, January 31, 1958. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, January–May 1958. TWS.
29. Secretary Fred Seaton to Senator James Murray, July 22, 1958. Box 5:100, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Wilderness Bill Advocacy, Correspondence, June–July 1958. TWS.
30. S. 4028, 85th Cong., 2nd Sess.
31. Eivind Scoyen, “The National Park Wilderness,” March 19, 1959. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
32. Squad Meeting minutes, April 6, 1959. RG 79, Box 23, Entry 12, Office Files of Wirth. NA.
33. Squad Meeting minutes, August 18, 1959. RG 79, Box 23, Entry 12, Office Files of Wirth. NA.
34. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 193.
35. U.S. Congress, Congressional Record 106 (July 2, 1969): 15564.
36. Squad Meeting minutes, February 29, 1960. RG 79, Box 23, Entry 12, Office Files of Wirth. NA.
37. Devereaux Butcher, “Resorts or Wilderness?” Atlantic 207 (February 1961): 51.
38. Wirth to Stewart Udall, March 10, 1961. Box K5440, Policy and Philosophy, 1960–67. HFC.
39. Wirth, Parks, Politics, and the People, 262.
40. Udall to Conrad Wirth, March 20, 1961. Box K5440, Policy and Philosophy, 1960–67. HFC.
41. Ibid.
42. Udall to Clinton Anderson, February 24, 1961. Box 5:202–300, File: National Wilderness Preservation System, Legislation: Statements, Congressional Hearings, 1961. TWS.
43. U.S. Congress, Congressional Record 108 (May 1, 1962): 7482.
44. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, Study Report 3: Wilderness and Recreation—A Report on Resources, Values, and Problems (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1962), 13.
45. Ibid., 305.
46. Allin, The Politics of Wilderness Preservation, 133.
47. House Subcommittee on Public Lands, Hearings on H.R. 9070, H.R. 9162, and S. 4, April 27–May 1, 1964, 1205.
8 A HESITANT START AT IMPLEMENTATION
1. Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, Inc., 1984), 67.
2. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 204.
3. A. Starker Leopold et al., “Report of the Advisory Board on Wildlife Management,” March 4, 1963. Insert in National Parks Magazine 37, no. 186 (April 1963).
4. E. T. Scoyen, “Conditions Surrounding Appointments as Director of the National Park Service,” mimeographed memorandum, n.d. Box 4:300. TWS.
5. Memorandum from Secretary of the Interior Udall to National Park Service Director Hartzog, July 10, 1964. In Dilsaver, America's National Park System: The Critical Documents, 272–76.
6. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers, 107.
7. John McPhee, “Profiles—George Hartzog,” New Yorker 17 (September 11, 1972): 62.
8. Dilsaver, America's National Park System: The Critical Documents, 273–74.
9. U.S. Public Law 88–577, 88th Cong., September 3, 1964, Wilderness Act.
10. John C. Hendee, George H. Stankey, and Robert C. Lucas, Wilderness Management, 2nd ed. (Golden, CO: North American Press, 1990), 108.
11. Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks, 194.
12. Hendee, Stankey, and Lucas, Wilderness Management, 118–19.
13. Ibid., 120.
14. Memorandum from George Hartzog to Ted Swem, December 3, 1964. Box18. TS.
15. Based on a memorandum from the Director to Chief, Office of Resource Planning, “Land Classification” (date unclear). Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
16. Theodore Swem, “Master Plan—A Tool for Total Management.” Paper presented at the National Park Service Superintendents Conference, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, September 12–17, 1965, 9–10. Copy provided by Ted Swem.
17. George B. Hartzog Jr., “Our Expanding Horizon of Public Service.” Paper presented at the National Park Service Superintendents Conference, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, September 12–17, 1965, 9–10. Box K5410. HFC.
18. Ibid., 11.
19. Ibid., 13.
20. Wilderness Regulations of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Title 43, Part 19, Section 19.2, February 17, 1966.
21. Minutes, Director's Staff Meeting, August 18, 1966. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
22. Ibid., 12.
23. Stewart Brandborg, “The Future with the Wilderness Act: Setting New Patterns under a Landmark Law.” Paper presented at the Sixth Biennial Northwest Wilderness Conference, Seattle, WA, April 1966. Box 14:300. TWS. See also Memo from Brandborg to Members of State Wilderness Committees and Cooperators, September 23, 1965, Box 5:00; Rupert Cutler to Karl S. Landstrom, December 8, 1965, Box 4:30; Landstrom to Charles Stoddard, January 6, 1966, Box B:30; Brandborg to Harvey Broome et al., November 26, 1965; and Michael McCloskey to Brandborg, December 1, 1965, Box 5:00. All in TWS.
24. Quoted in Frome, Battle for the Wilderness, 176.
25. Minutes, Director's Staff Meeting, August 18, 1966. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
26. Ibid., 12.
27. George B. Hartzog Jr., “National Park Wilderness Planning Procedures,” August 8, 1966. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
28. National Park Service Plan, Draft for NPS Conference of Challenges, Yosemite National Park, October 13–18, 1963. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
29. RG 79, Office Files of Wirth, Box 23, Entry 12, August 18, 1959. NA.
30. Minutes, Director's Staff Meeting, August 18, 1966, 7. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
31. J. Michael McCloskey, “Statement of the Sierra Club on Proposals for Wilderness Areas within Lassen Volcanic National Park, California,” September 27, 1966, 1–2. Box 7:110. TWS.
32. Ibid., 5.
33. S. Herbert Evison to Laurance S. Rockefeller, October 21, 1966. Box 2. HE.
34. Evison to Hearings Officer, Isle Royale National Park Wilderness Proposal, January 29, 1967. Box 2. HE.
35. Evison to George B. Hartzog Jr., January 19, 1967. Box 2. HE.
36. Remarks of George B. Hartzog Jr., Director, NPS, USDI, at the Tenth Biennial Wilderness Conference of the Sierra Club, San Francisco, California, April 7, 1967. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
37. Stewart Brandborg, “The Wilderness Act in Practice: The First Three Years,” April 7, 1967, 8. Box 14:300–500. TWS.
9 WILDERNESS REVIEWS RELUCTANTLY COMPLETED
1. U.S. Congress, Congressional Record 116 (September 21, 1970): 32749.
2. John M. Kauffmann to Chief, Division of Wilderness Studies, November 20, 1968. Box 8. JK.
3. U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Public Lands, Preservation of Wilderness Areas, Hearing on S. 2453 and Related Wilderness Bills. 92nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 1972, 62.
4. Memorandum from Stanley C. Joseph, Assistant Director, to Chiefs, Office of Resource Planning, SSC, and WG, February 26, 1969. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
5. U.S. House of Representatives, Lava Beds Wilderness, House Report 1421 to Accompany H.R. 5838, 92nd Cong., 2nd Sess., 1972.
6. Memorandum from Walter J. Hickel to George B. Hartzog, June 18, 1969, 2. Box K5410. HFC.
7. Ibid., 5.
8. Ernest M. Dickerman, “The National Park Wilderness Reviews,” The Living Wilderness 34, no. 109 (Spring 1970): 40–49.
9. Harthon L. Bill to Rep. Philip J. Philbin, May 22, 1970. Box 4:30. TWS.
10. Leslie Glasgow to George P. Hartzog Jr., July 6, 1970. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
11. Memorandum from Director to Directorate, July 28, 1970. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
12. Mimeographed Record of July 31, 1970, Meeting on Accelerated Wilderness Program. Recorded by James W. Stewart. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
13. Director's Staff Meeting Minutes, 1970–1984. Box 4019, General Collection. HFC.
14. John P. Saylor to Asst. Sec. Leslie L. Glasgow, October 14, 1970. Box 1:1. HC.
15. Leslie L. Glasgow to John P. Saylor, October 29, 1970. Box 1:1. HC.
16. Stewart M. Brandborg to William E. Kriegsman, October 21, 1970. Box 1:1. HC.
17. Rogers C. B. Morton to George B. Hartzog Jr., June 17, 1971. Box 5410, Policy and Philosophy. HFC.
18. 2 Stat. 926, Sec. 604, October 2, 1968.
19. David Louter, Contested Terrain: North Cascades National Park Service Complex—An Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, 1998), 60–61.
20. U.S. Senate, Preservation of Wilderness Areas, 59.
21. Ibid., 59–60.
22. Ibid., 62.
23. Ibid., 114.
24. Ibid., 119.
25. Dickerman to Stewart Brandborg et al., May 9, 1972. Box 4:410. TWS.
26. Ibid.
27. Asst. Secretary to Directors of BSFW and NPS, June 24, 1974, 2. Box 1:1. HC.
28. Ibid., 3.
29. Ibid., 4.
30. Transcript of interview of Nathaniel P. Reed with Loretta Neumann, editor, Newsletter, National Park Service, April 3, 1973. Box 5410, Policy and Philosophy. HFC.
31. “The Wilderness Record,” The Living Wilderness (Autumn 1972): 5–9.
32. Frank Church, statement in U.S. Senate, Preservation of Wilderness Areas, 59–60.
33. Hartzog offers his explanation of what happened in George B. Hartzog Jr., Battling for the National Parks (Mt. Kisko, NY: Moyer Bell Limited, 1988), 237–48.
34. Ibid., 262–63.
35. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers, 85.
36. See Miles, Guardians of the Parks, 237–83.
37. See Roth, The Wilderness Movement and the National Forests, 37–62.
38. Briefing Book, House Oversight Hearing, March 7, 1975. Box K5410. HFC.
10 WILDERNESS IN ALASKA
1. Theodore Catton, Inhabited Wilderness: Indians, Eskimos, and National Parks in Alaska (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997), 215.
2. U.S. Census Bureau, Alaska: Population of Counties by Decennial Census, 1900 to 1990, compiled and edited by Richard L. Forstall, www.census.gov/population/cencounts/.
3. Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, 215.
4. G. Frank Williss, “Do Things Right the First Time”: The National Park Service and the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1985), 64.
5. Ibid., 35.
6. Hartzog to George L. Collins, November 13, 1964. Cited in Williss, Do Things Right the First Time, 35.
7. U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, Senate, 156 (January 1970): 24424.
8. “Statement on H.R. 3100 and Related Bills to Provide for Settlement of Certain Land Claims of Alaska Natives by Stewart M. Brandborg, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, May 3, 1971,” Conservationists Involvement in Alaska—The Wilderness Society through 1975, Swem Papers. TS. Cited in Williss, Do Things Right the First Time, 74.
9. Williss, Do Things Right the First Time, 93.
10. For treatments of this aspect of national park history, see Keller and Turek, American Indians and National Parks, and Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Making of the National Parks.
11. John M. Kauffmann, Alaska's Brooks Range: The Ultimate Mountains (Seattle: Mountaineers, 1992), 135.
12. Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, 199–200.
13. Ibid., 210.
14. Ibid., 213.
15. Williss, Do Things Right the First Time, 152.
16. Kauffmann, Alaska's Brooks Range, 132.
17. Robert Cahn, The Fight to Save Wild Alaska (Washington, DC: National Audubon Society, 1982), 15.
18. Williss, Do Things Right the First Time, 173.
19. Ibid., 175.
20. Ibid., 219.
21. P.L. 97–487, Sec. 201, (4)(a).
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid., Section 803.
24. Quoted in T. H. Watkins, “The Perils of Expedience,” Wilderness 54, no. 191 (Winter 1990): 29.
11 A NEW SORT OF NATIONAL PARK WILDERNESS
1. Watkins, “The Perils of Expedience,” 79.
2. Williss, Do Things Right the First Time, 290.
3. Ibid., 281.
4. Ibid., 292.
5. Frank B. Norris, Isolated Paradise: An Administrative History of the Katmai and Aniakchak National Park Service Units, Alaska (Anchorage: National Park Service, 1996).
6. “Northern Alaska Environmental Center v. Hodel,” 15 ELR 21048, Environmental Law Reporter (1985), www.elr.info/litigation/vol.15/15.21048.html (this site is no longer active).
7. Personal communication to author from John Reynolds, June 21, 2003.
8. ANILCA, Title 16, 3191(a).
9. Williss, Do Things Right the First Time, 270.
10. Ibid., 271.
11. Ibid., n.277.
12. Ibid., 294.
13. P.L 96–487, Title II(4)(a).
14. Quoted in National Park Service, Draft Statement for Management, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, May 1982, 5. Box 8. JK.
15. Ibid., 15.
16. Ibid., 31–33.
17. John Adams et al., Letter to Dick Ring from the Fairbanks Environmental Center, 4. Box 8. JK.
18. Roderick Nash, “Comments on the Draft Statement for Management for Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve with Emphasis on the Problem of Air Access and Wilderness Values,” September 10, 1982. Box 8. JK.
19. Stephen Alleman to Dick Ring, June 28, 1982. Box 8. JK.
20. T. Destry Jarvis to Dick Ring, August 30, 1982. Box 8. JK.
21. National Park Service, Draft General Management Plan/Environmental Assessment, Land Protection Plan, Wilderness Suitability Review, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, Anchorage, AK, March 1985, 116.
22. Ibid., iv.
23. Ibid., 137.
24. Ibid., 138.
25. John Kauffmann to Regional Director, June 25, 1985. Box 8. JK.
26. National Park Service, General Management Plan, Land Protection, Wilderness Suitability Review, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, Anchorage, AK, 1986, 127.
27. Ibid., 128–29.
28. Ibid., 134.
29. Kauffmann, Alaska's Brooks Range, 163.
30. Boyd Evison to John Kauffmann, April 1991. Box 7. JK.
31. Ibid.
32. National Park Service, General Management Plan, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, 217.
33. National Park Service, Final Environmental Impact Statement, Wilderness Recommendation, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, Anchorage, AK, 1988, 77.
34. Quoted in Randy R. Rogers, “Management Decision Process Review,” Northern Line 8, no. 5 (October–November 1986): 3.
35. H.R. Rep. 95–1045, pt. 1, 157; emphasis in the original. Quoted in Allen E. Smith et al., Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act: A Citizen's Guide (Washington, DC: The Wilderness Society, 2001), 54.
36. Boyd Evison to John Kauffmann, June 28, 1988. Box 7. JK.
37. The Wilderness Society, The Alaska Lands Act: A Broken Promise (Washington, DC: The Wilderness Society, 1990), 48.
38. Smith et al., Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act: A Citizen's Guide, 54.
39. National Park Service, Final Environmental Impact Statement, Wilderness Recommendation, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, 69.
40. Quoted in Patricia Tyson Stroud, “Forerunner of American Conservation: Naturalist Thomas Say,” Journal of Forest and Conservation History 39 (October 1995): 187.
41. George Catlin, North American Indians: Being Letters and Notes on Their Manners, Customs, and Conditions, Written during Eight Years Travel amongst the Wildest Tribes in North America, 1832–1839, 2 vols. (London: George Catlin, 1880), 1:295.
42. See Catton, Inhabited Wilderness, for an extensive treatment of this complex idea.
12 PARK WILDERNESS AFTER THE REVIEWS
1. The Wilderness Society, “The Wilderness System,” The Living Wilderness 38, no. 128 (Winter 1974–75): 41.
2. U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, House, 97th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1976, 31889.
3. Little, “Island Wilderness: A History of Isle Royale National Park,” 208.
4. Allin, The Politics of Wilderness Preservation, 196.
5. John Jacobs, A Rage for Justice: The Passion and Politics of Phillip Burton (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 356.
6. U.S. House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on National Park and Insular Affairs, Legislative History of the National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978, 95th Cong., 2nd Sess. Committee Print 11, 495.
7. Ibid.
8. Brock Evans, “Wilderness Politics,” Sierra Club Bulletin 61, no. 8 (September 1976): 16.
9. U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, Senate (March 15, 1988): S2261. Quoted in Louter, Contested Terrain: North Cascades National Park Service Complex, 300.
10. See Frank Wheat, California Desert Miracle: The Fight for Desert Parks and Wilderness (San Diego: Sunbelt Publications, 1999).
11. National Park Service, Wilderness Recommendation, 1972, Grand Canyon Complex, 20. Included in Additions to the National Wilderness System, Communication from the President to Congress, Part 5, House Document 93–357, September 21, 1972.
12. National Park Service, Grand Canyon Management Plan, Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1973, 16.
13. U.S. Senate, Subcommittee on Parks and Recreation Hearings on S. 1296, January 20, 1973.
14. MSLF vs. Whalen, et al., U.S. District Court (Phoenix): 2:CV-80–233PHX CLH, closed July 16, 1981. Cited in R. Bryant McCulley, Wilderness Management Plan for Grand Canyon National Park and the Colorado River: A Study in Conjunction with American Whitewater (Master's thesis, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, August 1999), 21.
15. P.L. 96–514.
16. Grand Canyon Private Boaters Association vs. Alston, U.S. District Court (District of Arizona): CV-00–1277–PCT-RGR-TSZ.
17. National Park Service, Annual Wilderness Report 2002–2003, Appendix 1, Washington, DC, July 2003.
18. These areas include Arches National Park, Assateague Island National Seashore, Big Bend National Park, Bryce Canyon National Park, Canyonlands National Park, Capitol Reef National Park, Cedar Breaks National Park, Colorado National Monument, Crater Lake National Park, Craters of the Moon National Park, Cumberland Gap National Park, Dinosaur National Monument, El Malpais National Monument, Glacier National Park, Grand Tetons National Park, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Yellowstone National Park, and Zion National Park.
19. National Park Service, Wilderness Report 2000–2001, prepared for the National Wilderness Steering Committee, June 2002, 13.
20. Units for which recommendations have been completed but in 2002 awaited action in the Office of the Director were Aniakchak National Monument, Bering Land Bridge National Monument, Cape Krusenstern National Monument, Denali National Park, Gates of the Arctic National Park, Glacier Bay National Park, Katmai National Park, Kenai Fjords National Monument, Kobuk Valley National Monument, Lake Clark National Park, Noatak National Monument, Wrangell-St. Elias National Park, Yukon-Charley Rivers National Park, and Grand Canyon National Park. Some of these are additions to existing park wilderness areas. Those awaiting secretarial decision were Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area, Cape Lookout National Seashore, Glen Canyon NRA, Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, and Voyageurs National Park.
21. National Park Service, Annual Wilderness Report 2002–2003, Appendices 2 and 3.
22. Ibid., 8.
13 THE WORK CONTINUES
1. National Park Service, Backcountry Management Plan, North Cascades National Park Complex, March 14, 1974, Sedro-Woolley, WA, 7.
2. National Park Service, Lassen Volcanic National Park Backcountry Management Plan, 1975. Quoted in National Park Service, Preserving Our Natural Heritage, Vol. 1: Federal Activities (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), 222.
3. National Park Service, Management Policies 1978 (Washington, DC), chap. 6, sec. 2.
4. National Park Service, Management Policies 1988 (Washington, DC), chap. 6, sec. 3.
5. Ibid., chap. 6, sec.4.
6. Ibid., chap. 6, sec.2.
7. National Park Service, Management Policies 2001 (Washington, DC), vol. 6, sec.2.1.
8. Ibid., chap. 6, sec.2.2.
9. Ibid., chap. 6, sec.3.7.
10. Cited in Jonathan B. Jarvis, “The Wilderness Act and the NPS Organic Act: A White Paper Discussion,” unpublished internal National Park Service document, March 1994.
11. Robert Cahn, “The National Park System: The People, the Parks, the Politics,” Sierra 68, no. 3 (May–June, 1983): 51.
12. Ibid., 49.
13. National Park Service, Ranger Activities Division, Wilderness Task Force Report on Improving Wilderness Management in the National Park Service (Washington, DC: National Park Service, September 3, 1994).
14. Ibid., 18.
15. Remarks by Roger G. Kennedy before the 6th National Wilderness Conference, November 14–18, 1994, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1, www.nps.gov/partner/speechsf.html (this site is no longer active).
16. Ibid., 2.
17. Ibid.
18. Memo to Field Area Directors et al., from Chairman, National Wilderness Steering Committee, n.d. box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
19. Memo to Members and Liaison, National Wilderness Steering Committee from Deputy Wilderness Program Coordinator, March 4, 1997. Box L48, Wilderness. HFC.
20. Richard West Sellars, “The Path Not Taken: National Park Service Wilderness Management,” George Wright Forum 17, no. 4 (2000): 4.
21. Ibid., 6.
22. Ibid., 7.
23. Ibid., 5.
24. Bob Krumenaker, “Wilderness and Natural Resource Management in the NPS: Another View,” George Wright Forum 18, no. 1 (2001): 11–12.
25. Ibid.