SEVENTEEN UPANISHADS ARE classified as Sannyasa Upanishads by Upanishad Brahmayogin, and this classification is accepted by several others. Some add two to three more Upanishads in this group.
The seventeen are: Aruni, Avadhuta, Bhikshu, Brahma, Jabala, Katharudra, Kundika, Maitreya, Narada-parivrajaka, Nirvana, Parabrahma, Paramahamsa, Paramahamsa-Parivrajaka, Sannyasa, Shatyayaniya, Turiyatita Avadhuta and Yajnavalkya.
F.O. Schrader identified earlier and later texts among these. The earliest were: Aruni, Brahma, Jabala, Katha-shruti (that is, Katharudra), Kundika and Paramahamsa. Following this, he places the Ashrama and slightly later the Bhikshu, Avadhuta, Sannyasa, Maitreya, Narada-parivrajaka, Nirvana, Parabrahma, Paramahamsa-parivrajaka, Shatyayaniya, Turiyatita Avadhuta and Yajnavalkya. Sprockhoff, a student of Schrader, has done a more detailed study. He assigns the first group to before 1 CE, the Ashrama to around 300 CE, the Narada Parivrajaka to circa 1150, the Shatyayaniya to circa 1200, and the rest to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The later Upanishads include passages from smritis and earlier texts. Through these texts, one can see the historical development of ideas concerning sannyasa. But in the Upanishads, sannyasa is only a means to reach Brahman. Patrick Olivelle feels that none of these is before the first century CE.
The Aruni Upanishad is attached to the Sama Veda and sometimes to the Atharva Veda. In this, the god Brahma instructs the rishi Aruni (the son of Aruna) on the highest type of sannyasi, the Paramahamsa Parivrajaka. The text has eight verses. In this text, Aruna’s son visits the world (loka) of Prajapati and asks how to give up all work (action). Prajapati explains that he must abandon everything: family, friends, sacred thread, scriptures and all the worlds (all fourteen worlds are mentioned here). Whether he is a brahmachari, grihastha or vanaprastha, he should discard everything, including the Gayatri Mantra and the sacred thread.
It goes on to explain that the first stage of being a sannyasi, that is, the Kutichaka living a brahmachari’s life, should give up his relatives, the begging bowl, straining cloth, triple staff and the lighting of the fires that lead to particular spheres. He should practice concentration to unite with his atman and of all Vedic texts should focus on the Upanishads. The person who realizes himself as Brahman needs no outer support, but even so should strictly follow the five yamas of brahmachari, ahimsa, aparigraha, asteya and satya.
The highest class of sannyasis, the Paramahamsa Parivrajakas, should live even more simply, sitting or lying only on the ground, using one bowl, following the vow of brahmacharya and giving up all emotions. They should stay in one place in the rainy season, otherwise they should wander, either alone or with a single companion. The one who has truly understood the Vedas should give up everything: father, son, wife, even the begging bowl, the staff and the sacred thread. Such sannyasis should place the mantra Om on various parts of the body. They should have awakened from ignorance and should not have anger.
The Avadhuta Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda. In this Dattatreya describes the nature of the avadhuta. Such a person is immortal, has discarded all worldly ties and is always full of bliss. An avadhuta is a liberated soul, one who has renounced the world. Totally beyond all that is, an avadhuta follows no rules or practices and has no need to follow conventional norms.
In this Upanishad of thirty-six verses, Samkriti approaches the avadhuta Dattatreya and asks him about the characteristics of an avadhuta. Dattatreya replies that an avadhuta is one who is immortal (akshara), the best (varenya), who has discarded all worldly ties (dhutasamsarabandhana) and who is reflected in the words ‘tat tvam asi’ (that thou art).
He has nothing to do with caste or with stages of life (the varnas and ashramas), is full of bliss and can be identified with Brahman. A person does not attain immortality by children, rituals or wealth, but by renunciation (tyaga). An avadhuta moves about freely with or without clothes and does not consider anything good or bad, holy or unholy. He performs the ashvamedha sacrifice within himself, which is the greatest sacrifice and the great Yoga (7). He is not affected by anything he does.
The text affirms that there is neither death nor birth; none is bound, none aspires. There is neither seeker after liberation nor any liberated; this indeed is the ultimate Truth (11). The avadhuta lives in a state of bliss and contentment. He has no need to study, concentrate, meditate or teach. However, the body could continue to worship gods, bathe, beg for food—these tasks, though unnecessary, would not affect him. He should repeat the Tara Mantra or recite passages from the Upanishads (27).
One verse states: Let thought contemplate Vishnu or let it be dissolved in the bliss of Brahman. I am the witness. I neither do nor cause anything to be done (Verse 28). An avadhuta is always full of joy, free of all actions and all sins.
The commentator explains that a-va-dhu-ta stands for akshara, varenya, dhutasamsarabandhana and tat tvam asi.
(The term avadhuta can apply to any liberated person, but it also specifically refers to a sannyasi sect. The Avadhuta Gita has similar descriptions. The Uddhava Gita, forming part of the Bhagavata Purana, describes an avadhuta who learns from all aspects of life and who is at home anywhere in the world.)
The Bhikshu Upanishad belongs to the Shukla Yajur Veda. This short Upanishad has five verses. It describes four types of bhikshus or sannyasis: Kutichaka, Bahudaka, Hamsa and Paramahamsa. The Kutichaka, hut-dwelling sannyasis, live on eight mouthfuls of food and seek moksha through the path of yoga. Past examples of such ascetics include Gautama, Bharadvaja, Yajnavalkya and Vasishtha.
The Bahudaka also live on eight mouthfuls of food, given to them from houses of brahma-rishis. They carry the tridanda or threefold staff, the kamandalu or water pot, and wear a shikha or tuft of hair, a sutra or sacred thread and a kashaya vastra or ochre-coloured garment. They are not allowed alcohol or meat. The Hamsa sannyasis keep travelling and do not stay long in one place. They live on gomutra and gomaya (cow’s urine and dung—not to be taken literally, implying products obtained from the cow). They follow the chandrayana vow, where food is gradually increased and decreased according to the phases of the moon (chandra), and seek liberation through the path of yoga.
The Paramahamsa shelter at the foot of a tree, a deserted house or cremation ground or a temple, river bank or elsewhere. They may or may not wear clothes and have gone beyond righteousness or unrighteousness. They see the atman in all, receive food from anyone, and with purified minds contemplate Brahman. They have rejected the dualities of pure and impure (shuddha–ashuddha–dvaita–varjita). The commentator relates these to a rejection of the philosophies of Ramanuja and Madhva, which would make this a late text. Examples of Paramahamsa sannyasis are Samvartaka, Aruni, Shvetaketu, Jadabharata, Dattatreya, Shuka, Vamadeva and Harita.
The Brahma Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda or to the Atharva Veda.
Among the commentators on this text are Narayana and Shankarananda.
In this Upanishad, Pippalada instructs Shaunaka on Brahman. Shaunaka approaches him with a question on Brahmapura, the city of Brahman, located in the body. Pippalada explains Brahman, identifying it with prana and the atman. The text refers to the nadis through which prana is distributed in the body and the four states of consciousness. It also relates these states with the four places in the body in which Purusha is seated: the navel, heart, throat and head. It goes on to state that in the Jagrata or waking state He is Brahma, in the Svapna or dreaming state He is Vishnu, in the Sushupti or deep sleep state he is Rudra and in the Turiya state beyond these, he is Paramakshara, the indestructible. The Supreme is also everything else, including Aditya, Vishnu, Ishvara, the Purusha, the jiva, prana and Agni. It is the indestructible Brahman that shines by itself and in reality nothing exists but this. There are no worlds or devas or Vedas, no sacrifices, no Chandala’s son or Pulkasa’s son, but within the recess of the heart is the akasha of consciousness, with many openings, the aim of knowledge and the container of the universe. There, neither devas, rishis or pitris have any control, as the one who is fully awakened knows all. They don’t control the person, yet the devas, pranas, supreme light and the mahat principle exist within the heart.
The Jabala Upanishad is attached to the Shukla Yajur Veda or to the Atharva Veda. It explains renunciation and the nature of a Paramahamsa, a type of rishi who has an unmanifested (avyakta) nature, and is considered among the highest ascetics. In this text, Avimukta is used in two ways. It is a name of ancient Varanasi and the name of the god Shiva. The caste system is well-established at this time.
The Upanishad has six short khandas or sections. In the first khanda, the deity Brihaspati approaches the rishi Yajnavalkya and asks him which is Kurukshetra, where the gods perform sacrifices and where Brahman is known. Yajnavalkya replies that it is Avimukta where Brahman resides within all beings. Here, Rudra reveals the mantra through which Brahman can be attained.
In the second khanda, the rishi Atri asks Yajnavalkya how to realize the unmanifest and infinite Self, and Yajnavalkya replies that it can be attained by worshipping Avimukta. The infinite and unmanifest Self is established in Avimukta. Avimukta is established between Varana and Nasi. Varana wards off all faults committed by the senses and Nasi destroys all sins. This is located between the eyebrows, at the top of the nose. This is the true Avimukta.
In the third khanda the brahmacharis or students of Yajnavalkya ask him which mantra leads to immortality and he replies that reciting the Shatarudriya would do so.
In the fourth khanda, King Janaka of Videha approaches Yajnavalkya and asks him to explain the basics of sannyasa. Yajnavalkya responds that one can become a sannyasi after being a student, householder and forest dweller, or alternatively one can make that choice at any point. A person can become a sannyasi whether or not he maintains the sacred fires. Some say (law-givers) that he should first perform the prajapatya sacrifice. This, however, is not necessary, but he should perform a sacrifice to Agni as Agni represents prana. He should perform the traidhataviya sacrifice by which sattva, rajas and tamas are strengthened in him. Then he should inhale the smoke of the fire while reciting a mantra to Agni (provided in the text). Those who do not maintain the sacred fire themselves should obtain one from the home of a Vedic scholar and then perform the rituals. In case he cannot obtain such a fire, offerings of water can be made in the prescribed rituals. He explains that it is Brahman that is to be worshipped, and Janaka agrees.
In the fifth khanda, Atri poses another question. He asks how a person without a sacred thread can be a brahmana. Yajnavalkya replies that the conviction that I am the Self constitutes the sacred thread. But only brahmanas are entitled to take sannyasa, others may attain liberation through dying in battle, or in water or fire, or undertaking an endless journey. But those entitled to take sannyasa must renounce the world and live on alms. Brahman is attained by following this path.
The sixth khanda describes the type of sannyasi known as Paramahamsa. In the past, such sannysais included Samvartaka, Aruni, Dattatreya, Shvetaketu, Durvasa, Ribhu, Raivataka, Nidagha and Jadabharata. They had no distinguishing marks and though perfectly sane they behaved as if they were out of their senses. There are two types of Paramahamsas: those who wear clothes and those who do not. Even those who wear clothes must discard in water the threefold staff, water pot, alms bowl, sling (to carry possessions), cloth for purifying water, tuft of hair and sacred thread.
The second category do not wear clothes and do not bother about whether or not they receive alms, but take the bare minimum to sustain the body; they are indifferent to pairs of opposites such as heat and cold, have no abode but sleep anywhere, have no sense of ‘I’ and ultimately obtain liberation.
The Katharudra Upanishad, also known as the Kathashruti, is attached to the Krishna Yajur Veda. In this, the devas ask Prajapati to explain to them brahmavidya or the knowledge of Brahman. Attaining brahmavidya, says Prajapati, begins with renunciation. After removing one’s hair, hair tuft and sacred thread, there is a formal parting from the son. Then the renouncer circumambulates the village clockwise and departs. The procedure of becoming an ascetic is further explained. Once he becomes an ascetic, he gives up the agnihotra or fire sacrifice and renounces everything. He sleeps on the sand near a river or in a temple. To reach the self-effulgent light that illumines the whole world, there can be no compromise on brahmacharya. However, Brahman is only reached by gaining knowledge of it, not by any other action.
Brahman is sat-chit-ananda and One without a second. The one who understands that ‘I am Brahman’ becomes Brahman. The Self, which is the same as Brahman, has maya or illusory power, through which akasha (ether or space) and other aspects of the world emerge.
The five bodies or kosha are referred to, and the anandamaya kosha or body of bliss is pervaded by Brahman, the innermost Self. Without this supreme bliss which is the self of all beings, no human being can be alive or perform any actions. This shining Self makes the individual happy, who otherwise is full of sorrow. The ascetic who realizes unity with Brahman is also free from fear. This transcendent Brahman is supreme immortality, existing beyond time.
The Kundika Upanishad is attached to the Sama Veda. It begins by explaining the duties of a person before renunciation. It goes on to describe the importance of renunciation, yoga and the ultimate realization of Brahman. After a period of study as a student, that is, of brahmachari, the person should marry a suitable wife with the permission of his teacher. Then living as a grihastha or householder for many years, he should renounce it, divide his property among his sons and enter the third stage of his life, that of vanaprastha. He should live on air, water and approved roots and fruits and should have no regrets for the comforts he has left behind. At this stage he has total self-control and has renounced the fruits of his actions. He is accompanied by his wife, though he follows strict brahmacharya, that is, sex is out of the question. After some time he proceeds as a sannyasi, a total renunciate. Renunciation is essential for escaping rebirth. As he has renounced the sacred fire, he should not even think of it or recite its mantras. However, he can repeat Om, and other mantras related to Self-realization, and also ponder over the texts that describe Brahman.
Further rules for the spiritual path are prescribed. He should wear ochre clothes, live on alms and wander from place to place. He should meditate and possess pure knowledge for the protection of all living beings (Verse 12). He should give up all possessions except a water pot, a bowl for receiving alms, a loin cloth, upper garment and patched clothing to keep out the cold, a pair of sandals, a towel and a ring of sacred grass. He should sleep on a sandy riverbed or outside a temple. Neither praise nor blame should affect him. He should understand the identity of the individual Self with the Supreme.
The text goes on to describe how the five elements arose from Brahman and the state of mind of the wandering vanaprastha. Gradually, the person gains identity with Brahman and loses identification with the body and the sense of ‘I’. Certain practices are then prescribed to unite the prana and apana in the body, and to further control the senses. Then, as the prana passes through the Sushumna and reaches the Sahasrara Chakra, he attains Brahman. First, he attains the qualified and then the unqualified Brahman. At this stage he remains untouched by anything around him or anything that happens or does not happen. He sees the Self everywhere, knows that it is One without a second and has perfect bliss. No matter what he is doing, he finds delight in the atman and on leaving the body gains liberation or moksha.
The Maitreya Upanishad is attached to the Sama Veda.
The text has three chapters or sections. Chapter 1 begins with the story of King Brihadratha, who installs his eldest son on the throne and goes into the forest, where he performs tapas for 1000 years. Then, the sun god in the form of the sage Shakayanya asks him to choose a boon and Brihadratha requests an explanation of the atman. At first, Shakayanya does not answer, but the king, describing the impermanence of life, persuades him.
Shakayanya explains how to reach the ultimate goal by purifying the mind and turning it towards Brahman. One should see Brahman present in the lotus of the heart, a witness to the thoughts of the intellect. This is the abode of supreme love, beyond mind and speech, immobile, steady and deep, neither light nor dark, free from all doubts. It is eternal, pure and beyond duality. The ignorant who stick to caste rules and ways of life attain the fruit of that, but only freedom from attachment provides supreme happiness.
In Section 2, with thirty-one verses, the sage Maitreya visits Mount Kailasha and asks the Lord (Shiva) to convey to him the secret of the supreme truth. The great god replies that the body is a temple and the jiva or individual self is Shiva. One should worship him, understanding that ‘He and I are one’. He describes the impurity of the body and the need to move towards liberation. The inborn tendencies of the mind need to be destroyed and renunciation should be desired, only after the mind becomes dispassionate. The wisest people then contemplate Brahman; the middling ones contemplate scripture; below them are those who use mantras; and the lowest believe in visiting holy places (2.22). Even those who are learned may not have wisdom and one should contemplate Brahman enshrined in the heart to attain identity with it.
Section 3 with twenty-four verses begins by affirming that I am Brahman and then tries to convey this in different ways, for instance, I am the Guru of all the worlds, I am all the worlds, I have attained perfection, I am pure, I am the Supreme, I remain always, I am He, I am eternal, I am pure, I am free from sorrow, I am consciousness, I am beyond speech, I am the auspicious and the inauspicious, etc.
The Narada-Parivrajaka is a long Upanishad attached to the Atharva Veda. It deals with the stages of sannyasa and is divided into nine sections known as upadeshas.
In the first upadesha, which has two verses, the rishi Narada, known as a musician and a wanderer through the three worlds, reaches the Naimisha forest, where other rishis are gathered for a twelve-year sacrifice. Among them are Shaunaka and others. As Narada arrives there, they ask him a question on attaining liberation. Narada replies that the seeker should be of a good family, wear the sacred thread, have studied the Vedas and performed the forty Vedic rituals and been a brahmachari for twelve years, followed by twenty-five years as a householder and then twenty-five years as a vanaprastha. In addition, he should have studied the duties of four types of brahmachari, six types of householders and four types of vanaprasthas, and should know the four disciplines. He should have given up desires and be self-controlled.
In the second upadesha, Shaunaka and others request Narada to explain the method of renunciation. He said that this is best explained by Pitamaha (Brahma). After completing the sacrifice they all go to the world of Brahma and, after propitiating him, request him to tell them. Brahma then says he will convey the secret taught by the Virat Purusha in the form of the Purusha-sukta and the Upanishads. He again repeats what Narada said were the qualifications, with a few more details.
In the third upadesha, Narada describes those who are not worthy to renounce worldly life: a eunuch, one who does not have right conduct, a deformed person, women and children, the blind, deaf and dumb, the heretic, an emperor, a religious student, a Vaikhanasa sannyasi and a Haradvija, a hired teacher, a man without prepuce and one who does not maintain the sacred fire, even though they are dispassionate. If they become renunciates, they cannot receive the highest knowledge. But someone who is already a sannyasi can advance further to become a Paramahamsa. Certain people can become renunciates only just before death. Even here, renunciation should take place in the prescribed way with correct mantras. A householder can also renounce the world with the right rituals and so can a wise man and a brahmachari. The text then describes the essential prerequisites for a sannyasi, as given in other texts, and the nature of the true sannyasi and their daily life.
Upadesha 4 continues with this theme. The sannyasi has abandoned the worlds, all objects, the Vedas and rituals, and is established in the atman. He must take care never to speak with a woman or remember one, or even look at a picture of one. There are many more things an ascetic should avoid. Among them, he should not have greed, anger, and passion, he should not use mantras, herbs or medicines, and should not bless others or receive gifts of any kind. He should follow the basic yamas and niyamas. More rules for the life of a Paramahamsa ascetic are prescribed, as well as the manner of renunciation.
The fifth upadesha with sixty-six verses continues to explain the method and type of renunciation. The eleventh verse (5.11) states that there are six stages of renunciation: Kutichaka, Bahudaka, Hamsa, Paramahamsa, Turiyatita and Avadhuta. Succeeding verses explain the characteristics of each. The sixth, the Avadhuta, follows no norms and like a python accepts any food that he receives. More rules are provided for each stage.
The sixth upadesha with forty-two verses refers to the states of consciousness and the tattvas and continues with rules and descriptions of the various stages of the ascetic life.
The seventh with eleven verses expands on the same theme, emphasizing what is forbidden—for instance, the ascetic should see women as snakes, gold as poison, an assembly hall as a cemetery and a capital city as a dreadful (kumbhipaka) hell. The eighth upadesha with twenty-three verses provides further rules and descriptions of each stage. It includes certain mantras to be used for taking sannyasa and different types of Pranavas (Om), with the Brahma Pranava having 128 matras (parts). It further explains states of consciousness. The ninth upadesha with twenty-three verses describes Brahman and all it contains.
The Nirvana Upanishad is attached to the Rig Veda and has sixty-one verses. It has a sutra style and explains the characteristics of the Paramahamsa ascetic. The descriptions are similar to those in other Upanishads. Such ascetics are imperishable and unconditioned. However, unlike other Upanishads, this states that their role is to teach Brahman to various disciples. They have no duties to perform and do not establish monastic centres, but they teach only to benefit others. Compassion is their sport, and they wear the garland of bliss. They are absorbed in Brahman and by their behaviour they reveal that they see Brahman in all beings (Verse 24). The text also refers to them raising the Kundalini through the practise of Hatha Yoga and mentions the khechari mudra. It refers to meditation on the Gayatri through the Ajapa Mantra (the mantra hamsa used while breathing in and out). It also describes Brahmavidya, the supreme knowledge, attained through yoga practice and detachment. The Paramahamsa-parivrajaka, through these practices, realizes Brahman and attains nirvana (ultimate liberation or moksha).
The Parabrahma Upanishad is attached to the Atharva Veda and has twenty verses. It begins with Shaunaka approaching Pippalada and asking him about Brahman. Everything is present in Brahman, he says, but how did creation and so many different species emerge? Also, what is the nature of Brahman? Pippalada then explains the true nature of Brahman that has no parts and is pure and indestructible. Brahman remains in its own self, does no work and yet brings forth everything that exists. The text also explains how to realize the tripad (threefold) Brahman. The four states of consciousness and the nadis are referred to, as well as yoga with eight parts (Raja Yoga, described in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra). The deities presiding over prana are Vishva, Viraj, Otr and Turiya. The nadis related to these are also four. In deep sleep the jiva rests in the golden sheath in the heart. To realize the inner jiva-Brahman who consists of four padas, there are four places within the body: the eyes, throat, heart and head. These correspond with waking, dreaming, deep sleep and Turiya. The jiva-atman can also be compared to the sacred fires, the ahavaniya, garhaptya, dakshina and sabhya. The deities presiding over the four states of consciousness are Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra and finally the Supreme indestructible one. The four states can be considered to be covered by four fingers. The extent of the sacred thread is ninety-six times four fingers, hence, the tattvas in the inner brahmasutra (the inner sacred thread) are ninety-six. The sacred thread has three threads so the inner brahmasutra has three gunas each with thirty-two tattvas.
The triad purified by wisdom are known as the three gods and the nine Brahmans (five panchapada Brahman and four chatushpada Brahman). Further esoteric details of the internal brahmasutra are provided. For instance, internally the hamsa (mantra) is the tuft, the pranava the sacred thread, and nada the connecting link (5). Further, it is said that jnana (wisdom) represents the tuft and sacred thread (12), while the external sacred thread of cotton is worn only by the ignorant.
The Paramahamsa Upanishad is attached to the Shukla Yajur Veda or to the Atharva Veda, and goes into details on the Paramahamsa type of rishi.
The text begins with the rishi Narada asking the Lord (Bhagavanta) about the path and duties of the Paramahamsa yogis. Bhagavan explains that it is a very difficult path and one that very few follow. Such a yogi is always one with Brahman. He has renounced all relationships as well as the shikha (tuft), the sacred thread, Vedic study and all actions and everything in the universe. He uses Kaupina, the staff, and the bare minimum of clothes and food. In a further stage, he drops even the staff and uses no covering. He is beyond cold and heat, happiness and misery, and all other emotions. He does not identify with the body and is always identified with Brahman. He has realized that jnana or true knowledge is his shikha and his holy thread. Uniting the jiva with the Paramatman, there is no distinction between them, and this union is his Sandhya ceremony.
The true Ekadandi is one who carries the staff of knowledge and is united with Brahman. Merely carrying a wooden staff but being attracted to sense objects and being without jnana leads to hells such as the Maharauravas. The one who knows the difference between these two is a Paramahamsa.
A Paramahamsa blames none, praises none and bows to no one. He does not invoke god, recite mantras or meditate. He perceives neither duality nor unity, neither you nor I. He does not accept gold or wealth and has no disciples. If he does any of these, he becomes a killer of the atman. Instead, the Paramahamsa always resides in the atman and has realized his identity with Brahman.
The Paramahamsa-Parivrajaka Upanishad is attached to the Atharva Veda and has more information on the Paramahamsa ascetic.
The text has five long verses and begins with the god Brahma approaching his father Adinarayana (Vishnu), the Supreme Being, and asking him about the characteristics of the Paramahamsa sannyasi. The Lord explains that after completing the three stages of brahmachari, grihastha and vanaprastha, the person can renounce worldly life or can even do so at an earlier stage. He adds that some state that the prajapatya ritual should be practised before renouncing the world, but actually only the Agneyi ritual, to the god Agni, is required, as Agni is Prana. Further details of the rituals are provided. The text states that kshatriyas and others not entitled to renunciation have to attain liberation in different ways, by death in the battlefield, entering water or fire, or undertaking an endless journey. A person who is ill can make a mental renunciation while a healthy person should perform the shraddha and Agni rituals. Then he should pull out his tuft and snap the sacred thread with certain prescribed mantras and a meditation on Om. He should focus on the mahavakyas such as ‘I am Brahman’ and ‘You Are That. He also has to recite: ‘Freedom from fear to all from me, Svaha.’
Those not entitled to this method of renunciation recite the householder’s prayer, followed by the prayer regarding ‘Freedom from fear to all beings’. He should ponder over the truths of the Upanishads and give up all negative emotions, passions and possessions. He maintains the basic ethical principles of the yamas and accepts alms from all the four castes, except those accursed or fallen. He remains unmoved in gain or loss and wanders alone for eight months of the year (avoiding the rainy season). At this point he wears some patched garment, but later he can become a Kutichaka or a Bahudaka or a Hamsa or a Paramahamsa ascetic and discard even his loin-cloth, staff and water vessel. He now has no fixed abode, sleeps on the floor and discards all rituals, only meditating on Brahman as the Pranava.
Next, Brahma asks about the Brahma-Pranava and Narayana explains its sixteen parts, corresponding with the four states of consciousness, each of which also have four states. The fourth verse explains this clearly as it shows each state of consciousness can have four sub-states, one when it is pure and the other three when it assumes some of the characteristics of another state of consciousness. For instance, one can be fully awake or partly awake. These states are also associated with the syllables of the mantra Om, which form the Brahma Pranava. The four parts of Jagrat are reflected in ‘a’, the four parts of Svapna in ‘u’, the four parts of Sushupti in ‘m’, and the four parts of Turiya in the ardha-matra. This should be worshipped by the Paramahamsa, Turiyatita and Avadhuta ascetics, which will lead to liberation.
Vishnu then provides further descriptions of the Paramahamsa ascetic, who uses no outer props, is always the same, does not feel hunger or thirst or any other of the usual emotions, does not worship any deities and remains focused on Om.
As Om is the Brahma-Pranava, he is one with Brahman.
The Sannyasa Upanishad belongs to the Sama Veda and has two adhyayas or parts. It explains the methods of renouncing the world and describes the six kinds of ascetics. There are different versions of this text.
Adhyaya 1 has only one verse. It begins by stating that this Upanishad specifically explains aspects of renunciation. A person wishing to renounce the world should get the approval of family and kin, bring together his priests and perform the Vaishvanara sacrifice, giving away all wealth to the officiating priests. Then the five pranas—prana, apana, vyana, udana and samana—should be symbolically placed in the vessels of the five sacred fires, the ahavaniya, garhaptya, anvaharyapachana, sabhya and avasthaya. Then, shaving his head along with his tuft, snapping his sacred thread and seeing his son (if he has one), he consecrates himself with the mantra stating ‘You are the god Brahma, the sacrifice and everything.’
The remaining instructions are similar to those provided in other texts. He can receive alms from all the four castes and should eat with his hands as a bowl, just enough to maintain himself. He can stay in a village for one night and in a town for five, and in one place during the rainy season. If he feels too cold or hot he can wear a bark garment or a tattered or patched one. Now his sacred thread is meditation on the atman and Brahmavidya is his tuft. He knows neither night nor day, all is the same to him.
The second adhyaya is a long one with 123 verses. It states that only one who has performed the forty samskaras is entitled to take sannyasa. In addition, such a person should be detached from the world, have given up all desires, be free of emotions and should follow the four disciplines (sadhanas). It also explains that if you decide to renounce the world and do not do so, you can resume this path after the prajapatya sacrifice. Next, three types of people are criticized: one who denounces renunciation, one who supports a fallen ascetic and one who places obstacles in the path of one who wishes to renounce the world (2.3).
The next few verses list those who cannot become renunciates, again similar to that in other Upanishads: a eunuch, a fallen man, a maimed person, women, a deaf person, a child, a dumb person, a heretic, an informer, a student, a Vaikhanasa ascetic, a Haradvija (Shiva worshipper), a salaried teacher, a man without prepuce, one who does not keep the ritual fire. Even if such people renounce the world they are not entitled to be taught the great texts (such as ‘That Thou Art’). In addition, those who cannot become sannyasis include: the son of a sannyasi who has fallen from grace, one with a disease of the nails, one who is brown-toothed, a consumptive and a deformed person.
Renunciation should also be banned to recent householders, those who have committed great sins, those who have lost caste, those who do not practise prescribed rituals and those who do not maintain truth and purity. But all these can be set aside for one who is seriously ill or on his deathbed (2.5–7).
Following this, the method of renunciation is prescribed. The tuft should be discarded while reciting ‘Om Bhuh Svaha’. The sacred thread should be snapped and left in the water along with his clothes and waistband while reciting the appropriate mantras. There are great benefits to renunciation; in fact, it affects sixty generations of his family before him and sixty after him (2.10). After this, again with appropriate mantras, he should accept a smooth and whole bamboo staff, a water vessel and a yogic garment. He gives up dharma and adharma, truth and untruth, and lives his life with dispassion and wisdom (jnana).
The Upanishad explains that there are four reasons for renunciation. Some are motivated by dispassion, some by spiritual wisdom, some by both these together, while the fourth category renounces the world in order to follow the traditional four stages of life.
Six kinds of sannyasis, along with their characteristics, are described: Kutichaka, Bahudaka, Hamsa, Paramahamsa, Turiyatita and Avadhuta. The Kutichaka sannyasi wears the tuft and sacred thread and holds the tridanda (staff) and water vessel. He has a sling (for carrying his items) and a spade. His clothes include a loin-cloth and patched garment. He eats his food at one place and serves his father, mother and guru. On his forehead, he wears a perpendicular mark of white sandal paste.
The Bahudaka sannyasi is on the whole similar, but wears three (horizontal) lines of holy ash on his forehead. He eats only eight mouthfuls of food given in alms by eight different houses. The Hamsa ascetic has matted hair; the mark on his forehead can be either of those worn by the Kutichaka or Bahudaka; he eats food obtained in alms from anywhere and wears a loin-cloth. The Paramahamsa ascetic has given up the tuft and sacred thread; he receives food in his own hands and wears a loin cloth. He may also wear a patched garment or can be unclad, smeared in ashes. He holds a bamboo staff and has discarded all attachments. The Turiyatita sannyasi lives on fruits and receives them in his mouth like a cow; if he eats cooked rice, he receives them from three houses. He wears no clothes, has no possessions or attachments and disregards his body. The Avadhuta sannyasi follows no rules. He eats food like a python, that is, not regularly, but whenever he gets it. He accepts food from all castes except those who are fallen from the path or accursed. He continuously meditates on the Self, knowing that he is the Supreme Being, and does not identify with the body or with anything in the world.
He has no ego, understands without the mind, is free of desires and is pure consciousness and bliss. He aims to be in such deep samadhi that birds of the forest would build their nests on his head. He contemplates the true nature of his Self: purity, strength, reality, truth, knowledge, bliss, tranquillity and oneness.
Further instructions too are provided. If one who is seriously ill recovers, he should become a renunciate in the prescribed order. Sannyasis should not talk to low-caste women, to those without virtue and a woman during her period. Sannyasis do not worship gods or attend festivals. Depending on the level and nature of the sannyasi, they attain different goals. Those who become sannyasis after illness or affliction gain the world or Bhuh; the Kutichaka sannyasis obtain Bhuva. The Bahudaka sannyasi reaches heaven (Svarga). The Hamsa sannyasi goes to Satya Loka, the world of truth. The Turiyatita and the Avadhuta sannyasis attain supreme bliss by the realization of their true Selves.
This Upanishad provides further instructions on what sannyasis should and should not do, and is almost like a guidebook for them. It ends by praising the Pranava, Om. If the sannyasi repeats it 12,000 times a day, Brahman is attained within twelve months.
The Shatyayaniya Upanishad belongs to the Shukla Yajur Veda and has forty verses. It looks at the four types of ascetics and their duties and roles in life, as well as the four types of disciplines such as the Yogayajna. The text begins by stating that the chitta, the conscious mind, is the cause of bondage and liberation, and should be controlled and purified. Those brahmanas who know the Veda and have no desires reach Brahman, following the ascetic path. It mentions four types of ascetics: Kutichaka, Bahudaka, Hamsa and Paramahamsa. This text states they possess the signs of Vishnu and are identified with Vishnu. The devotional acts to be performed are explained and the Paramahamsas are described as having jnana (wisdom) as their tuft and sacred thread. They are beyond passion, greed and other emotions. Most of this Upanishad is similar to other Sannyasa Upanishads, but here devotion to Vishnu, identified with Brahman, is prescribed. The last few verses emphasize the importance of a guru.
The Turiyatita Avadhuta Upanishad contains a description of the Avadhuta who has reached the state of consciousness beyond Turiya. The text begins as Pitamaha (grandfather, a name of the god Brahma) approaches Adinarayana (Vishnu) and asks about the Turiyatita Avadhuta. Narayana says that such an avadhuta is rare and unique. In this state, a person is pure, the embodiment of dispassion and totally free. The stages leading up to this are described: first, that of the Kutichaka (hut-dwelling ascetic), then a Bahudaka ascetic (wandering mendicant), next the Hamsa ascetic. Higher than this is the Paramahamsa ascetic and, finally, the Turiyatita Avadhuta. An Avadhuta who has reached this level does not chant mantras or practise rituals, wears no caste marks and has terminated all religious and secular duties. He wears no clothes and eats anything that comes his way. He wanders alone, observing silence, and is totally absorbed in non-duality. In some texts, however, the Paramahamsa and the Avadhuta are considered the same, while in others there are six types of sannyasis, of which the Turiyatita is the fifth and the Avadhuta the sixth.
The Yajnavalkya Upanishad belongs to the Shukla Yajur Veda. This Upanishad with thirty-two verses also focuses on the Paramahamsa ascetic. The text begins with Janaka, king of videha, approaching the rishi Yajnavalkya and asking him about renunciation. Yajnavalkya explains who can become a renunciate and the methods for this, repeating what occurs in other Sannyasi Upanishads. There is not much unique or different in this text, but a few points are given here. He names the Paramahamsas of the past, including Samvartaka, Aruni, Shvetaketu, Durvasa, Ribhu, Nidagha, Dattatreya, Shuka, Vamadeva and Harita. The text states that the ascetic who is always absorbed in Brahman should not bow down or pay obeisance to anyone. However, if he feels the Supreme is in the atman of any living being he can even bow before an outcaste, a cow, a dog or a donkey (Verse 13). Several verses (14–23) criticize women and warn the ascetic not to be ensnared by them. They are the seeds of evil and the path to hell fires. Discarding women is the same as discarding worldly life and is essential on the ascetic path. Having a son, too, only leads to worries and troubles (Verses 24–26). Further verses explain the need to conquer the senses and refrain from anger. It describes the self-controlled man, who is awake even while others sleep, who knows consciousness.