TWENTY UPANISHADS ARE classified as the Yoga Upanishads. They are: Advaya-taraka, Amrita-bindu Upanishad, Amrita-nada, Brahmavidya, Darshana/Jabala Darshana, Dhyana-bindu, Hamsa, Kshurika, Mahavakya, Mandala-Brahmana, Nada-bindu, Pashupata-Brahma, Shandilya, Tejo-bindu, Trishikha-brahmana or Trishikhi-brahmana, Varaha, Yoga-chudamani, Yoga-kundalini, Yoga-shikha and Yogatattva. The Yoga Upanishads seek to reach Brahman through methods prescribed by yoga. Gavin Flood dates the Yoga Upanishads between 100 BCE and 300 CE, but some of them may be later.
The Advaya-taraka Upanishad belongs to the Shukla Yajur Veda. It explains some aspects of Raja Yoga and has nineteen passages in prose and verse.
Advaya means non-dual, while taraka, literally star, also means to cross over, that is, something that helps the individual cross over to Brahman. In addition, it indicates the light between the eyebrows that can be seen through meditation.
This Upanishad enables one to transcend the world and attain Brahman through Taraka Yoga. It is for the Yati (ascetic) who has controlled his senses and established the six qualities: shama, self-control of the mind; dama, subjugation or self-control in action; uparati, cessation or tolerance; titiksha, endurance, cheerfulness; samadhana, intentness, one-pointedness; shraddha, faith.
It explains that the light of Brahman can be seen between the eyebrows. The Sushumna Nadi, which has the form of the sun and the light of the moon, rises from the Muladhara to the Brahma-randhra. The Kundalini is within the Sushumna, radiant and delicate like the thread of a lotus stalk. Seeing it with the mind’s eye brings release.
The yogi may see light in front of the forehead and a blue radiant space between his eyes. Externally too, the yogi may see blue, verging on indigo and then changing colour, and other radiant beams, as well as a vast disc like the sun and fire. There is a twofold yoga: taraka and amanasaka (beyond mind). One can see a radiance between the eyebrows and also above the root of the palate. Meditating on the latter brings supernatural power. Both external and internal viewing will reveal the white light of Brahman.
The text states that when the eyes are neither shut nor open (that is, half open), Shambhavi mudra is attained. Wherever an expert in this mudra lives, the place becomes holy.
The inner radiance can be seen through the help of a great teacher. It may be in the Sahasrara Chakra or the light of chit (consciousness), buddhi (intelligence) or Turiya, abiding in the shodashanta (a spot sixteen digits above).
The acharya, well-versed in the Vedas, a devotee of Vishnu, who has no envy, who knows yoga, who is always in yoga, who knows the Purusha, can be called a guru. ‘Gu’ indicates darkness and ‘ru’ the dispeller of darkness. The guru is Brahman, wisdom and the supreme goal. Because he teaches That, the guru is greater than anyone else.
The text ends by saying that whoever reads this is released from the cycle of birth and death.
The Amrita-bindu Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda and has twenty-two verses. It discusses Brahman as the only reality and the means of uniting with it. The text states that the mind is the cause of both liberation and bondage. Those desiring liberation should constantly free the mind from objects of desire. Then, focusing on the heart, one transcends the individual self. Focusing on Brahman, unqualified and as itself, one becomes That. Combining the yoga of qualified Brahman with the mystic syllable Om, one reaches Brahman after transcending Om, and the yogi is then liberated. There is then no dissolution, no creation, no one bound, no one liberated. This is the ultimate truth. For those who see the atman as one in the waking, dreaming and sleeping states and transcend them, there is no rebirth. The Bhutatman found in every being seems to be an individual self, but is only one, though seen singly and in many ways, just as the reflection of the moon in water. The space within a pot is not really carried from place to place, nor does it disintegrate when the pot does. Similarly, the jiva enters into various forms but does not disintegrate with that form. When the oneness of Brahman is seen, the diversity of name and form dissolves. The Shabdakshara (Om) is the transcendent Brahman.
When Om is dissolved, the eternal akshara is revealed. The peace of the atman is attained by meditating on the akshara. The two vidyas are the shabda or qualified Brahman and the transcendent Brahman. One well-versed in the Shabda-Brahman is then able to transcend it. After thoroughly studying books on Brahman, the books should be dropped, just like the husk from grain.
Milk has a single colour even though cows are of different colours, and Brahman is like the milk, the same everywhere even though people are different. Vijnana (knowledge) exists in every being, even as butter is hidden in milk. The churning stick of the mind should be used to find the butter of knowledge.
Knowledge should be used to extract as sacrificial fire, the transcendent Brahman, non-fragile, motionless and tranquil, considered the ‘I’. The Upanishad ends by identifying Vasudeva with Brahman.
The Amrita-nada Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda and has thirty-eight verses. It discusses yoga with six steps and its ultimate aim of kaivalya. The pure-minded can attain Brahman through shravana (study) and manana (reflection), while those with an impure mind should meditate on Brahman and practice Shadanga Yoga (yoga of six stages).
After studying the Shastras and meditating on them, the wise person leaves them behind. While worshipping Rudra, with Om as the chariot and Vishnu as the charioteer, he drives ahead until he leaves the chariot behind.
The sixfold Yoga is described as pratyahara, dhyana, pranayama, dharana, tarka and samadhi. There are descriptions of pranayama and its parts, of breathing in and out, holding the breath, and kumbhaka, where the breath remains outside the body. Dharana is merging in one’s atman and contemplation of Brahman. Inference according to the scriptures is tarka. Finally, attaining the supreme Self is samadhi. Instructions are provided for attaining samadhi, including the posture to be seated in and the type of pranayama and meditation to be performed. Practice of yoga should be constant. The seven doors leading to the atman are explained, including the door of the heart and the head. As explained in other texts, it is said that the yogi should maintain a balance in everything, in sleeping, waking, food and fasting and should avoid fear, anger and laziness. Through this he will progress steadily and by the sixth month attain the kaivalya of his desire. There is more on meditation, the types of prana and the colours associated with pranas. The first prana is in the heart, apana in the anus, samana in the navel, udana in the throat, while vyana pervades the whole body. Prana vayu is the colour of a blood-red gem, apana in the middle of the body is the colour of the indra-kopa insect, samana between them is milk-white and shining, udana is pale white and vyana is bright like a flame. When the pranas reach the head, such a person is not born again.
The Brahmavidya Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda. It has 111 verses and looks at Brahman, the Pranava and the nadis.
The text states that Brahmavidya, the knowledge of Brahman, can be attained through Om as Om is Brahman. Om contains the three worlds, the three gods, the three Vedas, the three agnis or fires, the three matras and the half matra representing Shiva, which has three letters. Further explanations follow of the matras of the Pranava, Om. The transcendent nadi, the Sushumna, breaks through the 72,000 nadis and stands in the head. She is the giver of boons to all (10–11). The Pranava of sixteen matras and the real form of the jiva is also described. The jiva that constantly mutters ‘So-ham’ (I am He) attains the form of the Pranava. The jiva becomes one with the Paramatman through the practice of yoga techniques. The various chakras are mentioned and the Sushumna that pierces through them. The Hamsa-vidya is the prime method of attaining the Paramatman. The Paramatman can also be attained through the Vedas and the guidance of a guru as the guru is Hari incarnate. The jiva is finite, but the atman, which is Brahman, is infinite. The yoga described here should be kept a secret from those unqualified to attain it. Further instructions are provided on how to attain Brahman within the body, through the practice of pranayama and the recitation of and meditation on the mantras Om and Hamsa. Nadis, asanas and bandhas are also described.
The Darshana or Jabala Darshana Upanishad belongs to the Sama Veda and has seven sections. In this Upanishad, Dattatreya describes the basics of ashtanga or eightfold yoga as a method of identifying with Brahman.
Section 1 with twenty-five verses states that Dattatreya, the four-armed Maha Vishnu,, is the lord of yoga. His disciple, rishi Samkriti, asks him to explain ashtanga yoga. He describes the traditional eight stages of yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi. The ten yamas are given as ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmachari (non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy), daya (compassion), arjavam (rectitude), kshama (forgiveness), dhriti (firmness), mitahara (temperance in food) and cleanliness (1.6). The first four of these are also in the Yoga Sutra, while all ten are found in other texts. The text goes on to provide an explanation for each of these. Among the explanations, it states that celibacy is to abstain from contact with women, even one’s own wife, except immediately after menstruation, while cleanliness refers to internal purity.
After realizing that the atman is the Brahman, there is nothing more to be done.
Section 2 describes the ten niyamas: tapas, santosha, astikyam, dana, Ishvara-pujanam, siddhanta, shravanam, hri, mati, japa (austerities, contentment, belief in the existence of the supreme Truth, generosity, worship of Ishvara, study of the established Truth, modesty, faith, prayer and chanting). The text explains each of these. It states that that tapas is not emaciation of the body but right enquiry, and that prayers can include mantras.
In Section 3, nine asanas are explained: Svastika, Go-mukha, Padma, Vira, Simhasana, Bhadra, Muktasana, Mayurasana and Sukhasana (3.1–2). (Though the Simhasana description was not in the original, it has been added.) Sukhasana, it is said, is for a weak person. After the asanas, one should practice pranayama.
Section 4 explains the chakras and the nadis. It states that in the middle of the body is the fire centre that shines like liquid gold. Taking the body of a man to be ninety-six digits tall, it says that this centre is two digits above the anus and two digits below the genitals and triangular in shape. Then the knot (of the navel) is nine digits from the Muladhara, extending over four digits, shaped like a hen’s egg. The nadi located here is known as the Sushumna. Around this are 72,000 nadis, the main ones being fourteen. These fourteen are the Sushumna, Pingala, Ida, Sarasvati, Pusha, Varuna, Hasti-jihva, Yashasvini, Alambusha, Kuhu, Vishvodara, Payasvini, Shankhini and Gandhara. The most important of these is the Sushumna, also known as the Brahma Nadi. This is attached to the spinal cord. Two digits below the knot of the navel is the Kundali (Kundalini) which has eight parts and regulates prana and digestion. Ida is to the left of the Sushumna, Pingala to the right, Sarasvati and Kuhu at the sides of the Sushumna. Gandhara and Hasti-jihva are to the back and front of the Ida, Pusha and Yashasvini to the back and front of the Pingala. The Vishvodhara is between the Kuhu and Hasti-jihva; the Varuna between the Yashasvini and Kuhu. The Yashasvini is between the Pusha and Sarasvati and the Shankhini between the Gandhara and Sarasvati. The Alambusha reaches the navel from the anus. The text continues with further details of these.
After this, the flow of the ten vital airs, prana, apana etc., is described, as in other texts. The location of each of them and their actions are described (30–34).
Next, the deities presiding over the nadis are mentioned, and how the air moves between the nadis. Shiva is the deity of the Sushumna, Hari of Ida, Brahma of Pingala, Viraj of Sarasvati, Pushan of Pusha, Vayu of the Varuna Nadi, and the god Varuna of Hasti-jihva, of Yashasvini, the Sun, of Alambusha again Varuna, and of Kuhu, hunger. The deity of Gandhari and Shankhini is the moon, Prajapati of Payasvini (35–39). Further details on the passage of prana in the bodies is provided. The tirthas (sacred centres of pilgrimage) such as Kurukshetra are placed within the body. For instance, Prayaga is in the centre of the heart. These are more important than the external tirthas, and it is said that yogis do not go to tirthas filled with water or offer prayers to gods made of wood. The tirtha of the atman is the greatest.
Though Shiva is within the atman, the ignorant look for him outside, in wood and stone, streams and prayers. Images are made only to help the ignorant conceive of the Supreme. The one who sees the non-dual Brahman becomes That.
Section 5 with fourteen verses deals with the purification of the nadis. The nadis can be purified after one’s conduct is properly regulated, and the body and mind stabilized through the eight steps of yoga, including the yamas and niyamas. After this, methods of drawing the prana through the nadis are prescribed. This will lead to lightness of the body, fire glowing in the mid-region and clarity of sound. The next step is the purification of the atman, leading to bliss.
The sixth section with fifty-one verses describes pranayama and its three parts: rechaka, puraka and kumbhaka. Puraka implies taking in air, kumbhaka holding it and rechaka expelling it. Prana can be drawn into the nadis and also purifies the mind. There is lightness in the body, fatigue is removed and immunity to diseases is attained. Various asanas and mudras are also described. When prana enters the Brahma-randhra, a sound is heard like a conch shell, followed by the sound of thunder and of a mountain torrent. Finally, the atman is realized. The Muladhara and Sushumna are also mentioned.
Section 7 with fourteen verses describes pratyahara, the withdrawal of the senses, such that everything is seen as Brahman. The pratyahara of Vedanta is to recognize the atman as Brahman.
Section 8 with nine verses explains five kinds of dharana (concentration), focusing on the elements, as well as dharana on the atman.
Section 9 with six verses goes to the next step, dhyana or meditation, on Ishvara, the truth (satya) or on Brahman. Through this, non-duality is attained.
Finally, Section 10 (thirteen verses) describes the ultimate goal of samadhi. After Dattatreya had explained all this to Samkriti, he understood the atman and became free from fear.
The Dhyana-bindu Upanishad is attached to the Krishna Yajur Veda, the thirty-ninth in the list. It has 106 verses and looks at various types of meditation, including meditation on Brahman, on the Pranava, and on deities. It also discusses yoga, the nadis and the chakras. It states that through dhyana, sins accumulated over hundreds of births can be shattered. It describes the Pranava Om and the subtle nature of Brahman that pervades everything. The atman too is all pervasive. Each syllable of the Pranava is described and related to colours, states of consciousness, the three gunas and other aspects of existence. The Pranava is the bow, the atman (here implying manas, the mind) is the arrow and Brahman is the target that can be reached by taking aim. It states that the Ishvara of Omkara is in the middle of the lotus of the heart, like the steady flame of a lamp, the size of a thumb. Methods of using pranayama to meditate on this are explained (19–21). Other aspects of meditation on the Pranava are also described, including meditation on the qualified Brahman, on Vishnu and on the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The lotus of the heart has its stem above and opens downward, but right meditation causes it to burst into flower upwards.
Next, the sixfold yoga is described, consisting of asana, pranayama, withdrawal of breath, steadiness of breath, concentration and meditation. Though there are as many asanas as there are living beings, the text lists the four main ones as siddha, bhadra, simha and padma (42–43). Next, it describes the chakras—the Muladhara, Svadhishthana, Manipura, Anahata, Vishuddha and Ajna—and refers to the 72,000 nadis. Out of these, seventy-two are important and out of the seventy-two, ten. The ten are then listed similar to other texts: Ida, Pingala, Sushumna, Gandhari, Hasti-jihva, Pusha, Yashasvini, Alambusha, Kuhu and Shankhini. There are descriptions of these, followed by descriptions of the ten pranas which flow through the nadis. The thousands of nadis form the jiva, which is dependent on the prana and apana. The prana moves in and out with the sound ‘Ham-sa’. The Upanishad then describes how to arouse the Kundalini using prana and apana. It asserts that celibacy is essential for this (70–73). It also describes certain bandhas, the mula bandha, uddiyana bandha and jalandhara bandha, as well as mudras, including the khechari mudra and maha-mudra, along with methods of discovering the atman in the lotus of the heart.
This Upanishad thus provides many esoteric and yogic means of uniting with Brahman.
The Hamsa Upanishad has different versions containing similar ideas. The version consulted (of Upanishad Brahmayogin) has twenty-one verses and is attached to the Shukla Yajur Veda. The text begins by Gautama approaching Sanat Kumara and asking about Brahman. In response, Sanat Kumara says he will reveal what was taught to him by Parvati, who received the knowledge from the god Shiva. This knowledge is not to be revealed to everyone but is only for the yogi. The text then discusses the method of raising the Kundalini through the chakras, leading to the Paramahamsa (supreme) state. Aspects of the Hamsa Mantra are described in detail and should be meditated on in the lotus of the heart. Hamsa coordinates with the breath as ‘Ham-sa So-ham’ and therefore is termed Ajapa. Through the Ajapa Hamsa Mantra, nada (divine sounds) is experienced in ten different ways. The tenth is the sound of thunder and this should be focused on, ignoring the other nine. Each sound has a benefit but with the tenth the yogi will merge with Para Brahman. When the mind is dissolved in the mind and when good and evil disappear, then Sadashiva, self-created, effulgent, identical with Brahman, is known.
The Kshurika Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda.
It describes how to use yoga as a kshurika (knife) to cut the obstacles to reach Brahman. The kshurika of dharana (concentration) can be used to attain yoga, after which there is no rebirth. This is recognized as the true teaching of the Veda as told by Svayambhu (the self-created).
A yogic method is then described to attain Brahman. After going to a secluded and silent place, withdrawing the senses and placing the mind in the heart, one should fill the body with the yoga of twelve matras, the pranava (Om) of four matras, with a total of forty-eight matras of Vayu, hold the breath in and then gradually release it. Then one should focus and withdraw, using the thumb, on the ankles, thighs, knees, etc., moving up the body to the first two chakras and then the navel, where he should fix the three (the eyes, mind and vital breath) till mastery. There is the white Sushumna Nadi, surrounded by ten nadis which are black, brown, red, yellow, copper-coloured, etc. The three should be moved up the Sushumna as a spider moves along its web and withdrawn into the heart shining like a blood-red lotus known as Dahara-pundarika (the Anahata Chakra) in Vedanta scriptures. Having broken through that lotus, the three reach the throat (Vishuddhi), and so on to the Ajna and Sahasrara Chakras. He should meditate on that form identical with that of the marman (vital region) which is in the big toe of the foot.
The Mahavakya Upanishad is attached to the Atharva Veda and has twelve verses. It discusses the bliss of the atman and the radiant Pranava Hamsa.
The text begins with the god Brahma stating that he will explain the Upanishad (secret teaching) based on his own experience. The chitaditya (sun of consciousness) can be attained by chanting the mantra ‘Hamsa-Soham’. In addition, prana and apana should be controlled and the mind concentrated on Brahman. The seeker acquires the knowledge of the atman through three stages of knowledge: jnana, vijnana, and samyak-jnana. Then, meditating on the threefold aspects of the atman (the three states of consciousness), finally, the Paramatman is revealed as sat-chit-ananda (true being, consciousness and bliss). It shines like 1000 suns and is neither samadhi nor yoga but the identity with Brahman. The text continues that even the devas use the yajna of knowledge to attain the Supreme. The gods Brahma and Shakra (Indra) know the oneness of Brahman and the Sadhyas, gods of the past, are jivan-muktas (liberated). Those who experience this know that they are chid-arka, the sun of consciousness, and the brilliant radiance of Shiva, and the light of Om. The text ends with the statement that the one who studies this Upanishad gains the same benefits as reading the entire Vedas and reaches the abode of Maha Vishnu.
The Mandala-Brahmana Upanishad is attached to the Shukla Yajur Veda. This is an important Upanishad with a complete description of many esoteric yogic practices. The text has five main divisions known as Brahmanas, each with several sections.
The first Brahmana: The first section has eleven verses. The Upanishad begins with the visit of the rishi Yajnavalkya to Aditya Loka, the world of the sun god, who asks the Lord how to attain the atman. The god Surya Narayana responds that the method to be followed is the eightfold yoga, beginning with the yamas. The god then describes four yamas, slightly different from the usual list: 1. The conquest of heat and cold and of desires for food and sleep; 2. Maintaining tranquillity in all circumstances; 3. Focusing the mind on its main aim; 4. Controlling the senses. Next, nine niyamas are mentioned that include devotion to the guru and attachment to the path of truth followed by descriptions of the next six angas or steps on the path of asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi.
The second section, with fourteen verses looks at the five defects inherent in a person, which include desire, anger, fear, sleep and the breathing out of the vital air. The taraka, or means of transcending the world, is then described. The Sushumna Nadi, extending from the Muladhara to the Brahma-randhra, shines like the sun and within it is the Kundalini like streaks of lightning. As the practitioner proceeds, a blue radiance can be seen in the middle of the eyes and in the heart centre. Lights and colours will also be seen outside the body.
In Section 3 with six verses, two types of yoga are described: Taraka and Amanasaka. Taraka, too, is of two types: Murti (image-based) and Amurti (without an image). Murti Taraka is that which focuses on the six chakras from the Muladhara to Ajna, and Amurti that which is above and beyond that (that is, the seventh chakra and others in the brain). Shambhavi mudra, internal introspection with the eyes half open and unblinking, is the last step of the two Tarakas.
Section 4 with four verses, looks at the controversies among those with different beliefs. The yogis say that with internal introspection they see the radiance of the Sahasrara Chakra. Others say they view the divine and radiant Purusha; Shaivites see the blue-necked Shiva; still others see the Purusha of the size of a thumb. But the true reality is the atman, and the one who focuses on that is united with Brahman. The atman is the twenty-sixth tattva, beyond the jiva, which is the twenty-fifth.
The second Brahmana: In Section 1 with ten verses, in response to another question by Yajnavalkya, the lord of Aditya Loka further describes the radiant inner atman, in which the fourth state of consciousness, Turiya, can be seen. Further instructions are provided on how to attain the knowledge of the atman and the fruits of such attainment.
Section 2 with five verses continues with this theme, describing how internal radiance of different types is seen as marks of progress on this path. The one who knows the Pranava has gone beyond duality and reaches the amanasaka (beyond mind) state. No religious rites are required to be performed by such a person. Section 3 with seven verses states that through the contemplation of Brahman, the state of kaivalya (aloneness) is attained. It goes on to explain the difference between Sushupti, or deep sleep, and samadhi. Unlike deep sleep, samadhi does not consist of inertia, but of a conscious state of being a witness. Through meditating on Brahman, the person becomes Brahman, attaining the state of jivan-mukta. Section 4 with six verses looks at the five states of consciousness, with Turiyatita, the state beyond Turiya, as the fifth. When the yogi realizes the atman as Brahman, everything is attained. In Section 5, with four verses, nirvikalpa samadhi, undifferentiated samadhi, the highest state is described. The Parama yogi (Supreme yogi) then basks in the infinite bliss of Brahman.
The third Brahmana: In Section 1 with six verses, once again Yajnavalkya questions the Purusha (person) of Aditya Loka, who again explains to him the state beyond mind associated with Shambhavi mudra. In this state, the Paramatman, the transcendent Brahman, is seen.
Section 2 with two verses continues with this theme.
The fourth Brahmana: This starts with a different theme and Section 1 with five verses describes five types of akasha (ether or space). Of these, akasha is dark in nature, parakasha has a delusory nature, mahakasha is radiant, suryakasha resembles the sun and paramakasha creates bliss. Following this, the basic requisites for Raja Yoga are summarized. This includes the knowledge of nine chakras (from Muladhara to Ajna, along with Talu, Akasha and Bhru Chakra), the six adharas or areas that support them, three kinds of introspection and the five akashas mentioned above.
The fifth Brahmana: The text continues with the fifth Brahmana (nine verses) which describes how when the chitta, the conscious mind, is silent, the ideal state is achieved. The amanasaka state (that beyond mind) leads to nirvikalpa (undifferentiated) samadhi.
The Nada-bindu Upanishad is attached to the Rig Veda and has fifty-one verses. It looks at various aspects of the Vairaja Pranava, the Vairaja vidya as well as nada and the power of sound. The Vairaja Pranava is Om, the various parts of which are in this Upanishad, associated with Viraj, the Supreme person. The text explains twelve different matras of Om. After knowledge is gained, all karma is destroyed. Past actions recede and the nada, the divine sound of the union of Brahman and the Pranava, is heard. Sitting in siddhasana, with eyes in Vaishnavi mudra (wide open), the yogi should listen for the sounds in his right ear. With practice, the sounds will become increasingly subtle, drown all outer sounds and lead to Turiya, the fourth state of consciousness. Sound has the power to captivate the mind. Brahman is contained in the nada of the Pranava and is self-luminous. Nada is the means but not the end as the transcendent atman has no sound and is known as the Paramatman. Through nada, the yogi attains videha-mukti.
The Pashupata-Brahma Upanishad is attached to the Atharva Veda. It has two sections: the Purva-kanda and Uttara-kanda. The Upanishad includes seven questions related to the Supreme ruler.
The Purva-kanda with thirty-two verses begins with Brahman, the self-created, desiring to create. Then, Kameshvara and Vaishravana are born. Vaishravana, the Valakhilya, asks Brahman seven questions about the world and creation, which are answered by Svayambhu, that is, the self-created Brahman. The questions include those on the vidya (knowledge) of the worlds, the deity, the devas of the Jagrata and Turiya states, time, the planetary bodies and the sky. Svayambhu replies that the vidya of the worlds is the alphabet, the deity is Om. I am the ruler of the three worlds, he says, as well as the controller of the yugas, cycles of time, the sun, moon and planets, the sky and all that exists. He then explains the characteristics of Rudra, Vishnu, Brahma and Indra and states that the real form of the Paramatman is the Hamsa. Next, he explains the similarity between the Yajnasutra, the sacrificial thread, and the brahmasutra, which in this context implies the inner, unseen sacred thread. The Yajnasutra has ninety-six units of thread, each of four digits, while the brahmasutra has ninety-six tattvas, which are then described. In addition, the Pranava, and the Hamsa contained in it, is said to be both the brahmasutra and the brahmayajna (17). The Hamsa, Pranava and states of consciousness are further described. The Hamsa has ninety-six threads, equivalent to the Paramatman. Various yajnas are explained as inner sacrifices, including the vajapeya and the ashvamedha.
The Uttarakanda with forty-six verses continues with the description of how Brahman can be attained. Brahman is of the form of Hamsa and is indicated by Om. It is the internal Pranava which brings about knowledge. It refers to the Hamsarka Pranava-dhyana, meditation on Brahman as the Self. It goes on to say that it is Ishvara or Shiva Pashupati that allows the mind and all senses to function. But the atman is the only reality, and whatever is not of it is created by maya. The one who attains the Paramatman is neither the jiva nor Brahman, nor does he belong to any varna or any of the ashramas or stages of life. Dharma and adharma, difference and non-difference, no longer exist. The one who knows the Paramatman sees only Brahman everywhere in all the multitude of forms. Brahman and its bliss have permeated everywhere. Truth and the right path are essential to attain Brahman. Once the yogi has become Brahman, there is nowhere to go and nothing more to attain.
The Shandilya Upanishad forms part of the Atharva Veda. In Section 1, khanda 1 with fourteen verses, Shandilya questions Atharvan on the eight stages of yoga, which are then described by him, beginning with the yamas. In khanda 2 (eleven verses), the niyamas are explained. Khanda 3 with fifteen verses explains eight types of asanas: the svastika, gomukha, padma, vira, simha, bhadra, mukta and mayura. Once these are perfected, pranayama should be taken up for the purification of the nadis. In khanda 4 with fourteen verses, Atharvan describes the nadis, chakras, pranas and the Kundalini and methods of raising it. Khanda 5 with four verses expounds on those worthy to practice yoga, the best place of practice, and how to begin. Khanda 6 (five verses) and khanda 7 (forty-four verses) continue with explanations of right practice. Khanda 8 (two verses) focuses on five kinds of pratyahara and khanda 9 (one verse) on five types of dharana, while khanda 10 (one verse) on two types of dhyana. Khanda 11 (one verse) explains samadhi, the state of union between the atman and Paramatman.
In Section 2 (six verses), it is stated that even after all these explanations Shandilya had not realized Brahman and asked for further instruction on Brahmavidya. Atharvan then explains Brahman, which is beyond all, and from which all things come and can be known through knowledge.
In Section 3, khanda 1 (six verses), Shandilya asks how the world can come into being when Para Brahman is only One. Atharvan explains that there are three types of Brahman, the indivisible Para Brahman, the divisible, and the partly divisible and partly indivisible. Maheshvara, in whom mula prakriti, maya and the gunas exist, can be called the divisible Brahman. After Maheshvara practised austerities, many aspects of the world emerged from him, even though he is one with Brahman. This is the partly divisible and partly indivisible form. This Lord is Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra and Indra, with the form of Dattatreya. Khanda 2 (fifteen verses) explains this further and describes Atri and Anasuya’s son, Dattatreya, auspicious and tranquil, and like the Indranila gem. He is the Lord of the universe, worshipped by all yogis, always compassionate, and the eternal witness.
The Tejo-bindu Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda, and is again on the realization of Brahman through Yoga. The section on yoga is not very long, the rest of the text being devoted to explaining Brahman, both by what it is and what it is not.
Chapter 1, with fifty-one verses, seeks to provide the means of reaching tejo-bindu, the spark of radiance within the heart. The person who seeks this should be balanced in all aspects of life. A fifteen-stage process is prescribed for reaching tejo-bindu, which is the same as Brahman. Though some of the same terms are used as in other Yoga texts, the explanations provided here are different. The fifteen angas, parts or stages are: yama, niyama, tyaga, mauna, desha, kala, asana, mula-bandha, deha-samya, drik-sthithi, prana-samyama, pratyahara, dharana, atma-dhyana and samadhi.
Succeeding verses provide explanations of each of these.
Yama: Controlling all senses through the realization that all is Brahman.
Niyama: Focusing consciousness on intrinsic categories and rejecting the external.
Tyaga: Renouncing the outer world as a result of introspection.
Mauna: Not just maintaining silence, in this context, but a recognition that Brahman is beyond words.
Desha (place): The right place, that which is secluded and without people.
Kala (time): The right duration is indicated here, or the method of measuring a unit of time, of that which is immeasurable.
Asana: When those accomplished in asana reach the non-dual base of the universe, that is known as siddha-asana.
Mula-bandha: Raja Yogis should adopt mula-bandha, the root of all worlds, attained through restraining the mind.
Deha-samya (equilibrium of the body): There should be equilibrium between the gross, subtle and causal bodies, which would enable their dissolution in Brahman.
Drik-sthithi (stability of perception): This is not about fixing the gaze, but seeing the world filled with Brahman.
Prana-samyama (control of prana): The suppression of all vital function is known as pranayama. Avoidance of contact with the world is rechaka. The attitude ‘I am only Brahman’ is puraka, and the steadiness of that attitude is kumbhaka.
Pratyahara: When the mind finds the atman (Brahman) in the objects of desire, this is pratyahara.
Dharana: When the mind is abstracted because it sees Brahman everywhere, this is dharana.
Atma-dhyana (meditation on the atma): Dhyana is that state when the mind rests only on Brahman and has no other support.
Samadhi: When the mind reaches the form of Brahman, it is samadhi.
The seeker should practise all this until Brahman spontaneously arises in oneself.
When the world is seen as Brahman, beyond speech and mind, the siddha becomes the king of yogis.
Next, the obstacles to samadhi are pointed out. They include apathy, laziness, desire for enjoyment and absent-mindedness. Those who have an understanding of Brahman but still lack correct knowledge will continue to be reborn. They cannot remain in Brahman, as do Sanaka, Shuka and other knowers of Brahman.
In Chapter 2, Kumara (the god Karttikeya, son of Shiva) asks Shiva to tell him about the essence of the indivisible one. Paramashiva replies that it is the world, it is existence, it is atman, it is mantra, it is action, it is knowledge, it is water, it is earth, it is ether (akasha), it is science, the triple Veda, the austere vow, that which has no origin, Brahman (and a lot more), the mother, the father, Om, etc. (1–23). A number of other aspects are given, and then it is stated that it is consciousness. It is consciousness beyond birth. ‘Ether, the Earth, Water, Air, Fire, Brahman, Hari, Shiva, what is little and what is not little, all these are only consciousness. Whatever is only consciousness is the indivisible one essence. The past, the present and future are all consciousness, as well as matter, time, knowledge and the object of knowledge, etc. Apart from this consciousness, the indivisible one essence, there is no Brahman (2.24–41).
In Chapter 3, Kumara asks his father to tell him about the realization of the atman. Parameshvara replies, ‘I am the form of the transcendent Brahman, I am exquisite bliss, I am absolute knowledge, I am the absolute transcendent being . . . I am absolute goodness. Having renounced the I, I am the I. I am the I that is devoid of all, I am Turiya and what is beyond Turiya, I am consciousness and bliss . . . I am absolute love, I am without desire, I am the Atman, I am Sadashiva . . . I am served by the Vedas, I am revealed by the Shastra, I am firmly planted in the chitta . . . I am the Adi-shesha, I am the Shesha . . .’
He goes on to say: ‘The form of the mind is false. The form of the intellect is false. I am eternal, perpetual and originless . . . the three bodies are false, the three gunas are false, all scriptures are false, the Vedas are false, all Shastras are false, I, the Atman of consciousness, am true. The triad of murtis are false, all beings are false, all truth is false. I am Sadashiva, pervading all existing things. The preceptor and pupil are false, the mantra of the preceptor is false. Whatever is seen is false, what is conceivable is false . . . all living creatures are false, all enjoyments are false, right and wrong action is false, what is lost and obtained is false, grief and delight are false, good and bad conduct is false. All form, taste, smell, cognition is false, every result of human existence is false, I alone am the absolute truth.’
A passage follows on the mantra ‘I am Brahman’ that supersedes all others and destroys all duality, all diseases of the mind and all bonds. This mantra alone should be used.
In Chapter 4 (eighty-one verses), Kumara now asks Parameshvara about the jivan-mukta and videha-mukta. The supreme Shiva replies that the jivan-mukta is one who realizes the identity with Brahman. He has absolute consciousness and bliss and no awareness of the body. He understands that nothing is mine, neither the intellect, nor the body, nor the emotions. Even the Turiya is not mine as I am the transcendent Brahman.
The text continues to explain what is ‘not mine’. Not mine Brahman, not mine the moon, not mine Rudra, not mine Vishnu, etc. Not mine you, not mine I, not mine childhood, not mine adolescence, not mine old age, I am only Brahman, I am only consciousness, he who realizes this is the pure Hamsa. ‘One who has become the Brahman; who has tranquillized his own atman; who is full of the Bliss of the Brahman; who is happy; who is crystal-like in form; who is profoundly silent; he alone is the videha-mukti’ (33). Such a person has even abandoned the conviction of being Brahman. He ends by saying, ‘One who is within one’s own atman, O Shadanana, is videha mukti.’
Chapter 5 (107 verses) is a long chapter, explaining that as there is only Brahman, everything else is unreal. It says that Nidagha asked the rishi Ribhu about the distinction between the atman and the anatman. Ribhu explained the nature of Brahman as the furthest limit of all speech and thought; who is the cause of effects, but Himself being without causes and effects; who is movement of any kind; and who consists of nada, the divine sound. Brahman is absolute consciousness, transcendent and full of bliss, luminous and even beyond the mahavakyas. The one who has realized Brahman is the Sanatana Atman, that is, the eternal atman. For such a person there is no existence or non-existence, no worlds of devas or asuras, no mantras or absence of mantras, no learning or ignorance, no person who sees and nothing that is seen (5.1–15). As everything is Brahman, there is no anatman.
The text continues its theme of negation. There is no world, as it was never created (5.1.23). There is no Ganga, no Gaya, no Setu, no elements, no yoga or yogi, no day or night, no anatman. There is only Brahman. Brahman, which is located in the atman, is meditated upon by Vishnu and other gods. The Upanishad then identifies Brahman with Vasudeva but goes on to say that nothing exists. It is thought and the mind that create problems. Even the Vasus, Rudras and Adityas do not exist as they are only products of the mind.
In Chapter 6 (111 verses), Ribhu continues by saying that the only reality is existence, consciousness and bliss. None of the functions of the mind—intellect, individuality or thought—have any reality. Once again, there is a long list and explanation of what is not. There is no brahmana, kshatriya or vaishya, no bird, animal or anything else, nor women, nor shudras, no lokas, no thinness or fatness, no monism of the great texts, no mystic powers, only existence, consciousness and bliss (3–30). All is Brahman, only the eternal Brahman is real. An equally long list follows of what is Brahman. Brahman alone is the three worlds. The Vedas are Brahman, etc. But everything else in the world, including all perceived differences, including those of time, space, substance, victory or defeat, the senses, prana, the seasons, are all unreal. It continues to emphasize that Brahman is everything. If there is anything else, it is like a mirage in a desert. It goes on to speak of imaginary worlds which have as much reality as this. In short, they are equally unreal.
Having firmly resolved ‘I am Brahman’, everything else will fade away (5.103–07).
The Upanishad ends with the statement that this great text, explained by Shankara, should not be given to anyone who has no faith in the Veda. Giving up the study of all other Upanishads, one should study only the Tejo-bindu, through which, even by studying it only once, one will realize Brahman.
The Trishikha-brahmana Upanishad is attached to the Vajasaneyi Samhita of the Yajur Veda. The text has different versions.
It states that a trishikhi brahmana (a brahmana with three tufts) went to Aditya Loka and asked the lord, ‘What is the body? What is prana? What is the cause? What is the atma?’
He replied that all this is Shiva though it looks divided because of Brahman tinged with maya. From Brahman came avyakta, then mahat, the ahamkara, the five tanmatras followed by the five mahabhutas and the world. The Upanishad then looks at the various elements and their relationship with the aspects of a person. For instance, from ether (akasha) emerges the antahkarana, manas, buddhi, chitta and ahamkara (5). From the other elements emerge prana, the senses and various parts of the body. Next, it discusses the twelve divisions of the body and their relationship with the elements and the deities. The deities mentioned are the Moon, the Four-faced One (Brahma), Disha (guardians of the cardinal points), Vata, Arka, Varuna, the Ashvins, Agni, Indra, Upendra, Prajapati and Yama. These have entered the twelve nadis as the presiding deities of the senses. There are further explanations of the elements and how they relate to the different aspects of a person and to the world. The text also explains sixteen parts of Brahman relevant in the creation of the world and the four states of consciousness, with Turiya as the fourth.
It states that the jiva can attain peace by renouncing its karma and it then becomes unchanging and identical to Shiva. But Vishnu and his power of maya also find a place in the text.
The text continues with explanations of yoga, through which the yogi obtains knowledge. Yoga includes both Jnana and Karma Yoga. Fixing the mind on moksha at all times is Jnana Yoga.
Next, the eight stages of yoga are explained, the ten yamas and niyamas. It gives the ten yamas as non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), abstinence from stealing (aparigraha), celibacy (brahmacharya), compassion, rectitude, forbearance, fortitude, temperance in food and cleanliness, and the ten niyamas as penance (tapas), contentment, belief in the existence of the Supreme Being, munificence, the adoration of (the all-pervading) Vishnu, the study of the Vedanta (systems of philosophy), modesty, determination, silent prayer and austerity (32, 33).
The text goes on to describe various asanas: svastika, virasana, yogasana, padmasana, baddha-padmasana, kukkutasana, uttana-kurmaka asana, dhanurasana, simha-rupakasana, bhadrasana, muktasana, mayur-asana, matsya-pithaka-asana, siddhasana and paschimottana-asana. Sukhasana is for those not strong enough for other postures. It is any comfortable posture which can be maintained. Those who have mastered asana have conquered the three worlds (34–52). After the yamas, niyamas and asanas have purified the nadis, one should practice pranayama. Descriptions of pranayama follow (53–55).
Next, there are descriptions of various chakras, the Kundalini, the Sushumna and other nadis. For instance, the text states that in the middle of the body is the Agni mandala (seat of fire), which shines like molten gold. It goes on to say that it is triangular in bipeds (humans), quadrangular in quadrupeds, circular in birds, hexagonal in snakes (and other crawling creatures) and octagonal in insects. It is bright like a lamp (56–57).
The text does not quite follow the Shat Chakra Nirupana, but its significance is that it indicates that these inner centres of power exist in all living beings, including insects.
The ten types of prana are explained, which circulate in the nadis. These are prana, apana, samana, udana, vyana, naga, kurma, krikara, devadatta and dhananjaya. Prana should be used to purify the nadis.
The person who practises pranayama will be ever alert, with a quick intellect and a vision that sees the past, present and future. Dharana should be performed on the knot of the navel, tip of the nose and big toe. The yogi will then be free of disease and fatigue. Methods of tranquillizing the mind through pranayama are also prescribed. After this it moves on to pratyahara, stating that holding the prana in the eighteen different seats of Marman and moving it from one to the other is pratyahara. The eighteen seats are described (129–33) and then dharana of the five elements in the body is recommended. It mentions the earth goddess, yellow and in the shape of a square, with the emblem of the vajra, the seat of the earth being from the knee to the sole of the foot. The water element is crescent-shaped, white and silver, and extends from the knee to the hip. The middle of the body to the hip is the seat of fire and from the navel to the nose that of air, which is smoky grey. From the nose to the cavern of Brahman is the seat of ether (akasha), the colour and brightness of collyrium. Next, meditations on Aniruddha, Pradyumna, Samkarshana and Vasudeva are prescribed. One can meditate on the qualified or unqualified Brahman. The latter can be seen in the centre of the heart in the shape of a cluster of kadamba flowers, lustrous like a gem, like a lamp in a windless place. Through meditation on Brahman, the jiva will be destroyed and only the atman, identical with Brahman, will exist.
The Varaha Upanishad belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda and has five sections. The first section with seventeen verses begins with the rishi Ribhu, who, after performing tapas for twelve years of the gods (much longer than human years), sees the god Vishnu in his Varaha (boar) form. Varaha asks Ribhu to choose a boon and he requests an explanation of the Brahmavidya, that is, of how to attain the knowledge of Brahman. Varaha begins by explaining and listing the tattvas in three categories. Some say there are twenty-four tattvas, others count them as thirty-six and still others as ninety-six, and all these categories are explained.
The second section has eighty-three verses. Varaha explains that the aspirant should gain detachment by following the practices of one’s own varna (caste) and ashrama (stage in life), along with tapas (austerities) and devotion to a guru. He should learn to distinguish between the real and the unreal and be firm in the six basic ethical qualities (shama). These include tranquillity, self-control, continence, endurance, sincerity and meditation. After reaching this point, the person should think of himself as the Supreme consciousness. Then one goes beyond varna and ashrama and realizes the only reality, which is the atman that is identical with Brahman. When the atman is realized, maya and the world no longer exist. All karma is destroyed and there is no attachment to worldly pleasures. The jiva is born into the world but its aim is liberation. When the jiva performs spiritual practices beginning with the trinachiketa vrata (a method to overcome three obstacles) and ending with yoga, these are based on illusions related to the nature of Ishvara. Schools of philosophy beginning with the Lokayat and ending with the Samkhya are based on illusion regarding the jiva. But the truth relating to Brahman is permanent and transcends all states. The one who understands that all is one is Shiva, Hari, and Brahman. Existence, consciousness and bliss is the nature of Brahman. The atman and the mind can be united through yoga and this is the state of samadhi. The yogi can reach this state by raising the Kundalini and by other methods.
Section 3 has thirty verses. It states that Brahman is eternal and non-dual, the indivisible consciousness. There is no birth and death and one should constantly meditate on the eternal Brahman. Brahman can also be identified with Shiva or with Vishnu. Through the power of maya, everything emerges out of Brahman. The chandala and everything from animal to mineral are also no different from Brahman. When superior wisdom dawns, the world is known to be non-existent. The cycle of birth and death emerges from the mind. When the atman is known, all desires, even for psychic powers, disappear.
Section 4 has forty-four verses. It begins with Nidagha asking Ribhu about the nature of a jivan-mukta. Ribhu explains the seven stages, beginning with the right desire, the seventh being the attainment of the state of Turiya. Next, he explains the Pranava. Each of its four syllables has four types: sthula, sukshma, bija and sakshi, which are gross, subtle, seed and witness. The four states of consciousness also correspond with these. The Turiya forms the witness in all cases. The seven stages of the jivan-mukta are related to the Pranava. The four types of the syllable ‘a’ form the first three stages, of ‘u’ the fourth stage, of ‘m’ the fifth stage. The sixth stage is represented by the first three types of the ardha-matra, that is, its sthula, sukshma and bija aspects; the seventh stage is the fourth, the sakshi or witness aspect, and corresponds with the attainment of Turiya. Further descriptions of the seven stages are provided. Two paths are also described, that of the bird and of the ant, represented by Shuka and Vamadeva. Shuka attains liberation immediately by understanding the nature of the atman through samadhi, while Vamadeva, after several births, does so through the practice of yoga.
Section 5 has seventy-seven verses. Ribhu explains the benefits and methods of yoga to Nidagha. He describes the eightfold yoga, similar to descriptions in other texts, as well as the chakras and nadis.
The Yoga-chudamani Upanishad belongs to the Sama Veda and has 121 verses.. It describes the path of yoga, which will lead to the state of kaivalya. This includes the sixfold yoga, which it states consists of asana, pranayama, withdrawal of breath, holding the breath and concentration leading to samadhi. To succeed in yoga, one must also know the six chakras, the six supports for these, the three types of visions and the five types of akasha. The Upanishad then describes the chakras, the nadis and the types of prana as given in other texts, though with a few extra details. The merits of the Gayatri Ajapa, that is, the Hamsa Mantra, and its methods of practice and benefits are explained next. Following this are passages on awakening the Kundalini. Sitting in padmasana and using pranayama and various bandhas, the Kundalini should be forced upwards, leading to the realization of Brahman. The one who is on this path should eat a limited quantity of bland and sweet food and remain celibate. The three main bandhas are then described, followed by a description of the khechari mudra. Using the yoni mudra to send the semen upwards is also part of the practice. When the network of nadis have been purified, the maha-mudra can be practised, which destroys all diseases, and this mudra is described in detail (65–70).
Seated in padmasana, one should meditate on the Pranava Om. Om is unborn and eternal, it is the Turiya and the transcendent Brahman. Through this, all the tattvas, worlds, gods and living beings came into existence. Om and its various parts and implications are described in detail, along with the Hamsa Mantra. There are also further details on pranayama, the chakras and the purification of the nadis.
The text summarizes the benefits of yoga, stating that the yogi kills diseases through asanas; through pranayama sin is removed; pratyahara prevents further mental transformations; dharana leads to mental fortitude; while in samadhi, consciousness is transformed (109–13). Nada, the inner sound produced by yoga practices, is also described. The text ends with comments on the necessity of pranayama, that is, of regulating the breath. Pranayama should be practised in gradual stages, and while doing so, pratyahara, the withdrawal of the senses, should also be observed. Finally, there should be a focus on Brahman, as all these practices lead to that ultimate goal.
The Yoga-kundalini Upanishad, also known as the Yoga Kundali Upanishad, is attached to the Krishna Yajur Veda. This is a lengthy and detailed text that deals with various advanced and esoteric yoga practices. Chapter 1 with eighty-seven verses focuses on the rousing of the Kundalini. The first steps are eating the right food in the right quantity and practicing padmasana and vajrasana. Then, first, the Sarasvati Nadi is aroused, and next the Kundalini is drawn to the mouth of the Sushumna through advanced pranayama and various bandhas or locks. All diseases of the middle of the body are destroyed by arousing the Sarasvati. Next, various types of pranayama are described along with four types of kumbhaka (retaining the breath): the surya, ujjayi, shitali and bhastri. The mula, uddiyana and jalandhara bandhas should also be practised. There are several obstacles to the practising of yoga and these should be overcome and the Sushumna cleared of impurities. The Kundalini can then be raised to the Sahasrara Chakra. The yogi then realizes the state of pure Brahman.
Chapter 2 with forty-nine verses focuses on khechari vidya and the Khechari Mantra, which is ‘Hrim, Bham, Sam, Mam, Pam, Sam Ksham’ (2.20). Muttering it continuously for twelve days, 5,00,000 times a day, leads to Khechari Yoga in which all obstacles are removed and wrinkles and grey hair disappear. Khechari also consists of the gradual lengthening of the tongue over a period of several years. Physical methods are prescribed for this and finally the tongue will lengthen enough to even reach the top of the head. Using the tongue along with prescribed mantras and nyasa, one reaches the Brahma-randhra through the external path, opening the door leading to Brahman.
Chapter 3 with thirty-five verses looks at various meditative practices performed with the eyes shut, half open or fully open. The six main chakras are described and the raising of the Kundalini through the Sushumna, passing through the chakras and leading to liberation and identity with Brahman. All sorrow, the mind and knowledge are destroyed, and only the shining Paramatman remains. The person is then a jivan-mukta, attaining final liberation or videha-mukti when the body dies.
The Yoga-shikha Upanishad is attached to the Krishna Yajur Veda.
The Upanishad has six sections. Section 1 with 178 verses begins with Hiranyagarbha (Brahma) asking Lord Shankara (Shiva) how to escape from maya, the net of illusion. Maheshvara (Shiva) replies that this can only be attained through knowledge of Brahman. Brahman, in the form of knowledge, is supreme and unattached, but through gradual stages assumes the character of the jiva. Through jnana (knowledge) and yoga, the jiva can free itself of defects and become one with the Paramatman. Both knowledge and yoga have to be used together in the right way to attain liberation. The real form of Brahman, which is kaivalya, must be known. The jiva should have right knowledge and should become detached because it is tired of the world. But when the jiva knows ‘I am Brahman’, everything is attained. Through yoga, the body is transformed and death transcended. The person can then go anywhere and assume any form. Thus, through knowledge and yoga he becomes a jivan-mukta, unaffected by previous karma. Those who have knowledge but remain full of passion cannot gain liberation, but the jiva perfected through yoga, with the knowledge ‘I am Brahman’, becomes immortal.
The text insists that the practice of yoga is the first duty of the jiva. Asana, pranayama and other aspects of yoga, including the contemplation of Om, must be practised in the right way. After controlling the body, he must focus on the solar disc in his heart centre, within which the eternal flame can be seen. Another method is to arouse the Kundalini through the Sushumna Nadi.
It is best if pranayama is practised under the guidance of a guru. Methods of arousing the Kundalini are prescribed, beginning with a focus on the Sarasvati Nadi, as well as the four kinds of kumbhaka and the three bandhas. Dispelling the darkness of the Sushumna are twenty-one bright nodules, leading to the Brahma-randhra or Sahasrara Chakra. A jiva who has dissolved body and mind through raising the Kundalini reaches identity with Brahman.
Maha Yoga is said to be one, but has four names, which can also be seen as four steps or stages. Mantra Yoga is the constant uttering of the mantra ‘Ham-sa’. Hatha Yoga is the union of the aspects of the sun and moon within the body. Then, when the body and the atman are united, Laya Yoga arises. In the last stage, Raja Yoga is attained by the union of the male and female principles. Psychic powers are then gained (136–38). In all types of yoga, prana and apana merge. If the yogi does not attain liberation in one life, he can resume the practices in the next. Final liberation is certain through the right practices. The text includes descriptions of the six chakras and other internal energy centres. The four pithas (sacred sites) in the body are: the Kama Rupa, related to the Muladhara Chakra, the Purna-giri, associated with the Anahata Chakra, the Jalandhara, associated with the Vishuddha Chakra, and the Uddiyana, associated with the Ajna Chakra.
In Section 2, with twenty-two verses, Brahma asks Shankara (Shiva) about the path of yoga, and the Lord replies. The student should first serve his guru for twelve years and gain an understanding of the Mula Mantra. This mantra is the union of Shiva and Shakti arising from the Muladhara. It is the basic pitha and the nada-linga, the emblem of sound. Knowing Om as the Mula Mantra, the jiva is liberated. The nature of the Pranava Om is then further analysed, and there are explanations of uniting Pranava–Prakriti and Bindu, representing the world and the mind. Several esoteric descriptions are provided in this section.
Section 3 with twenty-five verses looks at forms of the nada Brahman. This can also be said to be shabda Brahman and is a means to attaining the state of the imperishable and supreme Brahman. The divine nada unites with prana to become words and music and is known as the Vaikhari. All mantras, sacred and other texts, all languages and types of music are formed from this, presided over by the goddess Sarasvati. The Paramatman or Para Brahman can be attained through meditation on shabda Brahman. Understanding the Vaikhari leads to speech of great power.
Section 4 with twenty-four verses explains the false nature of the jiva, even though it appears to be real. As true knowledge dawns, the jivatman and Brahman have a single identity. The world, too, is then known as false.
Section 5 with sixty-two verses states that the body is like a city with ten gateways. The ten main nadis are the highways along which ten pranas flow, covered by ten senses. There are six inner chakras and a forest fit for practising the six kinds of yoga (Mantra, Laya, Hatha, Raja, Bhavana and Sahaja). There are four pithas shining with the lamps of the four Vedas. In the body are the bindu, the nada, the linga, Vishnu and Lakshmi. In fact, the body is the temple of Vishnu. A description of the six chakras and four pithas and the nadis follow, along with methods of arousing the Kundalini. Oneness with Narayana as well as certain siddhis or powers, can be attained through concentration. The importance of the guru is emphasized, and the greatness of the secret teachings of the Yoga-shikha.
Section 6 with seventy-nine verses further describes the Kundalini and the Sushumna Nadi, the other chakras and nadis, along with meditation on Hamsa as the Paramatman. Nothing can compare with the Sushumna; meditating on it has more merit than thousands of ashvamedhas and hundreds of vajapeyas, as well as pilgrimages to holy sites, the Ganga and the oceans. Using various yogic techniques to raise the Kundalini through the Sushumna, Brahman is attained.
The Yogatattva Upanishad is attached to the Krishna Yajur Veda and has 142 verses. (Another brief version with only fifteen verses is attached to the Atharva Veda.) It explains various types of yoga, including the eightfold yoga, Mantra Yoga, Laya Yoga and Hatha Yoga.
The Upanishad begins with Pitamaha (the god Brahma) approaching the god Vishnu and asking him to explain the eightfold yoga. Hrishikesha (Vishnu) then responds. He says that all jivas are ensnared in maya, but attaining Brahman they gain liberation. As Brahman is self-manifested, it cannot be known by the Shastras and Vedas, which, in fact, come from it. He then explains the stages by which the Paramatman creates the jiva, which is a part of it. The jiva can attain the state of the Paramatman through yoga and knowledge. There are four kinds of yoga, Mantra Yoga, Laya Yoga, Hatha Yoga and Raja Yoga. Mantra Yoga is for the inferior type of person. Repeating mantras for twelve years, he will gradually gain knowledge and wisdom (21–22). Laya Yoga is the dissolution of the mind through meditation on Ishvara at all times while performing various activities such as walking, eating and standing (23–24). Hatha Yoga is explained next and it has eight stages and twelve subdivisions. The eight stages are the usual ones described elsewhere, with minor variations: yama, niyama, asana, prana-samyama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana of Hari between the eyebrows and samadhi. The twelve subdivisions are mahamudra, mahabandha, mahavedha, khechari; the three bandhas, mula, uddiyana and jalandhara; dirgha-pranava samdhana; siddhanta shravana; vajroli, amroli and sahajoli.
He describes temperate food as the most important of the yamas, and ahimsa, usually the first of the yamas, as the most important niyama. The siddha, padma, simha and bhadra are the most important asanas. The obstacles on the path of yoga are next pointed out, followed by a description of the right type of mathas (monasteries) for the practice of the steps of yoga. Pranayama is to be used for the purification of the nadis and many restrictions are placed on food. Cooked wheat, green gram, rice, milk and ghi should form part of the food. Salty and spicy food, along with vegetables, are to be avoided. The person should not undertake any fasts or undue exertion and should avoid early morning baths and sex (46–49). The practice of holding the breath is important. Gradually, siddhis (superhuman powers) will develop. Strangely, despite the emphasis on ahimsa, the text also states that such a yogi can wander freely over the earth as he has the power to kill any wild animal with a blow of his hand!
During the practice, the Pranava Mantra (that is, Om) should be used. After some time the ghata stage is reached, that of great effort in the regulation of the breath. At this time, the aspiring yogi unites prana, apana, manas, buddhi, the jivatman and the Paramatman. This practice should then be reduced and higher practices should begin. Kumbhaka, the holding of the breath, is a type of pratyahara. Proceeding to dharana, the yogi should view everything he hears or sees as the atman. More psychic powers will be attained, but these must be kept secret. As the practice proceeds, there should be a focus on the chakras and the elements, using the appropriate mantras, which will finally lead to samadhi. The yogi can now either give up his body or retain it, roaming through the world assuming any form as he likes; he can become a yaksha, a lion or an elephant in an instant. He can attain the state of Maheshvara or be a celestial being in the celestial world.
The text continues to describe various practices, including the maha-bandha, the maha-vedha, and the real form of the khechari, followed by the benefits of the three bandhas: mula, uddiyana and jalandhara. The viparita-karani asana (upside-down pose), vajroli and amaroli are also described along with their benefits. Thus, the twenty stages of Hatha Yoga have been described, leading to Raja Yoga (131).
The yogi should remain detached from all relationships and worship the Pranava in the lotus of the heart. As the nadis are purified and the Sushumna flows upwards, videha-mukti is achieved.