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ACTAsia, 107–8
African green monkeys, 146
African swine fever, 195
ageing science, field of, 214
Ai Fen, Dr, 50, 52, 55, 59, 250
Alibekov, Dr Kanatjan, 146–7
Almeida, June, 33–5
Andersen, Dr Kristian, 130–1, 151–2, 153, 154, 211–12, 214–16, 292, 304, 306
Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-II (ACE2), 41, 118, 125, 287, 288; in lab studies/research, 41–2, 182–3, 184–5, 186–7, 188–9, 193, 207–8, 219, 241, 287, 288; as SARS-CoV-2 RBD, 41–2, 97, 204, 204, 265, 275, 276, 287, 288; versions of in other animals, 41–2, 118, 184, 275, 276
Animal Care Trust, 107–8
animals/wildlife: Covid-19’s capacity to infect wide range of species, 41, 275, 282; domestic cat meat, 70; escaped Hangzhou leopards, 141–2; high-density chicken farms, 173; safe disposal of lab animals, 165–6; sampling of for viruses, 5, 6–7, 69, 74, 75, 81, 96–7, 117–18, 124–5, 258, 268, 282, 311–13; versions of ACE2 in, 41–2, 118, 184, 185, 188–9, 275, 276 see also bats; pangolins; wildlife trade
anthrax, 145, 146–7, 178–9, 281
antibiotics, 10, 11, 36, 256–7
Asher, David, 140
Asilomar conference (1975), 298
Australia, 19, 45, 61, 64, 73, 111, 261, 266
avian influenza, 145, 172–8, 205, 206
Babarlelephant, 229, 232, 233, 236, 237, 299
bacteria, 36–7, 143–4, 146–7, 178, 298
Bahulikar, Rahul, 26
Baker, Nicholson, 305
Baltimore, Dr David, 210, 213, 215, 290
Bangladesh, 19
Bannon, Steve, 199
Baric, Dr Ralph, 153, 157, 160, 180–2, 183–7, 190, 201, 308; cooperation with Dr Shi’s group, 185, 186–7, 208, 267; synthesising of novel viruses, 196–7; and vaccines, 193, 194–6, 295; on WIV, 267–8
bat coronaviruses, 7, 11, 17, 35, 65–7, 83–4, 118–27, 131–2, 182–7, 216–20, 240–3, 270–2; Babarlelephant’s tree diagram, 232, 233, 236, 237; BtCoV/4991 sample from Mojiang mine, 20–1, 22, 24–5, 26–32, 83, 126, 222, 229, 233, 239–40, 241, 242; and the common cold, 43; MERS, 79, 84, 111, 209, 222, 272, 289; Ra4991 renamed, 24–5, 28–9, 30, 226, 238; RaTG13 fragment, 22–32, 90, 169, 170, 200, 205, 219, 220, 222, 225, 228–30, 232–4, 239–40, 242, 275, 286, 288, 292; reviewed in Latinne et al. (25 August 2020), 231–2, 287–8; and SARS epidemic (2002–3), 77–8; SARS-CoV-2 genome resembles, 2, 21–5, 28–32, 222; thorough/detailed nature of Chinese research, 287, 288, 292–3, 311–13; virus RmYN02, 216–18; WIV library of genomes, 186, 188–9, 267–8, 286, 287–8; WIV work on, 113–16, 118–19, 121–3, 125–9, 131–2, 182–3, 186, 188–90, 192–4, 221–4, 240–3, 267–8, 284–5; WIV-EcoHealth Alliance team, 115–16, 118–23, 125–6, 127, 166, 170, 186, 188–90, 191–2, 232, 237, 305, 310–11; WIV’s‘7896’ group (eight other viruses), 21, 225–6, 232–9, 243, 274, 285, 288, 292; Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV), 311–13; Zhoushan viruses, 126, 198, 200, 222 see also horseshoe bats; Mojiang copper mine, Yunnan
bats: bat guano trade, 16, 81, 111, 311; dangers of catching and handling, 81, 114, 127–8, 311–12; eating of in southern China, 81, 83–4, 261; fruit bats, 73, 81; kept in WIV laboratory, 128–9; as living in large aggregations, 37–8, 110, 111, 112; as long-lived animals, 111–12; as not traded in Wuhan’s markets (2017–19), 104–5; not typically consumed in central China, 105; protease system, 209; RmYN02 virus, 216–18; sampling of in Hubei province, 258; species of, 110, 111; unique immune systems, 112–14; Wuhan CDC’s sampling of, 123–5, 127, 128, 241; as zoonotic source of viruses, 37–8, 43, 65–7, 73, 79, 81–2, 111, 114–16, 117–29, 131–2, 216–20 see also horseshoe bats
‘The Bats Behind the Pandemic’ (Matt Ridley essay, April 2020), 1–2, 231
Baumgarth, Dr Nicole, 176, 177
Bedford, Trevor, 153, 155
Beijerinck, Martinus, 37
Beijing Institute of Pathogen Biology, 11, 19
Biden, Joe, 299, 303, 309–10
biosecurity/biosafety: accidents as rare events, 147–8, 281, 292; BSL-4 laboratories world-wide, 160; cautious limits set at Asilomar (1975), 298; China’s mobile BSL-3 laboratories, 160, 161; concerns over safety at WIV’s high-level BSLs, 163–4, 165; dangers of catching/handling bats, 81, 114, 127–8, 311–12; deliberately making viruses more dangerous to humans, 172–8; disposal of biological waste, 165–6; levels of, 133–4, 139, 158–60, 253, 254, 289–90, 311; mistakes in US laboratories (2014), 178–9; no enforceable international standards, 281; plans for high-level BSLs across China, 164–5; safety precautions, 133–4, 139; WIV’s BSL-4 laboratory, 158–9, 160–4, 253, 254
bioweapons, 197, 200–1, 278, 297, 306
Birrell, Ian, 98, 307–8
Bloom, Dr Jesse, 56–8, 266–7, 268
Bostickson, Billy (Drastic member), 27–8, 129, 170, 213, 299
Botao Xiao, Dr, 64–6, 124
brucellosis, 144
Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 71
Cai Wei, 309
Calisher, Dr Charles, 290
Cambodia, 219, 258, 286
camels, 79, 84
Canada, 64, 70, 72
Canard, Dr Bruno, 203, 261, 265
Carroll, Dennis, 130
Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), China: Chinese Institute of Virology, 136–8; crackdown on whistleblowers, 62, 247; doctoral thesis from (2016), 13, 16, 17, 18, 26, 31, 226; headquarters in Beijing, 11, 60, 68, 69, 161–2; and Huanan seafood market, 69, 85, 86, 88, 98, 251; and Mojiang copper mine, Yunnan, 11, 13, 17, 19, 226; and outbreak of pandemic, 51; sale of testing kit rights, 60; and SARS epidemic (2002–3), 70, 71, 136–8; Wuhan regional CDC, 21, 65–6, 69, 85, 123–5, 127, 128, 158, 165, 241, 280
Chakravarti, Aravinda, 153
Chen Jinping, Dr, 93–4
Chen Mai, 309
Chen Wu, Dr, 93–4
Chen Zhu, Dr, 160
China-WHO joint study, 7, 32, 284; and apparent failures of Chinese scientists, 257–8, 262–4; and ascertainment bias, 256–7; China dictate terms of, 248, 249–50, 251, 253, 254–5, 257–8, 261–2, 264, 274, 297; composition of international team, 157, 247–9; frozen-food/cold chain theory, 250, 251, 252–3, 259, 261, 274, 294; investigation, 58, 249, 250–5; laboratory leak theory dismissed by, 251, 253–4, 261, 292; lack of access to samples and data, 254–5, 257–8, 264, 283; Paris group’s open letter, 264–5; press conference (9 February 2021), 251, 252, 261–2, 263–4, 265, 292, 305–6; report of, 87–8, 251, 255–7, 261–2, 265–6, 310; terms of reference, 246–7; WHO team denied access to raw data, 254–5, 264, 283; widespread criticism of in west, 261–3, 266, 305–6; and wildlife sampling, 258
Chinese government/authorities: behaviour of during pandemic, 49–58, 59–62, 85–7, 94–5, 96–7, 99–102, 106–8, 167–71, 274–5, 283; Biden’s comments on cover-up by, 309–10; critics and enemies of, 278; harsh treatment of whistleblowers, 309; issuing of gag orders, 58, 247; and laboratory leak theory, 283, 308; lobbying of WHO by, 245–6; Ministry of Agriculture, 209–10; Ministry of Science and Technology, 164–5; restricting of academic publications on Covid, 231; secrecy during SARS epidemic (2002–3), 71–2, 245, 275; secrecy over laboratory research, 162, 164, 167–71; secrecy over Mojiang mine, 12–15, 24–6, 28–32, 243, 286; secretive and autocratic system, 274–5; and US intelligence community, 303–4; WHO rebukes (January 2021), 249–50; WHO’s praise for, 244, 245
Chinese Human Rights Defenders, 53
Chirac, Jacques, 160
Chmura, Aleksei, 127
Chu, Dr C. M., 150
Chuang Yin-ching, Professor, 53
civets, 41, 74–8, 75, 80, 84, 118, 189, 260, 272, 282, 288, 312
Cobey, Dr Sarah, 268
Colaiacovo, Moreno, 236, 299
Collins, Drs Francis, 176–7
coronaviruses: June Almeida identifies (1960s), 34–5; alpha-coronavirus genus, 35, 119–21, 131; betacoronavirus genus, 18, 31, 35, 170, 205, 231, 235; bovine (BCoV), 43, 207; the common cold, 34–5, 37, 40, 43, 207; four groups of, 35, 43; HKU1, 35, 205; HKU4, 208–9; infectious bronchitis virus, 209–10; OC43 version, 35, 43–4, 205, 207; in pangolins, 94–5, 99, 102–3, 106 see also MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome); SARS-like/related viruses
Cotton, Tom, 306
Covid-19 pandemic: asymptomatic but infectious patients, 54, 139; children as largely spared, 44; December 2019–January 2020 in Wuhan, 5–6, 21–3, 28–9, 49–54, 55–60, 255–7, 282–3; early criteria identifying cases in Wuhan, 256–7; first confirmed case outside China, 63; hypothesis on 1889–90 pandemic, 43–4; impact of, 4, 95; importance of finding origin of, 4, 6–7; men affected more severely than women, 44; pre-symptomatic transmitters of virus, 6, 139; SARS-CoV-2 as causative agent, 1; snake theory, 82–3; start of global spread, 63–4; symptoms of virus, 41, 44, 139; Wuhan locked down (23 January 2020), 63
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, 133–4
crocodiles, 82, 87
Cui Jie, Dr, 127, 240
Dalgleish, Angus, 306
Daszak, Dr Peter: background of, 116–17; and Drastic, 169–70, 213, 233; and frozen-food/cold chain theory, 252; and grants from US sources, 115, 117–18, 188–90, 191–2; inclusion in the WHO team, 157, 247, 248–9, 252, 254, 262, 263, 284; Lancet letter (19 February 2020), 156–7, 248, 290, 304; and Latinne et al., 232, 233; as long-time collaborator with WIV/Dr Shi, 25, 29, 82, 115, 118, 128, 129, 131–2, 186, 229, 238, 247, 248, 249; NASEM consults, 153–4; and pangolins, 103; and sequencing of RaTG13, 29, 170, 229, 230; and Shi-Baric collaboration, 186, 187; supports GVP, 130; supports natural spillover theory, 82, 123, 155–7, 248, 249, 306; tweet on Cambodia, 258; and vaccines, 193; and WIV’s pathogen database, 25, 166, 169–70, 310
Decroly, Dr Etienne, 203, 265
Dedkov, Dr Vladimir, 254–5
Deigin, Yuri, 213–15, 217, 299, 305, 306
Demaneuf, Gilles, 136, 299
Denison, Dr Mark, 185, 193
Dennett, Daniel, 291–2
Deverman, Dr Ben, 2, 97–9
diabetes, 41
Drastic (‘Decentralized Radical Autonomous Search Team Investigating COVID-19’), 27–8, 129, 169–70, 213–14, 230–5, 299–300, 305
Durrell, Gerald, 116
Dwyer, Dr Dominic, 255
Ebola, 133–4, 145, 272
Ebright, Dr Richard, 188, 264–5
EcoHealth Alliance: grants from US sources, 115, 117–18, 188–90, 191–2; and natural spillover theory, 117–19, 131, 155–7; roots/history of, 116–17; WIV collaboration, 115–16, 118–23, 125–6, 127, 163, 164, 166, 170, 186, 188–90, 191–2, 232, 237, 305, 310–11; and WIV medical records/data, 312; WIV receives funding from, 29, 118, 156, 163, 186, 188–90, 191–2, 229, 310–11 see also Daszak, Dr Peter
Embarek, Dr Peter Ben, 246, 250, 251, 254, 257, 262, 274
Emerging Pandemic Threats (EPT) programme, USAID, 116, 130
engineered virus theory, 151–5, 210–16, 304, 306; confused with lab leak question, 154, 306; engineered with intent theory, 153, 154, 197–200, 250, 307; and furin cleavage site, 205–6, 210–11, 213, 215, 220, 277, 288–9, 290, 293; Limeng Yan’s claims, 197–200, 250, 307 see also ‘gain-of-function’ research
European Virus Archive Global (EVAg) project, 167
Ewald, Dr Paul, 45–6, 47
Fang Li, Dr, 208–9
Farrar, Sir Jeremy, 54, 60–1, 151, 152
Fauci, Dr Anthony, 152, 176–7, 189–90, 307
Feng Zijian, Dr, 247
ferrets, 174–5, 177
Field, Dr Hume, 115
First World War, 47–8
Fischer, Dr Thea, 258, 284
Fletcher, John, 39
Fodor, Jerry, 291
foot-and-mouth virus, 145, 281
Fort Detrick (US army biomedical facility), 144, 147
Fort Dix, New Jersey, 150
Fouchier, Dr Ron, 173–5, 177, 179
France, 44, 64, 160–2; ‘Paris group’, 264–5, 305
Frieden, Dr Thomas, 178
frozen-food/cold chain theory, 250, 251, 252–3, 259, 261, 274, 294
furin cleavage site: and amino acid sequences, 202, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 213; and burden-of-proof issues, 292, 293; CGG-CGG doublet, 213, 215; Deigin’s argument on, 213–15, 217, 306; discovery of (1992), 206; laboratory manipulation of, 207–10, 224, 277, 293; MERS-related viruses, 205, 208–9, 222, 223, 224, 289, 310–11; S1/S2 junction in virus spike, 207–9, 216, 217, 218, 219, 222, 223–4, 288; of SARS-CoV-2, 42, 202–6, 207, 210–11, 213, 215, 220, 221–4, 265, 277, 288–9, 290, 293; widespread searches related to (from 2019), 216–20, 293; WIV ignores insertion, 221–4, 288–9
Furmanski, Dr Martin, 151
‘gain-of-function’ research: and Dr Ralph Baric, 180–2, 183–7; into bird flu, 172–8; Cambridge Working Group, 179, 191; chimeric viruses, 66, 175, 183, 185, 186–7, 192, 196–7, 288, 295, 310–11, 312; in China, 1, 66, 131–2, 177–8, 184–7, 188–90, 191–2, 287, 288, 310–11, 312–13; competition amongst scientists, 183; controversy/debate over, 27, 176–80, 187–8, 191, 305, 307; on coronaviruses, 181–4, 287, 288; danger of viral escape, 177, 178–9, 187–8, 287, 294; deliberately making viruses more dangerous to humans, 172–8; and enhanced PPPs, 191; Fauci’s definition of, 189–90; funding moratorium in US (2014–17), 179–80, 188, 189–91; as ongoing issue, 313; ‘passaging’ practice, 173–5, 181, 287; reverse genetics, 66, 180, 181–90, 192; synthetic virus creation, 180, 181–7, 196–7, 200–1, 287, 311–13; temporary moratorium on (2012), 177
Galea, Dr Gauden, 246
Gansu province, 143–4
Gao, Dr ‘George’ Fu, 11, 13, 51, 68, 86, 98, 130, 161, 251
Garry, Dr Robert, 152
GenBank (international virus sequence database), 23, 24, 29, 59, 61, 169, 226, 228, 231, 232, 237, 241–2
genetic sequences: amplicon sequencing, 227–8, 229, 230; assembly of, 227–8; Babarlelephant’s tree diagram, 232, 233, 233, 236, 237; BigD database, 234; early sequencing dataset from Wuhan University, 56–8; genome of SARS virus (2003), 76, 84, 95–7, 282; genomes, 1–2, 5, 20, 38, 39, 40, 118, 120, 288; next-generation sequencing (NGS), 227, 228, 229–30; recombination, 38, 64, 112, 120–1, 125–6, 131, 132, 143, 178, 180, 188–90, 195–7, 219, 241, 242, 271, 273; Ribera’s ‘big sudoku’, 231–5; Ribera’s crucial 2 July tweet, 231–2 see also SARS-CoV-2 (causative agent of Covid-19), genome of
genetics: ambiguity of genetic code, 217–18; analysis of genomic texts, 38, 39–40; codons, 39, 82–3, 203, 205, 210, 213, 217–18, 219; four-letter codes for DNA/RNA, 38, 39; genetic manipulation, 3, 20, 24, 42; and language of proteins, 39–40; literary analogy, 38–9; pangolin immune systems, 93; reverse genetics research, 66, 180, 181–90; RNA, 23, 31, 38, 39–40, 42–3, 119, 149, 202, 205–6; scientific advances in, 5, 59, 73–4, 84–5, 288; synthetic DNAs, 180, 181–7; transcription regulatory sequence (TRS), 196; universal genetic code, 213
Germany, 44, 45, 64, 145–6
Gillibrand, Kirsten, 299
GISAID (international virus sequence database), 61
GitHub website, 309
Global Environmental Reporting Collective, 91
Global Public Health Intelligence Network, 71
Global Virome Project (GVP), 130–1, 164
Gostin, Dr Lawrence, 86, 245, 246
Gronvall, Dr Gigi Kwik, 150–1, 154
Guangdong province, 67, 69, 70–1, 74–7, 84, 92, 116, 118, 119, 120, 260, 272, 281–2; Institute of Applied Biological Resources, 93–4; Wildlife Rescue Center, 92–3, 99
Guangjian Zhu, 127
Guangxi province, 67, 92, 103
Guangzhou, 11, 70–1, 76, 89, 92–3, 94, 99, 260, 272
Guizhou province, 126
Guo, Miles, 199
Hangzhou safari park, 141–2
hantaviruses, 79, 142–3
Harriss, Joseph, 161, 162
Hendra virus, 73, 79, 111, 114, 272
herpes, 93
Hessler, Peter, 309
HIV, 73, 153, 182, 205
Hoffmann, Dr Markus, 205
Holmes, Dr Edward, 61, 130–1, 151, 203, 223–4, 250
Hong Kong, 54, 70, 72, 74, 77–8, 83–4, 120, 172, 197–8
horseshoe bats, 22–3, 109–16, 110, 118–27, 182–7, 216–20, 235–6, 270–2; in Mojiang copper mine, Yunnan, 15–16, 20–1, 83; and SARS epidemic (2002–3), 77–8, 82, 84, 116, 125–6, 131; use of in TCM, 81; warnings from scientists over, 83–4
Hoy, Cyrus, 39
Hu, Dr Ben, 115, 125, 163, 188–90, 193, 221
Huanan seafood market, Wuhan, 276; and apparant failures of Chinese scientists, 263–4; cases who had not visited, 54, 56, 63, 64, 255, 282; Chinese authorities change mind over, 68, 98, 251; Chinese authorities suggest as origin, 22, 68, 69, 85–8, 106, 256–7, 261; evidence against being source of pandemic, 2, 3, 57–8, 69, 86–8, 97, 98, 255–6; genome sequences from, 57–8; hurriedly closed and sanitised, 51, 68–9, 85, 277; initial focus on, 22, 68–9, 85–8, 256–7, 261, 282; no animals test positive at, 3, 69, 85, 97, 98, 282; samples taken at, 3, 51, 69, 85–8, 96, 97, 98, 282; staff fall ill, 21–2, 50, 57–8; study of animals sold in, 259–61, 276–7; as ‘wet market’, 82, 87; WHO team visit, 250–1; wild animals sold at, 259; Wuhan CDC’s proximity to, 65, 66, 123, 158, 165
Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 124, 158, 208, 280, 289
Hubei province, 54, 63, 123–5, 241, 258
Hubei Provincial Hospital, 50
Hubei Wildlife Rescue Centre, 158
Husseini, Sam, 117
hydroxychloroquine treatment, 199
hypertension, 41
IgG antibodies, 18
IgM (immunoglobulin-M) antibodies, 17–18, 31
India, 64, 153
influenza, 5, 35, 37, 38, 48; 1918 flu pandemic, 46–8; avian, 145, 172–8, 205, 206; H1N1 strain, 46–8, 148–51, 178, 308; H5N1 strain, 172–8, 179; Russian ‘flu’ pandemic (1889–90), 43–5; Russian flu pandemic (1977), 148–51, 308
Inglesby, Tom, 154
intelligence community, US, 299, 303–4
interferons, 93, 113
Iran, 95
Italy, 44, 64, 95
Ivins, Bruce, 147
Iwasaki, Dr Akiko, 268
Jacobsen, Rowan, 268, 294, 305
Japan, 63, 218, 276, 286
Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, 116
Jiangxi province, 80
Jin Qi, Dr, 19, 21
Jinning caves (Shitou and Yanzi), 14, 114, 118–19, 122, 125, 188–9, 234, 273
Jinyintan hospital, Wuhan, 52, 250
Kawaoka, Dr Yoshihiro, 172–3, 174, 175–6, 177, 179
Kean, Jefferson, 47
Kerkhove, Dr Maria Van, 244–5
Kleine-Weber, Dr Hannah, 205
Koch’s postulates, 37
Koopmans, Dr Marion, 257, 259
Kuiken, Dr Thijs, 54
Kunming Medical University Hospital, 9–11, 16, 17–18
laboratory leaks: anthrax leak in Soviet Union (1979), 146–7; bacterial leaks, 143–4, 146–7; danger of SARS-CoV-2 leaks, 139–41; of first SARS virus, 133, 134–9, 281; and Marburg virus, 145–6; need to learn from, 6; as rare but not infrequent, 147–8, 281, 292; Russian flu pandemic (1977), 148–51, 308; in UK, 145; in USA, 144–5, 148; during vaccine trials/production, 143–4, 150–1, 308; of viruses, 133, 134–9, 142–3, 281
laboratory origin theory: Kristian Andersen’s view, 151–2, 211–12, 214, 216, 304, 306; arguments in support of, 280–90; David Baltimore’s view, 210–11, 213, 215, 290; and Baric’s ‘no-see’m’ method, 181–2; burden-of-proof issues, 292–3, 294; change in tone of media coverage of, 268–9, 304, 307–8; China-WHO joint study dismisses, 251, 253–4, 261, 292; and China-WHO joint study report, 265–6; and Chinese authorities, 283, 308; competing interests issue, 155–8; confused with engineered virus theory, 154, 306; Daszak rejects, 155–7, 248, 249, 306; Dr Segreto’s view, 24; Dr Shi’s Scientific American article, 66–7; furin cleavage site debate, 220, 277, 288–9; implications if true, 295–6; initial scientific assumptions over, 3, 292, 304–6; lack of direct evidence for, 278; Lancet letter (19 February 2020), 156–8, 290, 304; motivations of those pursuing, 278–9; NASEM letter (6 February 2020), 153–5; as not allegation of malfeasance, 280–1; as not precluding natural origin, 220, 306; as not requiring genetic modification, 288; as now strong possibility, 312–13; online article by the Xiaos, 64–6, 124; politicisation of, 98, 269, 306, 307–8; ‘Proximal Origin’ paper (Andersen et al.), 211, 214, 216, 289–90, 292; Ribera’s work on, 231–5; Science letter from top scientists (May 2020), 266–9, 307; Segreto-Deigin paper (November 2020), 214; senior virologists’ views (January 2020), 151–2; several versions of, 290; shift in views of scientists, 289–90, 297–8, 300–1, 304, 307; and US intelligence community, 299, 303–4; view of authors of this book, 300–1; WHO preliminary document (November 2020), 98–9; why Wuhan? question, 7, 283–4, 292; Zhan et al. paper (2 May 2020), 97–9
laboratory research: Chinese government’s lack of openness, 162, 164, 167–71; downstream of virus-hunting, 131–2; gene-synthesis machines, 197; growing of novel viruses, 120–1; human ‘airway’ cell cultures, 183–4, 187; humanised animals, 3, 42, 184–7, 194, 287, 288, 312; ‘immortal’ cells, 114; ‘isolating’ of live viruses, 118–19, 120–1, 163, 188–9, 192–4, 311–13; manipulation of furin cleavage site sequences, 207–10, 224, 277, 293; ‘passaging’ practice, 173–5, 181, 287; pseudoviruses, 182–3, 207–8, 209; recombinant viruses, 120, 132, 143, 178, 180, 188, 190, 195–7; reverse genetics, 66, 180, 181–90; sampling of people, 74–5, 121–3, 240, 311; serial passaging, 120–1, 287; synthetic virus creation, 185–7, 196–7, 200–1, 287, 311–13; timelags in reporting of discoveries, 287–8; wider implications of Covid origin search, 297–8 see also ‘gain-of-function’ research
Lanying Du, Dr, 222
Lassa fever, 133–4
Latinne, Alice, 231–2
Leendertz, Dr Fabian, 253, 274
Lei Xiao, 64–6, 124
Leitenberg, Milton, 305
Lentzos, Dr Filippa, 265
Li Wenliang, Dr, 50, 52, 53, 59, 250
Lipkin, Dr Ian, 289–90
Lipsitch, Dr Marc, 179, 191
Liu Jianlun, Dr, 70
Liu Ping, Dr, 93–4
Liu Yingle, Dr, 21–2
lllandca (anonymous Twitter user), 99
Loman, Dr Nick, 60
‘long Covid’ symptoms, 41
Lu De (YouTuber), 198, 199
Lucey, Dr Daniel, 199–200, 263–4
malaria, 4, 37, 46
Malaysia, 73, 111
Marburg, Institute of Virology, 206
Marburg virus, 133–4, 145–6, 272
market origin thesis, 3–4, 247, 251–2, 255–7, 282; and 2003 SARS epidemic, 51, 69, 71–2, 74–7, 80, 84–5, 96–7, 260, 281–2; multi-market hypothesis, 256; study of animals sold in Wuhan, 259–61, 276–7 see also Huanan seafood market, Wuhan
Marshall, Roger, 299
Mazet, Dr Jonna, 116, 130
McNeil Jr, Donald, 269
measles, 205
medicine, traditional Chinese (TCM), 69, 80, 81, 83, 90, 92, 107–8
Merieux, Alain, 161
MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome), 35, 40, 134, 159, 180, 181, 191, 240; and furin cleavage site, 205, 208–9, 222, 223, 224, 289, 310–11; as originating in bats, 79, 84, 209, 222, 272, 289; Dr Zaki discovers, 78–9
Metabiota (viral database firm), 116
Metzl, Jamie, 261–2, 265, 305
Military World Games (Wuhan, October 2019), 55
Miller, Dr Maureen, 263
Moderna (biotech firm), 61–2
Mojiang copper mine, Yunnan, 7, 9–12, 15–32, 225–6; Chinese secrecy over, 12–15, 24–6, 28–32, 243, 286; Ning Wang’s thesis (2014), 239–40; peculiar behaviour of Wuhan scientists, 274–5, 286, 292; WIV’s expeditions to (2012/13), 19–21, 22, 30–2, 114, 169, 220, 222, 239, 240, 285–6, 292; and WIV’s‘7896’ group (eight other viruses), 21, 234–9, 242, 243, 274, 285, 288, 292
Mong La, Myanmar, 108
mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), 181, 183, 207
Nabel, Dr Gary, 176–7
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 188, 189–90, 191–2
National Institutes of Health (NIH), US, 173, 176–7, 178–9, 180, 187, 189–91, 205–6, 248, 307, 310–11
natural spillover theory: and 2003 SARS epidemic, 51, 69–78, 80, 82, 84–5, 96–7, 116, 125–6, 192, 260, 272, 273, 281–2; arguments in support of, 270–9; burden-of-proof issues, 292, 293, 294–5; Chan/Zhan/Deverman preprint (2 May 2020), 2–3, 97–9; Daszak supports, 82, 123, 155–7, 248, 249, 306; and EcoHealth Alliance, 117–19, 131, 155–7; and farming of wildlife for food, 6, 80–2, 83, 108, 189; implications if true, 294–5; initial scientific assumptions over, 304–6; intermediate hosts, 84, 85, 89, 97, 102–3, 107, 108; Lancet letter (19 February 2020), 156–8, 290, 304; mammals as greatest risk for humans, 83; and Mojiang copper mine, Yunnan, 7, 9–21, 22–3, 24–5, 27, 28–32, 83, 114, 126; NASEM letter (6 February 2020), 153–5; no direct evidence for, 281–2, 290, 293; as not precluding lab leak, 220, 306; pangolin theory, 2, 89–90, 93–5, 99–102, 105–8; recombination, 125–6, 131, 143, 189, 271, 273; senior virologists’ views (January 2020), 151–2; snake theory, 82–3; and US intelligence community, 299, 303–4; viruses stemming from zoonoses, 5–6, 65–7, 73–82, 84–5, 96–7, 111, 114–16, 117–19; and WHO, 247 see also bats; market origin thesis; pangolins
Nielsen, Dr Rasmus, 57, 258
Ning Wang, 239–40
Nipah virus, 73, 79, 111, 114, 117, 272
norovirus, 37
Nunberg, Dr Jack, 207–8, 215
Palese, Dr Peter, 150, 290
pangolins: biology of, 90–1, 93, 104; confiscated from smugglers, 1, 92–5, 99, 102–3, 106; coronaviruses in, 1–2, 94–5, 99, 102–3, 106; data behind 2019 paper released (22 January 2020), 94, 102, 106; at Guangdong Wildlife Rescue Center, 92–3, 99; illegal trade in, 80, 90, 91–5, 99, 102–3, 104, 107, 108; Liu et al. paper (May 2020), 94, 101; lives in the wild, 91, 104; Manis javanica, 90–4, 91; as not traded in Wuhan’s markets (2017–19), 104–5; political motives for studies on, 102; proposed as source of Covid-19 pandemic, 89–90, 93–5, 99–102, 105–8; questions for Chinese scientists, 106; and TCM, 80, 81, 90, 92, 107; as unlikely to be source of pandemic, 2, 102–4, 261
paramyxoviruses, 19, 93–4
Peng Zhou, Dr, 113, 119, 221
Perlman, Dr Stanley, 101, 154
Petrovsky, Dr Nikolai, 265
Pickles, Dr Raymond, 184
pig coronaviruses, 119–21, 131, 158.272, 208, 289
the plague, 36, 37, 73
Pöhlmann, Dr Stefan, 205
polio, 4, 195
Pollack, Dr Marjorie, 51
Poon, Dr Leo, 198
Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Coronavirus, 208, 289
pork industry, Chinese, 195
Predict, USAID, 5, 116, 117–18, 129–30, 167
ProMED-mail, 51
proteins, 36, 39–40, 41, 42–3, 82–3, 93, 113–14, 202–7, 209
protozoa, 37
Quammen, David, Spillover, 127
Quay, Dr Steven, 212, 306
Racaniello, Dr Vincent, 23
Raffarin, Jean-Pierre, 160
Rahalkar, Dr Monali, 26, 30, 264, 299
Rambaut, Dr Andrew, 61, 130–1, 132, 152
Ranst, Dr Marc van, 43–4
Ray, Prasenjit ‘Jeet’ (the Seeker), 7, 17, 26–7, 30, 234, 239, 299
Reddit, 28
Reed, Brian, 15, 299
Relman, Dr David, 248, 266–7, 268, 297
Research Institute for Medicine of Nanjing Command, 126–7, 198
retroviruses, 210
Ribera, Francisco de, 193–4, 229, 230–5, 238, 239, 242, 264, 299
Robinson, Nathan, 269
rodents, 19, 22, 35, 41–2, 43, 73, 142–3, 312
Rogin, Josh, 55, 163–4
Roizman, Dr Bernard, 290
Rosen, Gary, 2
Rozo, Dr Michelle, 150–1
Russian ‘flu’ pandemic (1889–90), 43–5
Ryan, Dr Mike, 245
salamanders, 82, 87
Salzberg, Dr Steven, 179
sarbecovirus subgenus see SARS-like/related viruses
SARS epidemic (2002–3), 5, 11, 14, 20, 22, 43, 53, 181, 215; Chinese government’s lack of openness, 71–2, 245, 275; furin cleavage site of virus, 222–4; genomes of virus, 76, 84, 95–7, 282; in Guangdong, 70–1, 74–7, 84, 116, 118, 260, 272, 281–2; infection of variety of animals, 41; laboratory leaks, 133, 134–9, 281; Metropole Hotel superspreader event, 70, 72, 74; research into origins of, 114–16, 118–19, 125–6; second emergence of (2003–4), 76–7, 85, 282; technology available to scientists, 84–5; virus compared to SARS-CoV-2, 95–7, 282–3; zoonotic source of, 51, 69–78, 80, 82, 84–5, 96–7, 116, 125–6, 192, 260, 272, 273, 281–2
SARS-CoV-2 (causative agent of Covid-19), 1; and 2003 SARS virus, 95–7, 282–3; and ACE2 receptors, 41–2, 97, 204, 204, 265, 275, 276, 287, 288; adaptation scenarios, 97–9; Alpha variant, 283; arginine codons, 203, 205, 210, 213, 215; biosecurity levels at WIV, 159–60, 253, 254, 289–90, 311; capacity to infect wide range of species, 41, 275, 282; close relatives n Southeast Asia/Japan, 276, 286; danger of laboratory leaks, 139–41; Delta variant, 283; effect on the lungs, 40; entry into cells, 41–2, 89–90; genome of published (January 2020), 61, 203, 223–4; as here to stay, 48; human-to-human transmission identified, 50–1, 53–4, 198–9, 244–5; infection as systemic, 40; Li-Meng Yan as whistleblower, 197–200, 250, 307; long incubation time, 139; pangolin theory, 2, 89–90, 93–5, 99–102, 105–8; receptor-binding domain (RBD), 41, 89–90, 94, 99, 100, 106, 118, 182–4, 221, 224, 275; re-infection of Covid survivors, 283; replication of, 42–3; size of particle, 36; as sneaky and stealthy virus, 40, 139–40; unique characteristics, 6, 42, 202, 205–6, 222–4; as well adapted to human beings, 2, 3, 96, 97–9, 282–3; ZXC21 and ZC45 viruses, 126
SARS-CoV-2 (causative agent of Covid-19), genome of: earliest reported virus genomes, 57–8; furin cleavage site insertion, 42, 202–6, 207, 210–11, 213, 215, 220, 221–4, 265, 277, 288–9, 290, 293; Drs Holmes and Zhang publish, 61–2, 203, 223–4; length of, 42–3; sequencing of (by early January 2020), 21–2, 28, 52–3, 59, 124; similarity of early genomes, 95–7, 282–3; textual analysis of, 38; and virus from pangolin, 1–2, 89–90; Dr Zhang uploads to GenBank, 59–60
SARS-like/related viruses: anticoagulant treatments, 11; Babarlelephant’s tree diagram, 232, 233, 233, 236, 237; and Dr Ralph Baric, 153, 157, 160, 180–2, 183–7; bat virus RmYN02, 216–18; as beta-coronaviruses, 35; BSL-3 conditions required, 134, 139, 159, 160; clusters as geographic, 241; isolated and grown at WIV, 118–19, 163, 188–9, 192–4, 311–13; meaning of term, 18; Rs8561_Guangdong, 241; searching of caves in southern China, 114–15, 118–19, 122, 124–5, 127–8, 188–9, 284–5; SL-CoV-WIV1 virus, 119; spike sequences of, 205–6; WIV’s four different lineages, 242–3; WIV’s pathogen database, 166–71, 286, 287–8, 292, 310; ZXC21 and ZC45 viruses, 126 see also bat coronaviruses
Saudi Arabia, 78–9
Schaffner, Dr William, 177
scientific papers: Chan/Zhan/Deverman preprint (2 May 2020), 2–3, 97–9; doctoral thesis from CDC (2016), 13, 16, 17, 18, 26, 31, 226; Dr Shi et al. in Emerging Microbes & Infections (31 January 2020), 222–3; Dr Shi et al. in Nature (3 February 2020), 22–3, 24, 26, 28–9, 221–2, 225, 228–9, 289; Dr Yingle’s paper (5 February 2020), 22, 24; Kunming medical thesis (2013), 7, 17, 26, 27, 30, 31, 226; Lam et al. paper in Nature, 94, 103; Latinne et al. (25 August 2020), 231–2, 233, 236, 237, 241–2, 243, 287–8; Ning Wang’s thesis (2014), 239; timelags in reporting of discoveries, 287–8; Xiao et al. paper in Nature, 94, 99–102; Yu Ping’s thesis (2014), 240–3; Zhan et al. paper (2 May 2020), 97–9; Zhang Yongzhen et al. (January 2020), 59–62, 124, 203, 223–4
the Seeker (anonymous Twitter user), 7, 17, 26–7, 30, 234, 239, 299
Segreto, Dr Rossana, 23–5, 30, 214, 217, 264, 299
Sendai virus, 93, 94
Shakespeare, William, 38–9
Shandong, 216–17
Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, 59, 62
Shen Yongyi, Dr, 89
Shi Zhengli, Dr: addendum to paper in Nature (17 November 2020), 30–2, 169, 225–6, 234–5, 238; admits 4991 and RaTG13 as same thing, 25; and bat research/hunting, 19–20, 22–3, 28–32, 113, 114, 115, 118–19, 125–8, 182, 186, 193–4; and biosecurity levels, 159–60; cooperation with Dr Baric’s group, 185, 186–7, 208, 267; failure to mention furin cleavage site, 221–4, 288–9; ‘gain-of-function’ experiments, 66, 181, 182–3, 185, 186, 188–90, 192, 310–11; interview with Science magazine (July 2020), 29, 159–60, 229–30, 241; and Kunming laboratory leak, 143; library of bat coronavirus genomes, 186, 188–9, 267–8, 286, 287–8; and outbreak of pandemic, 28, 66–7, 275; paper in Nature (3 February 2020), 22–3, 24, 26, 28–9, 221–2, 225, 228–9, 289; reacts to Science letter, 268; rejects engineering accusations, 153; SADS episode, 120–1, 131; and sample history of RaTG13, 229–30; supports natural spillover theory, 82; synthesising of novel viruses, 196–7; and timing of RaTG13 sequencing, 29, 169; and vaccines, 194; and WIV’s pathogen database, 166–7, 169, 286; and WIV’s‘7896’ group (eight other viruses), 235–6
Shibo Jiang, Dr, 222
Shitou cave, Jinning County, Yunnan, 14, 188–9, 234, 273
Singapore, 70, 72, 133, 134–6, 138
Small, Charles, 128–9, 167–8, 299
smallpox, 4, 36–7, 145, 178–9, 281
snakes, 74, 75, 82–3, 87
‘So Where Did This Virus Come From?’ (Matt Ridley essay, May 2020), 3
social media: censorship of virus origin discussion, 28, 307; Chinese censorship of Covid-19 ‘rumours’, 53; Facebook reverses censorship policy, 307; and Wuhan Health Commission, 52
Sorensen, Birger, 306
South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 89, 94
South Korea, 79
Soviet Union, 146–7, 148
Spain, 44–5
Spedding, James, 39
spike protein gene, 89–90, 94, 185–9, 212, 213, 241, 273, 287, 289; RBD of, 41, 89–90, 99, 100, 106, 182–4, 219, 221, 241, 275; S1/S2 junction, 207–9, 216, 217, 218, 219, 222, 223–4, 288; use of by virus, 41–2, 43, 182–3, 185, 187, 203–6, 207–10, 241 see also furin cleavage site
Stahl, Lesley, 254
Sudworth, John, 13–14
Sullivan, Jake, 262
Sweden, 44, 64
swine acute diarrhoea syndrome (SADS), 119–21, 131, 272
swine flu, 150, 175, 176–7
Taiwan, 53, 72, 133, 135–6, 138, 160
Taiyi cave, Xianning, 113
Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Dr, 244, 249–50, 262, 265–6
testing kits, 60, 61
Thailand, 63, 219, 286
Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 126–7, 198, 200
Tian Junhua, Dr, 123–5, 127, 128
Tong Yigang, Dr, 247
Trump, Donald, 199, 307–8
Tufekci, Zeynep, 308
Twitter, 7, 13, 17, 25, 26, 28, 98, 99, 299–300, 305
Tyrrell, Dr David, 34–5
Uganda, 146
United Kingdom, 44, 45, 64, 145
United States: anthrax letters (September 2001), 147; biosecurity lapses in, 144–5, 148; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 86, 116–17, 144–5, 178–9; concerns over WIV’s BSL-4 laboratory, 161, 162, 163–4; Federal Select Agent Program, 145; first confirmed case in, 64; funding of EcoHealth Alliance, 115, 117–18, 188–90, 191–2; impact of Covid-19 pandemic, 95; intelligence community, 299, 303–4
United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 116, 117–18, 167
UPMC Center for Health Security, Baltimore, 150–1
Urbani, Carlo, 183
US Right to Know organisation, 101, 140–1, 154, 156, 157
USA Today, 144–5, 148
vaccines: Chinese development of, 52–3, 194; dead versions, 195; development and distribution infrastructure, 5; development of in 2020, 296; and Dr Baric’s group, 193, 194–6, 295; early designs for SARS virus, 187; how they work, 194–5; live attenuated, 195–6; messenger-RNA (mRNA) vaccine, 61–2, 151, 196; mutatation back into pathogenic form, 195; release of the novel coronavirus genome, 61–2; rewriting of TRS, 196; against SARS-like viruses, 192–3, 194–5, 295
Vallance, Sir Patrick, 152
Vero cells (monkey kidney), 99, 120
Vietnam, 70, 72, 92
Virological.org website, 61
viruses, 36–48, 119; Global Virome Project (GVP), 130–1, 164; laboratory leaks, 133, 134–9, 142–3, 281; paramyxoviruses, 19, 93–4 see also coronaviruses; SARS-like/related viruses
Wade, Nicholas, 210, 212, 307
Wain-Hobson, Dr Simon, 187–8
Wang, Dr Linfa, 102, 112–13, 114, 115, 119, 157, 240
Wang Yanyi, Dr, 62, 163
West Nile virus, 134, 138
whistleblowers, 50, 52, 53, 197–200, 250, 267, 300, 308–9
Whittaker, Dr Gary, 290
Wildlife Conservation Society, 107, 116
wildlife trade, 74–5, 84–5, 104–5; and 2003 SARS epidemic, 51, 69, 71–2, 74–7, 80, 84–5, 96–7, 260, 281–2; apparant lack of checks of supply chains, 263–4; breeding/farming of exotic species in China, 6, 80–2, 83, 108, 189; Chinese regulations on, 80–1, 83, 104–5, 107–8; eating of exotic species in southern China, 69, 70, 74, 76, 80, 81, 83–4, 189, 261; frozen-food/cold chain theory, 250, 251, 252–3, 259, 261, 274, 294; illegal trade in pangolins, 80, 90, 91–5, 99, 102–3, 104, 107, 108; live markets, 51, 69, 74–7, 80, 81, 82, 84, 96–7; as ongoing problem, 313; sampling of people in, 74–5, 122–3, 311; seasonal factors, 260; tick-borne disease in Wuhan’s markets, 104–5 see also Huanan seafood market, Wuhan
Wolinetz, Dr Carrie, 191
World Health Organization (WHO), 7, 32, 53–4, 58, 86; assumptions over origin of virus, 305; and Chinese lack of transparency, 245, 246; declares a pandemic (11 March 2020), 246; delegation to China (February 2020), 246; emerging diseases unit, 244–5; Health Emergencies Programme, 245; and human-to-human transmission of virus, 198–9, 244–5; international experts visit Wuhan (early 2021), 87; and laboratory leak theory, 98–9; and laboratory leaks, 137–8, 139; lobbying of by Chinese government, 245–6; rebukes China (January 2021), 249–50; SARS epidemic (2002–3), 71–2, 114–15, 245; TCM as recognised form of medicine, 81; team visits Wuhan (January 2020), 245 see also China-WHO joint study
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), 69, 85
Worobey, Dr Michael, 268
Wuhan, 7, 65; institutions with coronavirus laboratories, 158; Military World Games (October 2019), 55; rapid spread of Covid-19 virus, 6
Wuhan Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 65–6, 69, 85, 123–5, 127, 128, 158, 165, 241, 280
Wuhan Central Hospital, 49, 50, 52, 59, 250
Wuhan Institute of Biological Products, 158
Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV): ‘7896’ group (eight other viruses), 21, 225–6, 232–9, 242, 243, 274, 285, 288, 292; addendum to Dr Shi’s paper in Nature (17 November 2020), 30–2, 169, 225–6, 234–5, 238; and alphacoronaviruses in pigs, 119–21, 131; barred from publishing Covid-19 data, 62; bats kept in laboratory, 128–9; behaviour over ‘7896’ group, 225–6, 231–9, 241–2, 243, 274, 285; behaviour over RaTG13 and 4991 sample, 22–3, 24–6, 28–32, 169, 170, 222, 226, 228–30, 239–40, 242, 292; biosecurity levels at, 159–60, 253, 254, 289–90, 311; BSL-4 laboratory in, 159, 160–4, 253, 254; Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, 20, 66; concerns over safety at high-level BSLs, 163–4, 165; EcoHealth Alliance collaboration, 115–16, 118–23, 125–6, 127, 163, 164, 166, 170, 186, 188–90, 191–2, 232, 237, 305, 310–11; and EcoHealth Alliance funding, 29, 118, 156, 163, 186, 188–90, 191–2, 229, 237, 310–11; expeditions to Mojiang mine (2012/13), 19–21, 22, 30–2, 114, 169, 220, 222, 239, 240, 285–6, 292; experiments on bat cells, 113–14; ‘gain-of-function’ experiments, 131–2, 181, 182–3, 185, 186, 188–90, 192–4, 287, 288, 311, 312–13; geographical location of, 66, 253–4; ignores furin cleavage site insertion, 221–4, 288–9; isolating/growing of bat SARS viruses, 118–19, 163, 188–9, 192–4, 311–13; and laboratory leak theory, 280–1; as leading lab for bat research/testing, 18, 20; low-key release of vital information, 235–6, 238; and Mojiang mine patients, 7, 11, 17–18, 28–32, 226, 239, 292; pathogen database of, 166–71, 286, 287–8, 292, 310; pathogen database taken offline, 167–71, 286, 292; Ribera’s ‘big sudoku’, 231–5; rumours of ill workers at, 307, 310; secret projects at, 162, 201, 287; sequence for eight viruses belatedly published, 237–9; thorough/detailed nature of research at, 287, 288, 292–3, 311–13; timing of RaTG13 sequencing, 228–30, 288; two campuses of, 158–9, 253–4; US State Department fact sheet on (January 2021), 105; and vaccines, 194; WHO team visit, 253–4; work on SARS viruses in bats, 113–16, 118–19, 121–3, 125–9, 131–2, 182–3, 186, 188–90, 192–4, 221–4, 240–3, 267–8, 284–5, 311–13 see also Shi Zhengli, Dr
Wuhan University, 21–2, 24, 25, 56–7, 58, 158, 312
Xi Jinping, 62, 81, 246
Xiao Lihua, Dr, 89
Xie Canmao, Dr, 10
Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, 216
Yan, Dr Li-Meng, 197–200, 250, 307
Yang Jian, 127
yellow breasted buntings, 80–1
yellow fever, 37
Young, Alison, 144–5, 148
Yu Ping, 240–3
Yuan Zhiming, Dr, 164–5
Yugoslavia, 146
Yunnan province, 67, 110–11, 216–17, 240–1, 284–5; WIV-EcoHealth Alliance team in, 118–22, 123, 125–6, 127 see also Mojiang copper mine, Yunnan
Zaki, Dr Ali Mohamed, 78–9
Zhan, Dr Shing Hei, 2–3, 95–9, 100
Zhang Jixian, Dr, 50, 51, 55, 56
Zhang Yongzhen, Dr, 59–61, 62, 124, 126, 203, 223–4
Zhang Zhan, 309
Zhao Lijian, 251
Zhejiang province, 126–7, 198, 200
Zhong Nanshan, Dr, 10–11, 17, 18
Zhou Xianwang, 63
zoonosis: bats as source of, 35, 37–8, 43, 65–7, 73, 79, 81–2, 111, 114–16, 117–29, 131, 216–20; source of SARS epidemic (2002–3), 51, 69, 70–1, 73–8, 82, 84–5, 96–7, 116, 125–6, 192, 260, 272, 273, 281–2; viruses stemming from, 5–6, 65–7, 73–82, 84–5, 96–7, 111, 114–16, 117–19