1755
Born January 11 in the British West Indies, probably on the island of Nevis, the second child of Rachel Faucett Lavien and James Hamilton. (Father was born c. 1718 in Scotland, the fourth son of Alexander Hamilton, Laird of Grange in Ayrshire, and his wife, Elizabeth, and went to the West Indies after 1741 to seek his fortune. Mother was born c. 1729 on Nevis, the daughter of John Faucett, a physician and planter of Huguenot descent, and his wife, Mary. She married Johann Michael Lavien, a merchant and planter, on St. Croix in the Danish West Indies around 1745, and their son, Peter, was born in 1746. The marriage was unhappy, and in 1750 Rachel left her husband and son. By 1752 she was living out of wedlock with James Hamilton, possibly on St. Kitts. Their first child, James, was born in 1753. Alexander Hamilton apparently believed he had been born in 1757, but the year 1755 is supported by a 1768 probate document.)
1759
Johann Michael Lavien obtains divorce that forbids Rachel from remarrying.
1765
Family moves to St. Croix. Father leaves family and never returns. Mother opens small store in Christiansted selling provisions and plantation supplies.
1768
Mother falls ill with fever and dies on February 19. Peter Lavien, her sole legitimate child, inherits her entire estate. Hamilton becomes clerk in the mercantile firm of Beekman & Cruger, while brother James is apprenticed to a carpenter.
1772
Letter by Hamilton describing hurricane is published in the St. Croix Royal Danish American Gazette on October 3. Hugh Knox, minister of the Presbyterian church in Christiansted, collects funds to send Hamilton to the North American mainland for an education. Hamilton sails to Boston and then travels to New York, carrying letters of introduction from Knox. Sponsored by William Livingston and Elias Boudinot, both successful attorneys and acquaintances of Knox, Hamilton begins study of Latin and Greek at Presbyterian academy taught by Francis Barber in Elizabethtown, New Jersey, where Livingston and Boudinot live.
1773
Requests entrance to the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) with permission to advance as quickly as he can work, but his request is denied by the trustees. Enters King’s College (now Columbia) in New York City as a special student. Lodges in a room at the college with Robert Troup, who becomes a lifelong friend. Through the Livingston family, meets New York attorney John Jay.
1774
Formally enters King’s College. Studies Latin, Greek, anatomy, and mathematics. Forms a writing and debating society with friends. In response to a pamphlet by leading New York Loyalist Samuel Seabury, Hamilton writes A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress, pamphlet published December 15.
1775
After Seabury responds to A Full Vindication, Hamilton counters with pamphlet The Farmer Refuted, published on February 23. Helps protect Myles Cooper, the Loyalist president of King’s College, from a patriotic mob on May 10. Studies gunnery and joins New York provincial militia, attending daily drill sessions. Publishes letters in Rivington’s New-York Gazetteer, June 15 and June 22, criticizing the Quebec Act of 1774 for establishing “arbitrary power” and the Roman Catholic Church in the province. Sees action for the first time, August 23–24, when he comes under fire from a British warship in New York harbor while helping to remove cannon from the Battery.
1776
New York Provincial Congress orders the organization of an artillery company, and on March 14 Hamilton is appointed its commander with rank of captain. Leaves King’s College without obtaining a degree. Spends months equipping and drilling his company, which is assigned to fortifications in New York City. Retreats with his company to Harlem Heights in northern Manhattan on September 15 after the British land at Kips Bay. Company withdraws with Continental army to White Plains in October and is sent to Hackensack, New Jersey, in November. Helps cover withdrawal from New Brunswick on December 1 during American retreat across New Jersey, and participates in Washington’s surprise attack on the Hessians at Trenton on December 26.
1777
Fights in battle of Princeton, January 3. Becomes an aide-de-camp to George Washington, with rank of lieutenant colonel in the Continental army, on March 1, a position he holds until 1781. During this period Hamilton keeps close company with Washington at headquarters and in the field, drafts hundreds of letters for him on political, military, and diplomatic subjects, and frequently serves as his emissary. From March 20 to September 1, Hamilton also writes regular military reports to the committee of correspondence of the New York Provincial Convention. Becomes friends with the Marquis de Lafayette when Lafayette joins Washington’s staff as a volunteer in August. Serves in the field with Washington during American defeat at Brandywine Creek, Pennsylvania, on September 11. After narrowly escaping from a British cavalry patrol along the Schuylkill River on September 18, sends message warning the Continental Congress to leave Philadelphia (Congress flees to York, Pennsylvania, and the British occupy Philadelphia on September 26). Serves with Washington during unsuccessful American attack at Germantown, Pennsylvania, on October 4. Travels to Albany, New York, in November to obtain reinforcements from the command of General Horatio Gates. Returns to Pennsylvania and spends winter with the army at Valley Forge.
1778
Drafts report for Washington to the Continental Congress on reorganization of the army in January. Continental army leaves Valley Forge on June 19 after British evacuate Philadelphia. Hamilton gathers intelligence and helps coordinate troop movements as Washington pursues British army across New Jersey. Sees action at battle of Monmouth Court House on June 28. Criticizes conduct of General Charles Lee in the battle and testifies on July 4 and July 13 as a prosecution witness at Lee’s court-martial for insubordination. Publishes three letters signed “Publius” in the New-York Journal, October 19–November 16, attacking Samuel Chase, a Maryland delegate to Congress, for using official information to speculate in the flour market. In December Hamilton’s friend and fellow aide John Laurens challenges Charles Lee to a duel over Lee’s slurs against Washington. Hamilton acts as Laurens’s second in the duel, fought on December 23, in which Laurens wounds Lee.
1779
Spends most of winter and spring at army headquarters in Middlebrook, New Jersey. Helps prepare English version of manual by Friedrich von Steuben, inspector general of the Continental army, on army regulations, drill, and tactics. Writes to John Jay, now the president of Congress, in support of John Laurens’s plan to arm slaves in South Carolina. In summer, moves with headquarters to New Windsor and West Point, New York. Engages in heated exchange of correspondence with the Rev. William Gordon, a Massachusetts clergyman whom Hamilton accuses of defaming him by spreading a rumor that he had called for the overthrow of Congress. Spends winter at headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey.
1780
Asks Washington for a field command in January, but request is denied. Begins courtship of Elizabeth Schuyler, born 1757, the daughter of wealthy New York landowner General Philip Schuyler, during her visit to Morristown. Assists Washington in his efforts to obtain sufficient men, supplies, and funds from Congress and the states. Spends summer at headquarters in northeastern New Jersey. Writes long letter to his friend James Duane, a New York delegate to Congress, on September 3, proposing a series of political and financial measures for strengthening the central government, including organizing a national bank and calling a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. Continues to seek a field command without success. Accompanies Washington on inspection of West Point, September 25, during which the treachery of Benedict Arnold is uncovered. Hamilton is sympathetic toward Major John André, the British officer captured in civilian disguise after meeting with Arnold, and supports André’s request to Washington for an honorable execution by firing squad; Washington refuses, and André is hanged. Hamilton and Elizabeth Schuyler marry on December 14 at the Schuyler home in Albany.
1781
Returns to headquarters at New Windsor, New York, in January. Resigns staff position during a dispute with Washington on February 16. Refuses Washington’s offer of reconciliation, but remains at headquarters until late April waiting for a replacement to be found. On April 30 writes lengthy letter to Robert Morris, the recently appointed superintendent of finance, detailing plan for restoring public credit. Publishes first of six “Continentalist” essays, advocating a broad interpretation of the powers given to Congress under the Articles of Confederation, in the New-York Packet on July 12 (series runs until July 4, 1782). Appointed commander of a New York light infantry battalion, July 31, and joins siege of Yorktown in late September. Leads successful night assault on British redoubt on October 14. Returns to Schuyler home in Albany soon after the British surrender on October 19. Leaves active service in the army while retaining his commission.
1782
First child, Philip, is born January 22. Begins intensive study of the law, making comprehensive and methodical notes (his notes will form the basis for New York Supreme Court Practice, a manual published by William Wyche in 1794). Although legal study in New York usually requires a three-year clerkship, Hamilton takes advantage of a temporary suspension of the rule for army veterans and is admitted to practice before the state supreme court in July. Appointed receiver of Continental taxes for New York on July 2 by Robert Morris. On July 21, New York legislature adopts resolutions, probably drafted by Hamilton, calling for a general convention to revise the Articles of Confederation (the first such call made by a public body). Appointed as a delegate to Congress by the state legislature on July 22. Writes detailed letter to Morris in August on economic and political situation in New York State. Serves as receiver through the end of October. Travels to Philadelphia and takes his seat in Congress on November 25. Works with Virginia delegate James Madison on measures for raising funds to pay the army and the public creditors.
1783
Writes to Washington on February 13 suggesting that the growing discontent in the army be used to pressure Congress and the states into adopting new revenue measures. Praises Washington in March when he acts decisively to stop a possible mutiny by officers camped at Newburgh, New York. Takes active role in committees of Congress concerned with military and foreign affairs. Congress ratifies peace treaty with Britain on April 15. Hamilton votes against series of revenue measures proposed to the states by Congress on April 18, believing them to be insufficient. Serves on committee that confers with Pennsylvania executive council during mutiny by unpaid Pennsylvania soldiers in late June. After soldiers surround building where Congress is meeting on June 21, the delegates leave Philadelphia and reconvene in Princeton. Hamilton drafts resolution calling for a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation, but does not submit it to Congress “for want of support.” Leaves Congress in late July and returns to Albany in August. Becomes active member of the Society of the Cincinnati, an order formed by Continental army officers that draws criticism for plans to make its membership hereditary. Settles family in New York City in November, establishing his home and law offices at 57 Wall Street.
1784
Publishes two pamphlets under the name “Phocion” in January and April remonstrating against state legislative acts punishing Loyalists. Drafts constitution of the Bank of New York in early March and becomes a member of its board of directors. Appears for the defendant before the mayor’s court of New York on June 29 in Rutgers v. Waddington, lawsuit brought under the 1783 Trespass Act by an elderly widow against a British merchant for damages to her brewery during the British occupation of New York City. Hamilton argues that the Trespass Act, a state law, violates the law of nations and the 1783 peace treaty with Britain and therefore should be held void. In August the court issues a ruling limiting the defendant’s liability and accepts one of Hamilton’s arguments, holding that the Trespass Act must be interpreted in accordance with the powers given to occupying armies under the law of nations. Second child, Angelica, is born September 25.
1785
Dedicates most of his time to building his law practice; continues to represent British subjects and Loyalists sued under the Trespass Act. Helps organize Society for Promoting the Manumission of Slaves in February. Receives rare letter from his brother James and lends him £50. (Evidence indicates that James died in the West Indies in 1785 or 1786.)
1786
Elected in April to the New York assembly for one-year term beginning in 1787. Appointed by New York legislature on May 5 as delegate to conference on interstate commerce. Third child, Alexander, born May 16. Convention in Annapolis, September 11–14, is attended by only twelve delegates from five states; before adjourning, it unanimously adopts resolution, drafted by Hamilton, proposing that a general convention meet in Philadelphia in May 1787 to consider constitutional changes.
1787
Takes seat in the assembly in January. Unsuccessfully attempts to win approval for measure granting Congress the power to levy a 5 percent tax on imports. Appointed by the legislature on March 6 as a delegate to the Philadelphia convention along with Robert Yates and Robert Lansing Jr., who oppose creating a stronger central government. Takes seat in the convention, May 18. Convention achieves quorum on May 25 and adopts rule giving each state delegation one vote; outnumbered by Yates and Lansing, Hamilton is unable to give voting support to proposals he favors. Delivers lengthy speech on June 18 praising the British system of government and outlining plan for an elected government modeled on it. (Although proceedings of convention are secret, reports of the speech will cause opponents to denounce Hamilton as a monarchist for the rest of his life.) Leaves Philadelphia after June 29 session to tend to his legal practice in New York; will sporadically attend convention during July and August. Publishes unsigned letter in the New York Daily Advertiser, July 21, attacking New York governor George Clinton for opposing the convention. Resumes regular attendance in the convention, September 6, and signs the finished Constitution on September 17. Publishes first number of The Federalist, essay series advocating ratification of the Constitution, in the New York Independent Journal on October 27. (Hamilton eventually writes 51 of the 85 Federalist essays, with James Madison contributing 29 and John Jay 5; all appear under the name “Publius” and are published several times a week in different New York newspapers over the next five months.) Becomes a trustee of Columbia College (formerly King’s College).
1788
Elected by New York legislature as a delegate to Congress, January 22, and takes his seat on February 25; attends sporadically because of his involvement in ratification struggle and the demands of his legal practice. First 36 Federalist essays are published in book form on March 22 by John and Archibald McLean in New York. Corresponds regularly with Madison, who has returned to Virginia to attend its ratifying convention. Fourth child, James Alexander, born April 14. Elected as delegate to the New York ratifying convention on April 29. Remaining 49 Federalist essays, including eight that had not appeared in newspapers, are published by McLean in second volume on May 28. New York convention opens in Poughkeepsie on June 17 with Antifederalists (opponents of ratification) in the majority. Hamilton takes leading role in the debates, engaging in extended exchanges with prominent Antifederalist Melancton Smith. Federalist position is strengthened when express rider brings news on July 2 that Virginia has become the tenth state to ratify. Debate shifts to possible forms of ratification; Hamilton strongly opposes suggestions by some Antifederalists that New York should conditionally ratify the Constitution. On July 26 convention approves, 30–27, an unconditional ratification that includes recommendations for amendments. Hamilton attends Congress for the last time on October 10.
1789
Hoping to defeat Governor George Clinton, who continues to oppose the new federal government, Hamilton becomes chairman on February 11 of committee of correspondence supporting candidacy of Robert Yates. Writes public letters on behalf of Yates, as well as 16 “H.G.” letters attacking Clinton that appear in newspapers from February 20 to April 9. Supports candidacy of John Laurance, a Federalist who is elected to the new House of Representatives on March 4. Clinton wins reelection as governor on April 28. Washington is inaugurated as president on April 30. In response to a request for advice from Washington, Hamilton counsels him to adopt as much formality in presidential etiquette as public sentiment will allow. Hamilton alienates powerful Livingston family by supporting election of Rufus King to the U.S. Senate from New York over James Duane. Washington signs bill establishing Treasury Department, September 2, and nominates Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury on September 11; he is confirmed by the Senate on the same day. House of Representatives directs Hamilton on September 21 to submit a plan for the support of the public credit when Congress reconvenes in January 1790. Hamilton works to organize chaotic national finances, collecting information, seeking advice, establishing standard forms and procedures, and commencing regular correspondence with Treasury employees throughout the nation. In October, begins series of conversations with Major George Beckwith, unofficial British minister to the United States, with the aim of improving Anglo-American trade relations.
1790
Submits report on public credit on January 14, asserting that a well-financed national debt will stimulate the economy and strengthen the Union. Report calls for funding the $54 million national debt and for federal assumption of $25 million of state debts incurred during the Revolutionary War; holders of depreciated Continental securities would be allowed to exchange them for new bonds at face value, and import and excise taxes would provide revenue for paying interest on the debt. Plan proves highly controversial and is opposed in the House by Madison, who favors discrimination between the original holders of securities and those who later purchased them at depreciated prices, and who believes the plan for assuming state debts is unfair to Virginia and other states that have already paid much of their war debt. House votes against discrimination, 36–13, on February 22, but defeats assumption measure, 31–29, on April 12, and sends bill for funding the debt to the Senate on June 2. In late June Hamilton, Madison, and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson agree that in exchange for southern support of assumption, northern members of Congress will vote for locating the national capital in Philadelphia for ten years and then permanently establishing it along the Potomac River in 1800. Bills for national assumption of state debts and the location of the capital pass the House by narrow margins in July after being approved by the Senate. Hamilton resumes meetings with Beckwith in July, reporting regularly to Washington and Jefferson on their conversations. Moves with Elizabeth and their four children to Philadelphia in November. Advises Washington on his second annual message to Congress. Proposes series of excise taxes on spirits in report to the House on December 13 (taxes are approved by Congress, January–February 1791). Submits report to the House on December 14 calling for the chartering of a national bank, which he argues will increase the circulation of currency, encourage investment, and facilitate the financial operations of the national government.
1791
Bill chartering Bank of the United States passes Senate on January 20 and is sent to the House. Hamilton submits report on establishing a national mint to the House on January 28 (mint is established by Congress in April 1792). Madison opposes bank bill, arguing that the Constitution does not give Congress the power to charter a corporation, but it is approved by the House, 39–20, on February 8. Upon receiving the bill, Washington seeks written opinions from Attorney General Edmund Randolph and Jefferson, who agree with Madison that the measure is unconstitutional. Washington submits both opinions to Hamilton on February 16 and asks for a response. Hamilton replies on February 23 with a lengthy treatise arguing that the Constitution gives Congress implied powers and that incorporation of a bank is a “necessary and proper” means of attaining constitutional ends. Washington signs bill on February 25. During the summer, while Elizabeth and the children are at the Schuyler home in Albany, Hamilton is called on by Maria Reynolds, a woman who claims to have been abandoned by her husband and who asks him for financial assistance; they quickly begin an adulterous affair. Helps establish the Society for Useful Manufactures, corporation sponsoring an experimental industrial site in Paterson, New Jersey, that soon sells $600,000 worth of stock. After a year of preparation, Hamilton submits a report on manufactures to the House on December 5. The report advocates making manufacturing a major part of the American economy and proposes to encourage industrial development by government subsidies and protective tariffs, citing the “general welfare” clause of the Constitution to justify public spending in support of manufacturing. Plan is opposed on constitutional and economic grounds and is not acted upon by Congress. Hamilton begins series of conversations with George Hammond, the newly arrived British minister to the United States, hoping to make progress toward negotiating an Anglo-American commercial treaty. Begins making blackmail payments to James Reynolds, Maria’s husband.
1792
National Gazette, newspaper founded in 1791 by Philip Freneau with support from Madison and Jefferson, begins printing attacks on Hamilton in March as his policies face increasing opposition in Congress. Hamilton helps contain financial panic caused by bankruptcy in early March of William Duer, governor of the Society for Useful Manufactures and a major speculator in bank stocks and government securities. Ends affair with Maria Reynolds. Launches extensive newspaper campaign, publishing twenty essays under nine different pseudonyms between July 25 and December 22, in which he defends his policies and accuses Jefferson of hiring Freneau as a State Department translator in order to sponsor his partisan editorship of the National Gazette. Urges Washington to serve for a second term. At the President’s request, sends Washington a lengthy defense of his principles and programs on August 18. Fifth child, John Church, is born on August 22. Controversy over Hamilton’s programs contributes to emergence of two political alliances, with Madison, Jefferson, and their supporters calling themselves Republicans, and Hamilton and his supporters calling themselves Federalists. Representatives Frederick Muhlenberg and Abraham Venable and Senator James Monroe question Hamilton on December 15 about his payments to James Reynolds, who has accused Hamilton of having used him to illicitly speculate in Treasury funds; in a meeting at his home, Hamilton confesses to his adulterous affair and to the blackmail he has been paying out of his own funds. Muhlenberg, Venable, and Monroe pledge to keep the matter secret.
1793
On January 23 Representative William Branch Giles of Virginia submits five resolutions to the House questioning Hamilton’s management of foreign loans. Although Republicans expect that he will be unable to respond before adjournment of Congress on March 3, Hamilton submits several lengthy and detailed reports by February 19. Giles then introduces nine resolutions, drafted by Jefferson, condemning Hamilton’s conduct; all nine are defeated on March 1. After learning of France’s declaration of war on Great Britain, Washington issues proclamation of neutrality on April 22 while deciding to maintain the 1778 treaty of alliance with France. Hamilton informs Washington on June 21 that he intends to resign at the close of the next congressional session in June 1794. When neutrality proclamation is criticized by Republicans on constitutional grounds, Hamilton publishes seven “Pacificus” essays in the Gazette of the United States, June 29–July 27, defending presidential power to declare neutrality and interpret treaties. Continues newspaper campaign with nine “No Jacobin” essays, July 31–August 28, criticizing French envoy Edmond Genet for failing to respect the neutrality proclamation. At the urging of Jefferson, Madison responds to “Pacificus” with five “Helvidius” essays, published in the National Gazette between August 24 and September 18, arguing that Congress has the constitutional power to declare neutrality and interpret treaties. In early September Hamilton and Elizabeth contract yellow fever during epidemic in Philadelphia; they send their children to the Schuyler home in Albany and join them there after their recovery. Hamilton returns to Philadelphia on October 23. Seeking official exoneration, Hamilton submits request to the House on December 16 for a formal inquiry into his conduct as Secretary of the Treasury. Jefferson resigns as Secretary of State on December 31.
1794
Hamilton publishes two “Americanus” essays criticizing France and its American supporters in Dunlap and Claypoole’s American Daily Advertiser on January 31 and February 7. Meets sporadically with the House select committee appointed on February 24 to investigate him. News in March of the British capture of more than 250 American merchant ships trading with the French West Indies causes crisis in Anglo-American relations. Hamilton urges Washington to send John Jay to Britain as a special envoy and, after Jay is appointed on April 16, helps draft his instructions. House committee issues report favorable to Hamilton on May 22. Citing the continuing threat of war with Britain, Hamilton informs Washington on May 27 that he will postpone his resignation. Resistance to excise tax on whiskey leads to violence against federal officials in western Pennsylvania during summer. Hamilton calls for use of force to restore order and publishes four “Tully” essays, August 23–September 2, denouncing the insurgents. Helps organize military expedition against the “Whiskey Rebellion” and accompanies Washington when the President leaves Philadelphia on September 30 to take command of an army of 12,000 militia. Remains in western Pennsylvania to interview witnesses and prisoners after the insurrection collapses and Washington returns to the capital in October. Returns to Philadelphia in late November and informs Washington on December 1 that he will resign in two months.
1795
Submits extensive report on the further support of public credit to the House on January 19, reviewing his fiscal program and proposing new measures for paying the national debt (most of his proposals become law on March 3). Resigns on January 31 and is succeeded by Oliver Wolcott Jr., who has served as the Comptroller of the Treasury since 1791. Departs for New York on February 17. Family spends March through June at Schuyler home in Albany before returning to New York City, where Hamilton resumes successful law practice (will also appear frequently before state courts in Albany). On June 24 the Senate ratifies Anglo-American treaty negotiated by Jay; its terms provide for British evacuation of frontier outposts in the Northwest Territory but contain few British concessions regarding American maritime rights or terms of Anglo-American commerce. Treaty is published on July 1 and is widely attacked. Hamilton sends Washington a lengthy memorandum urging him to sign the treaty despite its shortcomings (President signs treaty on August 18). Attempts to defend treaty at public meeting in New York City on July 18 but is shouted down by hostile crowd and possibly struck by thrown stones. Quarrels with New York Republicans James Nicholson and Maturin Livingston while leaving meeting and challenges them to duels; disputes are resolved peacefully. Writing as “Camillus,” begins “The Defence,” series of newspaper essays in support of the Jay Treaty, on July 22. (Series runs until January 9, 1796, with Hamilton writing 28 and Rufus King 10 of its 38 essays.) Continues to advise Washington on foreign and domestic matters and outlines the President’s annual message to Congress. On November 20, publishes lengthy response in the Daily Advertiser to charges that Washington has habitually overdrawn his presidential salary.
1796
Appears for the government before the U.S. Supreme Court in Hylton v. United States, defending the constitutionality of a federal tax on carriages by arguing that it is not a “direct tax” and thus does not have to be apportioned by population. Court upholds the tax on March 8, ruling for the first time on the constitutionality of an act of Congress and accepting Hamilton’s broad construction of congressional taxing power. After suffering major financial losses, the Society for Useful Manufactures collapses. Hamilton works closely with Washington during the spring and summer on successive drafts of the President’s farewell address, which is published on September 19. Continues to advise Washington and drafts his annual message to Congress in November. Writes private letters urging Federalists to support John Adams and Thomas Pinckney equally in the presidential election. Campaigns extensively for James Watson, the unsuccessful Federalist candidate for Congress from New York City. Adams is elected president with 71 electoral votes, and Jefferson, the Republican candidate, is elected vice-president with 68 electoral votes.
1797
Writing as “Americus” in the Gazette of the United States, January 27–March 27, Hamilton publishes “The Warning,” series of six essays denouncing French seizures of American ships trading with Britain. Adams retains Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, Secretary of War James McHenry, and Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott Jr. from the Washington administration; the three cabinet secretaries continually seek advice from Hamilton, who corresponds with them on a regular basis. James Callender, a Philadelphia journalist, publishes pamphlets in June and July accusing Hamilton of having used James Reynolds to speculate in public funds and having falsely confessed to having had an affair with Maria Reynolds when he was questioned by Monroe, Muhlenberg, and Venable in 1792. Hamilton asks the three men to deny publicly Callender’s charges, affirm their belief in the explanation he gave them in 1792, and offer assurances that they are not the source of documents quoted by Callender. Angry conversation between Hamilton and Monroe regarding Reynolds scandal on July 11 almost results in a duel. Sixth child, William Stephen, born August 4. Hamilton publishes pamphlet Observations on Certain Documents . . . in which the Charge of the Speculation against Alexander Hamilton, late Secretary of the Treasury, is Fully Refuted on August 25, in which he makes a detailed confession regarding his adulterous affair with Maria Reynolds. Remains engaged with his busy law practice throughout the scandal.
1798
Elected a counselor to the New York Society for Promoting the Manumission of Slaves on January 16. Continues correspondence with McHenry, Pickering, and Wolcott as Franco-American relations worsen; Hamilton opposes declaration of war while calling for expanding the army and navy. Writing as “Titus Manlius,” publishes “The Stand,” series of seven newspaper essays decrying French aggression in Europe, continued French depredation of American shipping, and attempts by the French Directory to extort bribes from American envoys John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in the “XYZ Affair.” John Jay, now governor of New York, asks Hamilton to accept appointment to vacant seat in the U.S. Senate, but Hamilton declines on April 24, declaring his unwillingness to sacrifice family interests yet again. Adams administration begins an undeclared naval war against France during the summer, and Adams commissions Washington as commander in chief of an expanded army on July 4. Washington insists upon having Hamilton serve as inspector general of the army, and he is appointed to the position on July 25 with rank of major general. Hamilton begins working on army administration, seeking references on extensive lists of potential officers and revising standing regulations regarding recruitment, tactics, and discipline. Supervises fortification of New York City for both the state and federal governments. After prolonged dispute regarding his rank relative to Henry Knox and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Adams reluctantly appoints Hamilton as second in command of the army on October 15. Hamilton struggles to maintain his law practice while awaiting compensation for his military service. Contemplates using army to seize Florida and Louisiana from Spain (a French ally).
1799
Alarmed by the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions declaring the federal Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional, writes letter to Federalist senator Theodore Sedgwick proposing sending federal troops to Virginia to suppress resistance to national authority. Continues reorganization of the army, appointing officers, designing and procuring uniforms, and collecting information regarding fortifications and weapons. Father dies on island of St. Vincent in the West Indies sometime during the year. During a heated conference with Adams at Trenton, New Jersey, in early October, Hamilton objects to the President’s decision to send a new diplomatic mission to France. Asks New York state authorities to bring libel prosecution against David Frothingham, printer of The Argus, or Greenleaf’s New Daily Advertiser of New York, for publishing allegation that Hamilton had used British secret service money in attempt to suppress the Aurora, an anti-administration newspaper. (Frothingham is convicted in November 1799 and jailed for four months.) Seventh child, Eliza, born November 20. Hamilton drafts plan for a national military academy. Washington dies on December 14.
1800
Adams refuses to promote Hamilton to commander in chief of the army, leaving the post unfilled. Hamilton continues to attend to both army administration and his law practice. Joins with Aaron Burr and Brockholst Livingston in April to successfully defend Levi Weeks in a sensational murder case in New York City. Hamilton is chosen to succeed Washington as president general of the Society of the Cincinnati. After Republicans win New York state elections and secure control of the new state legislature, which will choose presidential electors in the fall, Hamilton writes John Jay on May 7, proposing that he call the existing legislature into session and have the method of choosing electors changed to popular voting by district; Jay refuses. In May Adams demands the resignation of McHenry and dismisses Pickering, accusing them of being subservient to Hamilton, and orders demobilization of the “Additional Army” created in 1798. Hamilton takes military inspection trip through Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, June 7–30, during which he meets with leading Federalists and urges them to support Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for the presidency over Adams. Military service ends on June 15 with demobilization of the “Additional Army.” Begins constructing country house in upper Manhattan about nine miles north of New York City and names it “The Grange,” after the ancestral Hamilton family home in Scotland and his uncle’s estate in St. Croix. Writes letters in support of Pinckney and collects material for a pamphlet, which he plans to circulate privately among Federalists, describing Adams as unfit for the presidency. After Republican newspapers obtain copies of Hamilton’s pamphlet attack on Adams, it is published on October 24, dividing the Federalists and seriously damaging Hamilton’s political influence and reputation. Voting in electoral college results in tie between Republican candidates Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, forcing the presidential election into the Federalist-controlled House of Representatives. Hamilton writes series of letters urging Federalists to support Jefferson over Burr.
1801
House begins voting on February 11 and remains deadlocked until February 17, when Jefferson is elected president and Burr vice-president on the 36th ballot. Hamilton writes pamphlet and makes campaign speeches in support of Stephen Van Rensselaer, the Federalist candidate for governor. Burr campaigns for George Clinton, who wins the election in late April. In the fall Hamilton helps found the New-York Evening Post, which publishes its first number on November 16. Eldest son, Philip, age 19, is mortally wounded in duel fought on November 23 with George Eacker, a Republican attorney who had criticized Hamilton’s policies in a Fourth of July oration, and dies on November 24 with Hamilton at his bedside. Writing as “Lucius Crassus,” Hamilton begins “The Examination,” series attacking the Jefferson administration in the New-York Evening Post on December 17 (last of eighteen articles appears on April 18, 1802).
1802
Drafts resolution calling for a constitutional amendment providing for separate balloting by electors for president and vice-president and requiring that electors be chosen by popular vote in districts established by Congress. Resolution is adopted by New York state legislature and presented to the House of Representatives in February. (Provision for separate balloting becomes part of the Twelfth Amendment, ratified on September 25, 1804.) In February Hamilton secures adoption by the New York City bar and chamber of commerce of memorials protesting Republican effort to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801 that enlarged and reorganized the federal court system (repeal measure becomes law on March 8). Advocates changes in Federalist political methods to better attract popular support, but his proposals are largely ignored by other Federalist leaders. Campaigns in April for Federalist candidates for the state senate and the House of Representatives. Eighth child is born on June 2 and named Philip. Family moves into “The Grange” in late summer.
1803
Hamilton helps found Merchants’ Bank in New York City in April. Campaigns for Federalist candidates for the state legislature. Publishes unsigned article in the New-York Evening Post on July 5 supporting the Louisiana Purchase. Continues to dedicate most of his time to his legal practice.
1804
Appears before the New York supreme court in February as counsel for Harry Croswell, who had been convicted in 1803 of libeling President Jefferson in his newspaper The Wasp. Hamilton argues that in the interest of protecting freedom of the press, defendants in libel cases should be allowed to offer the truth of their statements as a defense. Although the court refuses to grant Croswell a new trial, the state legislature begins revision of the libel law to allow truth to be admitted as a defense (new law is passed on April 6, 1805). Rival Republican factions nominate Burr and Morgan Lewis, chief justice of the state supreme court, to run for governor after George Clinton declines to seek reelection. Alarmed by support for Burr among Federalists, Hamilton denounces him in writing and in person during the campaign. Burr carries New York City in voting at the end of April but loses election statewide. On June 18 Burr writes to Hamilton demanding an explanation for a letter printed in the Albany Register in which Hamilton was reported to have declared Burr to be “a dangerous man” and to have expressed “a still more despicable opinion” of him. After nine days of negotiation, Burr challenges Hamilton on June 27 and Hamilton accepts. In duel fought at Weehawken, New Jersey, on the morning of July 11, Hamilton is struck by pistol ball that perforates his liver before lodging in his spine. Brought back across the river to the house of a friend in Greenwich Village, he sees his wife and children and receives communion from an Episcopal bishop while suffering intense pain. Dies at 2 P.M. on July 12. After a large public funeral procession on July 14, Hamilton is buried in the yard of Trinity Church in lower Manhattan.