SPECIES PROFILES
Lion
Panthera leo
Size
The second largest cat species and largest African carnivore. The most sexually dimorphic African felid.
Females: up to 160 kg, average 120–130 kg; 110 cm at shoulder, total length up to 275 cm.
Males: up to 260 kg, average 180–190 kg; 120 cm at shoulder, total length up to 330 cm.
Longevity
Males usually no more than 12 years. Females usually 13–15 years, occasionally up to 18 through the support of the pride. In captivity, lions live to 30 years.
Habitat associations
Broad habitat tolerance; optimum habitat is open woodland and thick scrub-grassland mosaics. Inhabits very arid areas such as the Kalahari Desert and Kunene region in north-west Namibia but absent from driest areas. Recorded up to 4 240 m in Ethiopia’s Bale Mountains (transient), and formerly occurred in the Atlas Mountains of North Africa. Naturally absent only from tropical rainforest and the interior of major deserts. Outside Africa, restricted to a single population (estimated around 300) in India’s Gir Forest.
Feeding ecology
A generalist that kills essentially everything it encounters, but diet is dominated by locally abundant medium to large herbivores, 60–320 kg: wildebeest, zebra and buffalo in much of East and southern Africa, nyala, wildebeest and warthog in northern KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), and springbok in Etosha National Park (Namibia). Gemsbok, impala, kob, kudu and waterbuck also regionally important. Only adult elephants are invulnerable to lion predation. Occasionally kills people. Readily scavenges and frequently appropriates the kills of other predators.
Social organisation
The only communal living cat. Prides consist of up to 20 (but usually 4–11) related females and 1–9 males (but usually 2–5). Pride size including large cubs exceptionally reaches 45–50 (Masai Mara, Kenya). Female membership of the pride is stable but all pride members are together only rarely; small sub-groups spend considerable time apart within the home range. Male coalitions usually comprise related males, but around a third of Serengeti coalitions have at least one unrelated member. Serengeti pride home range size averages 65 km2 (woodlands) to 184 km2 (grasslands); largest recorded range size is 3 438 km2 from Kunene (Namibia).
Reproduction
Gestation 98–115 days (mean 110 days). Litter size up to 7 cubs, usually 2–4. Lionesses can conceive around 30–36 months, age at first breeding usually 42–48 months. Males are sexually mature at 26 months, but rarely acquire breeding opportunities until about age 5. Oestrus lasts 4 days on average with 14–21 day cycles. Average inter-litter interval 20–24 months. No specific birth season. Cubs capable of hunting independently at around 16–18 months but females usually stay with the pride; males leave between 25–48 months.
Threats and status
Conservation-dependent. Incompatible with human activities particularly keeping livestock; persecuted relentlessly by livestock owners, and official destruction of ‘problem’ animals is widespread. Vulnerable to poisoned baits due to their willingness to scavenge. Becoming increasingly rare outside protected areas and ultimately may persist only in reserves. Genetic impoverishment of small and isolated populations possibly leads to declines and vulnerability to disease. Listed as CITES Appendix II permitting ‘controlled trade’ mainly of hunting trophies and some live animals. Trophy hunting permitted in 13 range states, chiefly Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Zambia. On average, around 680 trophies exported annually. CITES Appendix II (in Africa), IUCN Red List Vulnerable (2002).
Leopard
Panthera pardus
Size
Very wide variation across its range, probably related to differences in climatic conditions and productivity of different habitats. Savanna and woodland leopards are generally largest, while mountain and desert animals tend to be smaller.
Females: 17–58 kg; 57–64 cm at shoulder, total length 1.7–1.9 m.
Males: up to 91 kg, average 31–65 kg; 60–80 cm at shoulder, total length 1.6–2.3 m.
Longevity
Up to 23 years in captivity but typically 10–12 in the wild. Oldest wild female on record died at 17 (Londolozi Game Reserve, South Africa).
Habitat associations
Very wide habitat tolerance; the only African cat occupying both rainforest and desert. Reaches highest densities in mesic woodland, grassland savanna and forest but also widespread in mountain habitats, scrub, semi-desert and desert. Absent from the open interiors of true desert but inhabits watercourses and rocky massifs in very arid areas. Tolerates some habitat conversion and persists in reduced densities close to large human populations. Recorded exceptionally up to 5 638 m (Mt Kilimanjaro). Widespread outside Africa throughout tropical and temperate Asia.
Feeding ecology
Extremely catholic diet; at least 100 species recorded in sub-Saharan Africa ranging from arthropods to adult male elands, but preferred prey is medium-sized ungulates weighing 20–80 kg. Capable of ‘prey-switching’ when medium-sized ungulates are unavailable; for example, to small antelopes and/or hyraxes in north-eastern Namibia, Western Cape (South Africa), Matopos Hills (Zimbabwe) and Mount Kenya (Kenya). Primates are prominent in rainforest leopard diet. Occasionally preys upon people and readily takes livestock, particularly where natural prey is depleted. A consummate stalk and ambush hunter, approaching prey as closely as possible for a final rush from as close as 4–5 m. Capable of explosive speed for a short distance but rarely pursues prey further than 50 m if the initial rush fails. Foraging is mainly nocturnal/crepuscular; most daylight hunts are unsuccessful. Capable of hoisting kills up to 125 kg into trees. Typically plucks fur prior to feeding, usually starting at underbelly or hind legs. Occasionally cannibalistic, and scavenges.
Social organisation
Solitary and territorial, adults defend core area against same-sex conspecifics but tolerate considerable range overlap at range edges. Males interact with ‘their’ females and cubs often but never as long-term associations. Territory size varies from 5.6 km2 (female, Kenya) to 2 750.1 km2 (male, Kalahari). Mean range size for mesic woodlands, savannas and rainforest averages 16–25 km2 for females and 52–136 km2 for males. Ranges are much larger in arid habitats; average in northern Namibia is 188.4 km2 (females) and 451.2 km2 (males); southern Kalahari, 488.7 km2 (females) and 2 321.5 km2 (males).
Reproduction
Gestation 90–105 days, litters normally 1–3 cubs, up to 6 recorded in captivity. Both sexes sexually mature at 24–28 months; age at first breeding, females 30–36 months, males 42–48 months. Oestrus lasts 7–14 days and occurs in approximately 45 day cycles. No specific birth season. Cubs independent at around 12 months, inter-litter interval 16–36 months. Both sexes breed until age 19 in captivity but do not survive to that age in the wild.
Threats and status
Habitat destruction and modification by humans is the main factor causing decline of leopards. Despite great resilience to human activity, direct persecution in areas of livestock farming may result in leopard densities as low as 0.01 per cent of that in protected areas. Thousands of leopards are killed continent-wide as ‘problem’ animals where they conflict with livestock farming. In intact rainforest, the chief threat is probably competition with human hunters for prey. Killed opportunistically for skins and claws, especially in West and Central Africa. Listed as CITES Appendix I, allowing 11 African countries to export sport hunting trophies, live animals and a small number of skins sold commercially: 2005 total quota 2 570. CITES Appendix I, IUCN Red List Least Concern (2002).
Cheetah
Acinonyx jubatus
Size
Females: 21–63 kg; 67–84 cm at shoulder, 174–236* cm nose to tail.
Males: 29–65 kg; 74–94 cm at shoulder, 172–224 cm nose to tail.
Longevity
Up to 17 years in captivity; Serengeti females average 6.2 years (maximum 13.5), males 5.3 years (maximum 9.3).
Habitat associations
Favours woodland savanna mosaics and open grassland. Occurs in arid areas including the Kalahari, Namib and Sahara, and recorded up to 1 500 m in the mountains of Ethiopia. Sparsely distributed in more humid miombo woodland of central southern Africa and absent from equatorial forest of Central and West Africa. Outside Africa, restricted to single population estimated at 50–60 adults in central Iran.
Feeding ecology
A specialist on small and medium-sized antelopes 20–60 kg such as impala and gazelles but male coalitions are capable of taking large prey such as adult wildebeest, gemsbok and hartebeest. Preferred prey species include Thomson’s gazelle (Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem), impala (Kruger National Park, South Africa), nyala (northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa), springbok (Kalahari, South Africa), kudu and eland calves (Namibia) and puku (Kafue, Zambia). Hares constitute important prey to Serengeti and Namibian cheetahs, and perhaps to marginal populations, for example, in Sahara and Egypt. Top recorded speed is 105 km/h but is probably able to reach 115–120 km/h at least briefly. Occasionally cannibalistic and rarely scavenges. Primarily diurnal, probably to increase visibility for high speed chases and to offset competition with nocturnal competitors such as lions and hyaenas.
Social organisation
Females solitary and non-territorial; occupy very large home ranges averaging 800 km2 (Serengeti) and 1 227 km2 (Namibia). Males form coalitions of 2–4 and establish territories where possible, average size 37.4 km2 in the Serengeti, 630.1 km2 in Namibia. Male coalitions are usually more successful than loners at territorial defence, single males are more likely to be nomadic. Non-resident males (‘floaters’) have larger home ranges, average 777 km2 in the Serengeti, 1 083 km2 in Namibia. Lifetime home ranges for Namibian cheetahs vary from 553.9 km2–7 063.3 km2 for females, and 119.6 km2 to 4 347.6 km2 for males.
Reproduction
Gestation: 90–98 days, litters average 3–4, exceptionally up to 9. Females can conceive from 24 months and first give birth on average at 2.4 years (Serengeti); males produce sperm from 12 months though rarely secure access to females before their third year. Oestrus lasts 7–14 days, with 10–21 day cycles (average 12 days). Breeds year round, though birth peaks have been reported in East Africa in the rainy season (Nov–May). Cubs gain independence from the mother at 12–20 months (average 18 months), inter-litter interval 20 months (Serengeti).
Threats and status
In terms of numbers, Africa’s most endangered large cat and extinct in Asia except for relict Iranian population. Persecuted in much of its range over conflict with livestock farming, despite the fact that it causes relatively minor damage. From 1980–1991, an estimated 10 000 cheetahs were removed from the wild Namibian population, most by killing on livestock farms as well as live captures for zoos. Also profoundly affected by degradation of habitat and reduction of prey species in pastoral areas. Eradication of prey particularly significant in North Africa and the Sahel where recreational hunting of desert antelopes is widespread, and cheetahs naturally occur in low densities. Hunting for skins may be a threat in areas where the cheetah is naturally rare, particularly north-east Africa and Sahel regions. Listed as CITES Appendix I, allowing four African countries to export sport hunting trophies, live animals and a small number of skins sold commercially: 2005 total quota 239. Trophy hunting permitted in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe. CITES Appendix I, IUCN Red List Vulnerable (2002).
Caracal
Felis caracal
Size
The largest of Africa’s smaller cats.
Females: up to 16 kg, average 8–10 kg; total length 100–120 cm.
Males: up to 20 kg, average 10–14 kg; total length 100–130 cm.
Longevity
Unknown from the wild; up to 19 years in captivity.
Habitat associations
Broad habitat tolerance, present in all habitat types except equatorial forest and deep interior of the Sahara. Prefers dry lowland habitats, including woodland savannas, grasslands, coastal scrub and semi-arid woodlands; most abundant in dry savannas of southern Africa. Recorded from evergreen and montane forest, and ranges up to 2 500 m (exceptionally 3 300 m). Widespread outside Africa throughout tropical and temperate Asia.
Feeding ecology
Versatile generalists, preying upon a wide variety of mainly vertebrate prey. Diet dominated by prey weighing less than 5 kg, especially small rodents, hyraxes, springhares, hares and birds, but capable of killing larger prey including adult bushbuck, grey rhebok, springbok and adult female impala. Capable of catching birds on the wing with extraordinary agility but not a bird specialist as popularly believed; in all studies, birds are secondary in importance to small mammals. Reptiles comprise 12–17 per cent of diet (West Coast National Park, South Africa); invertebrates and fish occasionally consumed. Scavenges. Sometimes recorded hoisting kills into trees (Kalahari).
Social organisation
Solitary and probably territorial with small female ranges and large male ranges. Sexes maintain home ranges which likely have exclusive core areas but overlap considerably at edges. Female territories in Eastern and Western Cape (South Africa), range between 3.9–26.7 km2; males 5.1– 65 km2. Mean range size of three males on north-central Namibian farmlands was 312.6 km2, and a single Kalahari adult male had a range of 308.4 km2 with a core area of 93.2 km2.
Reproduction
Gestation 68–81 days, litters average 2–3, exceptionally up to 6. Females sexually mature at 14–16 months, males 12.5–15 months. Oestrus lasts 1–3 days, with 14-day cycles. Breeding weakly seasonal; birth peaks reported in South Africa Oct–Feb, and East Africa Nov–May. Kittens independent at 9–10 months.
Threats and status
Common in protected areas in East and southern Africa. Resilient to persecution on livestock land in East and southern Africa where they are difficult to extirpate despite intense persecution by farmers and official control efforts. Habitat degradation, loss of prey and human hunting are significant threats in Central, West, North and north-east Africa where caracals are naturally rare. Threatened over much of northern Africa and increasingly hunted for bush meat in West Africa. CITES Appendix II (in Africa), IUCN Red List Least Concern (2002).
African golden cat
Profelis aurata
Size
Females: 5.5–8.2 kg, average 7 kg; total length 85–104 cm.
Males: 8–16 kg, average 11 kg; total length 90–125 cm.
Longevity
Unknown from the wild, up to 12 years in captivity.
Habitat associations
Endemic to Africa. Forest-dependent. Very strongly associated with moist forests, favouring undisturbed equatorial forest. Also recorded from wooded savanna, gallery forest and coastal forest. In East Africa, known from moist montane forests, bamboo forest and humid, lowland forest. Does well in abandoned logged areas, probably because of dense secondary undergrowth and elevated rodent densities. Recorded up to 3 600 m.
Feeding ecology
A wide variety of mostly mammalian prey with shrews, rodents and small forest duikers being most important; mean prey weight from Ituri forest, DR Congo was 1.4 kg. Forest primates also important but possibly scavenged from the remains of eagle kills on the forest floor. Scavenges from carcasses killed in wire snares.
Social organisation
Solitary but otherwise unstudied and very poorly known. Probably has a territorial system similar to other solitary cats, with core areas defended against same-sex adults and overlap at edges.
Reproduction
Gestation 75 days, litter size 1 or 2. Kittens weaned around 6 weeks. Female sexually mature at 11 months (captivity), male 18 months (captivity).
Threats and status
Thought to be naturally rare though no accurate data are available. Loss of habitat is the greatest threat. Marked range loss at the edges of forested equatorial Africa. West and East African moist forests are heavily degraded with large areas of former golden cat habitat converted to savanna. Bush meat hunting in West and Central Africa heavily impacts prey species, possibly driving declines of golden cats. Killed fairly frequently for bush meat and fetish markets which may further impact the species. CITES Appendix II, IUCN Red List Vulnerable (2002).
Serval
Leptailurus serval
Size
Females: up to 12.5 kg, average 8.5–11 kg; total length 93–123 cm.
Males: up to 18 kg, average 11–13 kg; total length 96–125 cm.
Longevity
Poorly known for wild animals; oldest recorded is 11 years (female); up to 20 in captivity.
Habitat associations
Endemic to Africa. Strongly associated with permanent water sources and requires cover such as tall grass, reeds and brush. Reaches highest densities in savanna woodlands, grasslands and forest, always in association with wetlands, flood plains and rivers. Also found in alpine grasslands (to altitudes of 3 800 m in Kenya), moorland (to at least 3 850 m near Mt Kilimanjaro) and high-altitude bamboo forests. Tolerates agricultural areas provided cover and water are present.
Feeding ecology
Specialist on small mammals, with rodents and shrews accounting for 80–93.5 per cent of diet in published studies; appear to attain high densities only where small rodents are abundant. Birds are the next most important prey item, mostly small species but occasionally up to size of flamingos and storks. Also takes hares, small antelopes, reptiles and arthropods. Scavenging is rare.
Social organisation
Solitary and territorial though tolerance of same-sex adults appears to be quite high and aggressive confrontations are uncommon. Home ranges overlap and individuals avoid one another. Female ranges smaller than male ranges. Range size is poorly known; 15.8–19.8 km2 for two adult females and 31.5 km2 for a male in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
Reproduction
Gestation 65–75 days, litters average 2–3, exceptionally up to 6. Females sexually mature at 15–16 months (captivity), males 17–26 months (captivity). Oestrus lasts 1–4 days, with frequent cycles. Breeding appears to be seasonal, associated with rodent eruptions; Nov–Mar (southern Africa); Aug–Nov (Ngorongoro Crater). Kittens independent at 6–8 months.
Threats and status
Partially conservation dependent due to narrow habitat preference and widespread degradation of habitat. Loss of habitat is the main threat, but able to tolerate agriculture with sufficient cover, water and enlightened management. Degradation of grasslands by artificial burning regimes and overgrazing by livestock leading to lowered densities of small mammal prey is a further threat. Popular in local fur trade in north-east Africa and countries of the West African Sahel belt. Skins are traded domestically in large quantities in Senegal, Gambia and Benin. CITES Appendix II, IUCN Red List Vulnerable (2002).
Jungle cat
(also called swamp cat, reed cat)
Felis chaus
Size
Females: up to 8.9 kg, average 6 kg; total length 85–128 cm.
Males: up to 13.2 kg, average 9 kg; total length 118–138 cm.
Longevity
Unknown from the wild, up to 20 years in captivity.
Habitat associations
At the extreme edge of its range in Africa; restricted to Egypt along the Nile valley, oases in the Western Desert and the western Mediterranean coast. Generally associated with reeds and long grasses in swamps, flood plains, wetlands, rivers and ponds, and in dense coastal vegetation. Also found in cultivated, marshy areas including sugar cane fields and bean crops. Avoids open areas. Extralimitally (south and central Asia), occurs in dry grasslands, tropical deciduous forest and evergreen forest. Widespread outside Africa throughout tropical and temperate Asia.
Feeding ecology
Primarily small rodents weighing under a kilogram, followed by birds. Also hares, fish, snakes, lizards and amphibians. Reputedly takes juvenile antelopes and wild pigs in Asia, not recorded in Africa. Stock-killing is very rare; a credible record exists of a near-adult sheep killed in Egypt.
Social organisation
Solitary but otherwise poorly known. In Israel, larger male home ranges overlap several smaller female ranges. Characteristically feline scent-marking and vocalisation suggest maintenance of exclusive core areas similar to most cats.
Reproduction
Gestation 63–66 days, litters average 2–3, exceptionally up to 6. Females sexually mature at 11 months (captivity), males 12–18 months (captivity). Breeding appears to be seasonal in Egypt; kittens are born mid-Dec to April. Kittens independent at 8–9 months old.
Threats and status
African population at limits of species distribution and threatened by habitat loss and human persecution. Destruction and development of wetland habitats is a particular threat in arid areas (including Egypt). Responds well to cultivation and artificial wetlands, provided cover is available. Widespread and common in much of south Asia. CITES Appendix II, IUCN Red List Least Concern (2002).
African wildcat
Felis silvestris
Size
Females: up to 5.5 kg, average 3.7–4.2 kg; total length 76–92 cm.
Males: up to 6.4 kg, average 4.9–5.1 kg; total length 85–100 cm.
Longevity
Unknown from the wild, up to 15 years in captivity.
Habitat associations
Very broad habitat tolerance, absent only from closed equatorial forest. Probably reaches highest densities in mesic woodland savannas but also common in semi-arid desert and grassland such as the Kalahari and Sahel. Appears absent from open interior of deserts but occurs in very arid areas in association with watercourses or rocky massifs. Recorded up to 3 000 m. Tolerant of agriculture where cover is present. Species occurs widely outside Africa, in western Europe (including Great Britain), the Middle East and much of termperate and sub-tropical Asia as far east as Mongolia and China.
Feeding ecology
Small mammals especially rodents which comprise 71–82 per cent of diet in published studies (southern Africa). Birds are second in importance to small mammals. Also takes hares, rabbits, springhares and occasionally small antelope including young of gazelles; upper weight limit of prey is around 4 kg. Arthropods (especially locusts and grasshoppers) and reptiles also taken; able to switch to less preferred prey during rodent shortages. Occasionally preys upon very young domestic goat and sheep lambs; juveniles older than a week are rarely killed.
Social organisation
Solitary and thought to be highly territorial based on very frequent urine-marking by both sexes. Only published home range size is 4.3 km2 for a Kenyan male.
Reproduction
Gestation 56–65 days, litters number 2–5, average 3. Weaned at around 8 weeks (captivity). Both sexes sexually mature at 11–12 months (captivity). Oestrus lasts 2–8 days. Captive females have produced two litters in a year. Kittens independent at 6 months, probably remain in the mother’s home range until about 12 months. Breeding appears to be seasonal; birth peaks Sep–Mar (southern and East Africa), Jan–Mar (Sahara and North Africa).
Threats and status
Common and widespread but genetic integrity threatened by hybridisation with domestic cat which now occurs over most of its African range. Hybrids are prevalent anywhere near human settlements and pure wildcats are increasingly restricted to the most remote areas of the continent. Wildcats are also heavily persecuted in small-livestock areas in southern and East Africa. CITES Appendix II, IUCN Red List Least Concern (2002).
Sand cat
Felis margarita
Size
Females: 1.3–3.1 kg; total length 63–79 cm.
Males: 2–3.4 kg; total length 66–80 cm.
Longevity
Unknown from the wild, up to 14 years in captivity.
Habitat associations
A desert specialist, capable of inhabiting true desert with annual rainfall as low as 20 mm. Found in a variety of sandy and stony desert habitats, including stable dune areas, shifting dunes, wadis and in foothills of desert mountain ranges. Absent from heavily vegetated desert valleys. Found in grassed and shrub-covered steppes in central Asia.
Feeding ecology
Mainly small desert rodents especially gerbils, spiny mice, jirds and jerboas. Also young hares, small birds, reptiles (especially snakes) and invertebrates. Independent of drinking water.
Social organisation
Solitary. Unknown if territorial, possibly only weakly so if arid habitats determine low densities and large ranges. Three male ranges in Israel overlapped extensively. Only published range size is a male 16 km2 (Israel).
Reproduction
Gestation 59–67 days. Litter size 2–8, average 3. Weaned around 5 weeks, sexually mature 9–14 months. Oestrus lasts 5–6 days, with 46 day cycles (captivity). Breeding is seasonal in the Sahara; mating Nov–Feb, kittens born Jan–April. Kittens are possibly independent very young; one record exists of 4–5 months.
Threats and status
Naturally probably occurs in low densities but their preferred habitat is so remote that they are somewhat insulated from human activities (at least in Africa). Expansion of cultivation projects into desert areas constitutes a threat, combined with associated feral animals, particularly domestic cats and dogs which may kill sand cats. They are sometimes caught around human habitations in traps set for jackals and foxes. CITES Appendix II, IUCN Red List Near Threatened (2002).
Black-footed cat
Felis nigripes
Size
Females: 1–1.7 kg, total length 50–57 cm.
Males: 1.5–2.5 kg, total length 55–69 cm.
Longevity
Up to 16 years in captivity, probably less than half this in the wild.
Habitat associations
Endemic to southern Africa. Strongly associated with open, short grass habitat, open savannas and Karoo scrub and semi-desert. Requires some cover and absent from the open, arid interior of the Kalahari and Namib deserts.
Feeding ecology
Primarily small rodents less than 100 g, followed by small birds. Also reptiles, amphibians, birds’ eggs and invertebrates. Largest prey on record is Cape hare; unsuccessful attempts recorded on resting juvenile springboks. Independent of drinking water.
Social organisation
Solitary and territorial; urine-mark and vocalise frequently, and range overlap within sexes is limited. Female ranges average 8.5 km2 and male ranges average 16.1 km2. Individual male ranges encompass up to 4 female ranges. Males guard oestrous females and fight intruding males.
Reproduction
Gestation 68–81 days, litters average 2–3, exceptionally up to 6. Females sexually mature at 7 months, males 9 months (captivity). Oestrus lasts 36 hours, with 54-day cycles. Kittens independent at 3–4 months, and up to 2 litters may be produced in a year. Breeding in South Africa appears seasonal; birth peaks occur in spring and summer, coinciding with rains and food availability.
Threats and status
Probably naturally uncommon to rare. Threats include expansion of agriculture into semi-arid areas, and human activities that impact rodent and insect populations, including overgrazing, burning and use of insecticides. Killed during control activities with use of poisoned baits, coyote-getters, leg-hold traps and night-shooting. CITES Appendix II, IUCN Red List Vulnerable (2002).
