III. JUDGMENT ON THE FOREIGN NATIONS (25:1–33:20)

A. Judgment on Judah’s Closest Neighbors (25:1–17)

OVERVIEW

In 25:1–33:20 the prophet thematically groups all the oracles against foreign nations that he has received from the Lord (cf. Isa 13–23; Jer 46–51). Though these messages are delivered at different times (see the date of each message in its order [Introduction, “Date”]), topically they form a singular unit and are placed together at this point in the book. This is significant because it shows that heathenism can never triumph over God’s revelation through Israel.

Ezekiel had warned Judah of judgment in the first twenty-three chapters. Chapter 24 climaxed these warnings with the announcement of the beginning of Judah’s foretold punishment. With the fall of Judah and Jerusalem, Ezekiel turns to announce judgment on the foreign nations that have in some manner cursed Israel (cf. 25:1–33:20; cf. Ge 12:3). By inserting these judgment oracles against the nations here, he is able to conclude the book decisively and constructively with promise. Receiving a renewed commission in 33:1–20, Ezekiel closes his prophecy with the encouraging announcement that Israel will be brought back safely to her Promised Land (33:21–48:35).

The above outline of the book gives its thematic development; but because of the larger thematic arrangement, the development of the immediate context of chs. 25–32 has often been overlooked. Chapter 25 does not start a new series of messages according to the book’s literary structure. The four short oracles against Judah’s immediate neighbors are a continuation of Ezekiel’s dated judgment messages that began at 24:1 and concludes at 25:17.

Chapters 24–25, therefore, originally form a singular series of messages, all delivered at the same time according to Ezekiel’s normal chronological notices. The messages in this series announce judgment on Judah and then turn to denounce the surrounding nations that have rejoiced over Judah’s downfall and hoped for personal spoil and gain. God announces judgment on these nations lest their gleeful taunts continue and the exiles question God’s faithfulness to the covenantal promises (cf. Ge 12:3).

The oracles of ch. 25 cannot be separated structurally from Ezekiel’s other messages delivered at the date given in 24:1. Though the speeches in ch. 25 are used as the beginning of the “foreign nation judgment section,” there is nothing literarily that warrants a major break between chs. 24 and 25, any more than one would expect a break between chs. 23 and 24.

The judgment announced on these nations does not come as a surprise. It has already been predicted several times by Jeremiah (Jer 9:25–26; 25:1–26; 27:1–11; 48:1–49:22). Nebuchadnezzar and his Babylonian armies will be the instrument of judgment on these nations as well as on Judah. These nations will also experience captivity in Babylonia for seventy years (Jer 25:11). God promised that those who cursed Israel would be cursed (Ge 12:3). Now God will bring that “cursing” on these nations through the instrumentality of Babylon. Judgment will continue on these nations until the second coming of Christ, when the Lord will reign over them (cf. Isa 11:14; Da 11:41; Joel 3:1–4). Thus God’s perspective of judgment extends from the immediate judgment by Babylon to the end times.

1. Judgment on Ammon (25:1–7)

1The word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, set your face against the Ammonites and prophesy against them. 3Say to them, ‘Hear the word of the Sovereign LORD. This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Because you said “Aha!” over my sanctuary when it was desecrated and over the land of Israel when it was laid waste and over the people of Judah when they went into exile, 4therefore I am going to give you to the people of the East as a possession. They will set up their camps and pitch their tents among you; they will eat your fruit and drink your milk. 5I will turn Rabbah into a pasture for camels and Ammon into a resting place for sheep. Then you will know that I am the LORD. 6For this is what the Sovereign LORD says: Because you have clapped your hands and stamped your feet, rejoicing with all the malice of your heart against the land of Israel, 7therefore I will stretch out my hand against you and give you as plunder to the nations. I will cut you off from the nations and exterminate you from the countries. I will destroy you, and you will know that I am the LORD.’”

COMMENTARY

1–7 A basic literary pattern is followed by all four judgment speeches in ch. 25: introduction, accusation, and verdict. The specific judgment oracle against Ammon is in vv.2–7. The introduction of this message is in vv.2–3a: Ezekiel is to prophesy against the children of Ammon, exhorting them to listen to God’s word and not the message of their own gods. The offense of Ammon has already been briefly discussed in 21:20, 28–32, but at that point Ammon’s judgment was deferred until Jerusalem’s discipline was executed.

The accusation and verdict against Ammon are stated in two mini-speeches (vv.3–5 and vv.6–7). The content of each is essentially the same. Ammon is accused of expressing satisfaction over the misfortune of Judah, its enemy and rival (v.3b). This is clearly shown by the interjection heʾāḥ (“Aha!” cf. 26:2; 36:2). The Ammonites have clapped their hands and stamped their feet in joyous contempt (v.6; cf. comments at 6:11) over the temple’s defilement (cf. 24:21), the desolation of the land of Judah, and the captivity of the Judean people by Babylon (v.3b; cf. 2Ki 24:2; Jer 49:1; Zep 2:8–10).

Ezekiel announces the verdict with his customary particle “therefore” (lākēn; vv.4, 7). God is ready to give the Ammonites as a possession to the “people of the East,” who will exploit the land of Ammon by settling in it and eating the country’s produce (vv.4, 7a). The desolation of the land will be symbolized by the use of Rabbah, their capital, as a pasture for camels and the land of Ammon for a resting place of flocks (v.7b).

The “people of the East” are not identified specifically anywhere in Scripture. The phrase is used to refer to any peoples living east of another people; however, the immediate context, parallel passages (mentioned above), and ancient history all argue for the designation of Babylon as Ezekiel’s contemporary “people of the East.” Moreover, Josephus (Ant. 10.180–82 [9.7]) records that Nebuchadnezzar brought Ammon and Moab into subjection in the fifth year after the fall of Jerusalem (c. 582/581 BC).

Ezekiel’s proclamation of God’s continuing purpose for judgment is not changed in the announcement of judgment on Ammon. God desires that this discipline will cause the Ammonites to recognize his lordship as the God of Israel, the only true God (vv.5, 7).

NOTE

2 The Ammonites descended from Lot’s incestuous relationship with his younger daughter (Ge 19:30–38). They settled in the Transjordanian area south of Gilead, around their later capital, Rabbah (modern Amman).

2. Judgment on Moab (25:8–11)

8“This is what the Sovereign LORD says: ‘Because Moab and Seir said, “Look, the house of Judah has become like all the other nations,” 9therefore I will expose the flank of Moab, beginning at its frontier towns—Beth Jeshimoth, Baal Meon and Kiriathaim—the glory of that land. 10I will give Moab along with the Ammonites to the people of the East as a possession, so that the Ammonites will not be remembered among the nations; 11and I will inflict punishment on Moab. Then they will know that I am the LORD.’”

COMMENTARY

8–11 Moab had cursed the people of Israel (cf. Ge 12:3), being disrespectful of Judah’s divine election as an instrument of blessing to the world (cf. Ge 12:1–3; Ex 19:5–6; Dt 7:6–8). Moab likened Judah to all other nations because she had fallen to Babylon. Such a defeat indicated to Moab and other nations that Judah’s God is weak; therefore, they considered any special calling of Judah by that God a joke. So Moab laughed at Judah’s defeat in the light of her professed election (Jer 48:27; Zep 2:8–9).

Seir had the same disrespectful attitude toward Judah (v.8). Many see the word “Seir” as a later addition to the text, but there is no clear support for such a conclusion. The text is simply declaring that Edom, known elsewhere in the OT as Seir (cf. Ge 32:3; 36:30; Eze 35), shares Moab’s disdain of Judah. But a more complete accusation of Edom follows in the next judgment speech (v.12).

God’s verdict on Moab (vv.9–11) is a manifestation of the divine promise to curse those who curse Israel (cf. Ge 12:3). The Lord will expose Moab’s northwest flank (the mountain plateau overlooking the Jordan rift—an almost inaccessible cliff that constitutes her strongest defense and is therefore likened to a shoulder) to the invasion of the people of the East. The attack will begin on this shoulder of the land of Moab, along a line drawn from north to south between the cities of Beth Jeshimoth (in the Jordan Valley), Baal Meon (about five miles southwest of Madebah), and Kiriathaim (location uncertain)—“the glory of the land” (the best part; cf. an atlas).

Again the “people of the East” most likely refers to the Babylonians, who attack Moab in 583/582 BC (cf. v.4). Some (e.g., Taylor) argue that the invaders are Nabateans who invade this area not long after this time. The Moabites will be given as a possession to these “people of the East” along with the children of Ammon, implying that the same invasion is involved (i.e., Babylon; cf. vv.4, 7). Moab will be exiled and laid desolate (Jer 48:7–9). Neither Moab nor Ammon will “be remembered among the nations” till the end times (v.10b; cf. Isa 11:14). This judgment begins with Nebuchadnezzar and will conclude with the second coming of the Lord. The divine purpose in judgment is clearly stated as a desire that Moab will come to know that God is the Lord, the only true God (v.11).

NOTES

8 The Mesha Stone recounts the king of Moab’s boast that his god Chemosh had vanquished Israel (ANET, 320–21). The Moabites descended from Lot’s incestuous union with his older daughter (Ge 19:30–38). They normally inhabited the area on the Transjordanian plateau between Wadi Arnon on the north and Wadi Zered on the south, though they often pushed north of Wadi Arnon.

3. Judgment on Edom (25:12–14)

12“This is what the Sovereign LORD says: ‘Because Edom took revenge on the house of Judah and became very guilty by doing so, 13therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I will stretch out my hand against Edom and kill its men and their animals. I will lay it waste, and from Teman to Dedan they will fall by the sword. 14I will take vengeance on Edom by the hand of my people Israel, and they will deal with Edom in accordance with my anger and my wrath; they will know my vengeance, declares the Sovereign LORD.’”

COMMENTARY

12–14 The accusation against Edom centers on her perpetual attitude of vengeance against Judah (v.12), an attitude that began with the conflict between Jacob (Israel) and Esau (Edom; Ge 25:30; 27:41–46; 32:4). This resentful and vindictive spirit characterized Edom’s relations with Israel throughout history (36:1–7; La 4:21–22; Am 1:11–12). Edom desired to possess Israel and Judah (35:10) and joined Ammon and Moab in degrading her (cf. v.8; 36:5; Ps 137:1, 7–9). Edom committed grevious acts against Judah. Edom’s behavior was inexcusable because Esau was a twin brother! Israel respected this solidarity, but Edom spurned it.

So God announces his verdict on Edom—a judgment that will be expanded in 35:1–36:15. Edom will become a desolation as the Lord cuts off both humankind and cattle from that land. Edom’s devastation will be comprehensive from Teman even to Dedan. The specific identification of these two place names is not yet certain, though most commentators see them as the extremities of the country in light of the context of v.13 (cf. Joel 3:19). (The Edomites normally inhabited the Transjordanian region south of Wadi Zered.) Other passages in the OT indicate that this punishment will be executed by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer 9:26; 25:21; 27:1–11).

Certainly Ezekiel 32:29 and Malachi 1:2–5 assume that Edom’s desolation is past; however, God also declares that he will execute his vengeance on Edom in return for its vengeance on Judah and will do so through the instrumentality of Israel. The historical context of Ezekiel’s day precludes this event from happening at that time, but Ezekiel and other prophets declare that Israel will possess Edom in the end time as well (cf. 35:1–36:15; Isa 11:14; Da 11:41; Am 9:12; Ob 18).

The purpose of God’s judgment on Edom is stated differently from the norm. Edom will know God’s vengeance in judgment (v.14). They will understand that the Lord is the faithful God of Israel who will curse those who curse his people. In turn Edom will observe that the Lord is the true God.

NOTES

12 The infinitive absolute (ʾāšôm, “be guilty”) follows the finite verb, and in such a position it normally indicates continuous action or repetition. The nuance in this verse implies that Edom continually committed criminal acts against Judah. The infinitive absolute rarely expresses emphasis when it follows the finite verb.

4. Judgment on Philistia (25:15–17)

15“This is what the Sovereign LORD says: ‘Because the Philistines acted in vengeance and took revenge with malice in their hearts, and with ancient hostility sought to destroy Judah, 16therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I am about to stretch out my hand against the Philistines, and I will cut off the Kerethites and destroy those remaining along the coast. 17I will carry out great vengeance on them and punish them in my wrath. Then they will know that I am the LORD, when I take vengeance on them.’”

COMMENTARY

15–17 Ezekiel moves geographically clockwise as he announces judgment on Judah’s closest neighbors. The Philistines also are accused of responding with vengeance against Judah, especially with contempt and perpetual enmity. Their purpose was to destroy Judah (v.15). Such continual hostility against Israel by Philistia had been demonstrated in its interaction with Samson (Jdg 13–16), Eli (1Sa 4), Saul (1Sa 13; 31), David (2Sa 5), Hezekiah (2Ki 18:8), Jehoram (2Ch 21:16–17), and Ahaz (2Ch 28:18).

God’s judgment verdict (vv.16–17) declares that he will “cut off the Kerethites,” “Kerethites” being a synecdoche for “Philistines” or a portion of them (1Sa 30:14; Zep 2:5). God’s great vengeance against the Philistines is a judgment “in kind” for their revengeful attitude and actions against Judah. The destruction of Philistia will be complete, even consuming the remnant of them that are on the coast. God’s wrath, however, is for correction so that Philistia will come to know that the Lord is the only true God (v.17b).

Though the time of this punishment on Philistia is not stated, the context assumes a time in harmony with the three verdicts executed on Ammon, Moab, and Edom by Babylon (cf. Jer 25:20; 47:1–7). The ultimate fruition of this judgment will be realized when Israel possesses Philistia in the end time (cf. Isa 11:14; Joel 3:1–4; Ob 19; Zep 2:4–7).

NOTES

15 The three repetitions of the root (nāqam, “act in vengeance, take revenge”) emphasize the intensity of Philistia’s revengeful acts against Judah.

16 The Philistines of that day were probably descended from the “sea peoples” who migrated from the Aegean area. According to the Bible the Philistines came from Caphtor (Jer 47:4; Am 9; et al.), generally thought to be Crete. In turn this Cretan origin is underscored by the term “Kerethites,” a name that is thought to mean “Cretans” and is used in this verse in reference to the Philistines or a portion of them. (k^erētîm, “Kerethites”) is also most likely used here for a wordplay with (ḥikrattî, “I will cut off”).

B. Judgment on Tyre (26:1–28:19)

OVERVIEW

Ezekiel turns toward the north to announce judgment on the city of Tyre and its environs. The length of this oracle suggests the political and religious significance of this city (cf. ch. 28). The indictment of Tyre is set forth in a series of four messages: (1) a judgment speech with explanatory appendixes (vv.1–21); (2) a funeral dirge over the fall of Tyre (27:1–36); (3) a judgment speech against the prince of Tyre (28:1–10); and (4) a funeral dirge over the fall of the king of Tyre (28:11–19). In other words, this section on Tyre alternates judgment speeches with funeral laments.

1. Judgment by Babylon (26:1–21)

a. A judgment oracle against Tyre (26:1–14)

1In the eleventh year, on the first day of the month, the word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, because Tyre has said of Jerusalem, ‘Aha! The gate to the nations is broken, and its doors have swung open to me; now that she lies in ruins I will prosper,’ 3therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I am against you, O Tyre, and I will bring many nations against you, like the sea casting up its waves. 4They will destroy the walls of Tyre and pull down her towers; I will scrape away her rubble and make her a bare rock. 5Out in the sea she will become a place to spread fishnets, for I have spoken, declares the Sovereign LORD. She will become plunder for the nations, 6and her settlements on the mainland will be ravaged by the sword. Then they will know that I am the LORD.

7“For this is what the Sovereign LORD says: From the north I am going to bring against Tyre Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, king of kings, with horses and chariots, with horsemen and a great army. 8He will ravage your settlements on the mainland with the sword; he will set up siege works against you, build a ramp up to your walls and raise his shields against you. 9He will direct the blows of his battering rams against your walls and demolish your towers with his weapons. 10His horses will be so many that they will cover you with dust. Your walls will tremble at the noise of the war horses, wagons and chariots when he enters your gates as men enter a city whose walls have been broken through. 11The hoofs of his horses will trample all your streets; he will kill your people with the sword, and your strong pillars will fall to the ground. 12They will plunder your wealth and loot your merchandise; they will break down your walls and demolish your fine houses and throw your stones, timber and rubble into the sea. 13I will put an end to your noisy songs, and the music of your harps will be heard no more. 14I will make you a bare rock, and you will become a place to spread fishnets. You will never be rebuilt, for I the LORD have spoken, declares the Sovereign LORD.

COMMENTARY

1–6 The date for these four oracles is given in v.1: “the eleventh year, on the first day of the month.” The specific month was not stated, and this has led to disagreements over the accuracy of this chronological notice. Without the month’s being declared, one can be no more specific concerning this date than to say that the oracles occurred on the first day of one of the months during the year 587/586 BC (which began in March/April 587 BC). Some argue that the “eleventh” year is incorrect since v.2 implies that the fall of Jerusalem is past. Appeal is made to a variant LXX reading, “the twelfth year”; however, the entire context of these oracles is future (cf. vv.7–14 and their specific detail concerning Babylon’s invasion), and there is no reason why the verbs in v.2 cannot be rendered as “prophetic perfects” in the same manner as in vv.3–21. So it seems that these oracles are pronounced against Tyre while the siege of Jerusalem is in process in the “eleventh” year.

The historical data concerning Tyre is sparse. The biblical record first mentions the city as a strong, fortified town that formed part of the boundary of the inheritance of the tribe of Asher (Jos 19:29). Tyre was prominent in the days of David and Solomon and throughout the remainder of OT history. Hiram, Solomon’s contemporary, enlarged and beautified the city. Tyre became an important maritime city of the ancient Near East, being involved in great commercial and colonial enterprises throughout the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean.

When Assyria rose to power, Tyre periodically submitted to Assyria’s lordship, paying tribute from her abundant wealth (as in the cases of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal). Whenever possible, however, Tyre rebelled against the Assyrian power and withstood any retribution in the security of its island fortress (as in the case of Sennacherib). With Assyria’s decline and Babylon’s rise, Tyre exerted her semi-independence under Babylon’s dominion. Tyre was in this condition when these oracles were delivered.

Verses 1b–6 record an introductory judgment speech against Tyre. The accusation (introduced by “because”) is stated in v.2. The verdict (introduced by “therefore”) is delivered in vv.3–6. Tyre is accused of delighting in the prospects of Jerusalem’s downfall so that she might obtain the spoils of the city and the economic advantages of its fall (e.g., Jerusalem controlled the trade routes connecting Egypt and Arabia with the north). The interjection “Aha!” (heʾāḥ; v.2) expresses Tyre’s satisfaction over Jerusalem’s misfortune (cf. 25:3; 36:2).

Tyre looks forward to the breaking down of the “gate to the nations.” The term “doors” is plural and normally refers to doors of a house or to a gate. In this passage the reference is to the gates of Jerusalem, which will be broken for access to the nations, providing commercial freedom or political accessibility to routes previously controlled by Jerusalem. In addition, Jerusalem will fall as her gates are broken by Babylon. Tyre’s major desire is to reap the spoils of Jerusalem and new opportunities that will then be hers as Jerusalem “lies in ruins.” It is this incessant desire for wealth and riches, now expressed toward God’s holy city and its people, that brings God’s wrath on Tyre, in fulfillment of the promise in Genesis 12:3.

Proverbs 17:5b declares that “whoever gloats over disaster will not go unpunished.” This is the theme of the verdict (vv.3–6). God, who is personally against Tyre, will bring many nations, like the waves of the sea (v.3), to destroy Tyre and make her like a bare rock, useful only for drying nets (vv.3–5a). “Out in the sea” (v.5; cf. 27:4; 28:2; et al.) describes Tyre’s almost impregnable situation. The island fortress of Tyre, however, is no defense against the sovereign Lord. Tyre will become spoil for many nations, just as she has sought to spoil Jerusalem (v.5b). Even Tyre’s outlying coastal settlements (lit., “daughters”) will be destroyed (v.6a). But even through this prolonged judgment, God’s purpose is that Tyre may come to know that he is the Lord, the only true God (v.6b).

The siege of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar lasted for thirteen years (c. 586–573 BC). Under King Ethbaal III, Tyre accepted Babylonian suzerainty and was ruled by “judges.” But when Babylon declined in power, Tyre regained her independence. This brief freedom lasted till the second “wave” of destruction brought Tyre into submission to the Persians around 525 BC. Tyre’s remaining history demonstrated the continuing “waves” of conquerors. Resistance to Alexander the Great eventuated in her collapse. Her initial resistance to the Seleucid kingdom of Antiochus III terminated when she was absorbed into that kingdom. Tyre submitted to Rome. Finally she fell to the Saracens in the fourteenth century AD, after which she never again regained any importance.

God was faithful to bring the “many nations” against Tyre in successive “waves” of conquest. The Lord Jesus brought his preaching and healing ministry to this heathen city (Mt 15:21; Mk 7:24–31; Lk 6:17). Her judgment will be less than that of the Galileans who rejected Christ’s constant ministry to them (Mt 11:21–22; Lk 10:13–14).

7–14 Ezekiel gives an explanatory appendix to this first judgment speech in these verses: Babylon under her contemporary ruler, Nebuchadnezzar, will be the initiator of this long series of judgments on Tyre by many nations (cf. v.3). Nebuchadnezzar and his great army are identified in v.7. The process of his siege of Tyre is fully described as incorporating siege works, ramps, shields, battering rams, and cavalry (vv.8–10). The city’s destruction and the slaying of its inhabitants are described. Spoils will be taken and Tyre’s remaining glories will vanish (vv.11–12). The change from the singular “he” to the plural “they” in v.12 may demonstrate a broadening of the instrument of judgment from Babylon to the many future nations that will plunder Tyre. Alexander the Great literally threw Tyre’s “stones, timber and rubble into the sea” when he built a one-half mile causeway out to the island fortress to conquer the city.

Tyre’s desolation is emphasized by the lack of any song in the city (an indication of the cessation of normal social activities). The town’s bareness is portrayed by the figure of a bare rock used only for spreading fishing nets to dry (vv.13–14).

NOTES

2 The subject of the three verbs in this verse, (daltôt, “doors”), is plural, whereas the verbs are all feminine singular. In this case the agreement is ad sensum, in which the “doors” are looked on as a singular unity. The phrase (nāsēbbâ ʾēlāy, “have swung open to me”) may be rendered passively or reflexively. Thus this phrase may be rendered, “she [doors of Jerusalem] will turn herself to me,” or “she will be turned to me.” Since the first phrase of the accusation—“the gate . . . is broken” (lit., “doors . . . are broken”)—implies that Babylon has taken the city, this second phrase would seem to imply that the doors of the city are then opened (or “are turned”) to Tyre (in the passive sense). It is unlikely that Jerusalem will be turning herself (reflexively) to Tyre in the sense of seeking aid if Jerusalem has already fallen.

7 The spelling of Nebuchadnezzar in this verse is (n^ebûkadreʾṣṣar, “Nebuchadrezzar.” The name is spelled both ways in the MT. The Babylonian form was Nabu-kudurri-usur, “Nabu protects the boundary stone.” Thus, in the light of the Babylonian spelling, Nebuchadrezzar is thought to be the more correct rendering, being closer to the Babylonian, while Nebuchadnezzar may have been the popular, western Aramaic form (cf. Da 1:1; 2:1).

14 The fact that there is a modern Tyre causes one to question the phrase, “You will never be rebuilt.” One explanation could be that the modern town has not been rebuilt over the majority of the ancient ruins. More likely, however, is the explanation that the city will never again reach the grandeur and importance of Tyre in the biblical period—which has been the case. It may simply be hyperbole.

b. The response of vassal nations to Tyre’s fall (26:15–18)

15“This is what the Sovereign LORD says to Tyre: Will not the coastlands tremble at the sound of your fall, when the wounded groan and the slaughter takes place in you? 16Then all the princes of the coast will step down from their thrones and lay aside their robes and take off their embroidered garments. Clothed with terror, they will sit on the ground, trembling every moment, appalled at you. 17Then they will take up a lament concerning you and say to you:

“‘How you are destroyed, O city of renown,

peopled by men of the sea!

You were a power on the seas,

you and your citizens;

you put your terror

on all who lived there.

18Now the coastlands tremble

on the day of your fall;

the islands in the sea

are terrified at your collapse.’”

COMMENTARY

15–18 Tyre had many vassals along the coast and among the islands that had depended on her as their protector. Ezekiel prophesies that when the news of Tyre’s fall to Babylon is received by these peoples, they will be terribly frightened (v.15). What will happen to them? Their princes will abdicate their thrones—perhaps in an act of surrender and submission to Babylon before she attacks them or as a sign of deference toward Tyre (v.16). As mourners they will not sing a lament song in luxurious dress. They will be stunned and sit in amazement at Tyre’s fall. In fright and astonishment they will sing a funeral dirge (vv.17–18) over the deceased Tyre (cf. 27:30). Since they depended on Tyre for protection and benefits, what now will happen to them? Ironically, Tyre had foolishly rejoiced over Jerusalem’s fall. These cities, however, have the good sense to realize that Tyre’s fall spells doom for them.

NOTE

17–18 A major feature of a funeral in the ancient Near East was the (qînâ, “dirge, lament”). Its full expression contains a eulogy praising the dead person’s qualitites (as in v.17) and a bewailing of the deceased’s fate (as in v.18; see Roland de Vaux, Ancient Israel [New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961], 60–61).

c. The Lord’s concluding verdict (26:19–21)

19“This is what the Sovereign LORD says: When I make you a desolate city, like cities no longer inhabited, and when I bring the ocean depths over you and its vast waters cover you, 20then I will bring you down with those who go down to the pit, to the people of long ago. I will make you dwell in the earth below, as in ancient ruins, with those who go down to the pit, and you will not return or take your place in the land of the living. 21I will bring you to a horrible end and you will be no more. You will be sought, but you will never again be found, declares the Sovereign LORD.”

COMMENTARY

19–21 A prophecy of Tyre’s eternal death is certainly an appropriate response to the funeral dirge of the nations. Poetic elaboration of the verdict given in vv.3–6 is set forth in vv.19–21. Ezekiel refers to the imagery of vv.3–6 in order to pinpoint the aspect of the previous message that he wants to expand. When Tyre is made a ruin by the great waves of nations (v.3) and is left as a barren rock (v.4), God will make sure that she never again regains her place of prominence on this earth (vv.19–21).

Two additional factors are added in this brief elaboration. First, Tyre will die. She will “go down to the pit” (v.20a), as had those in the past who had already died. In her ruined state she will be as though she dwells in Sheol in the earth below. Descent into the pit is a frequent concept for death in Ezekiel and in other prophetic books (cf. 31:14–16; 32:18, 23–25; Isa 14:15; 38:18). Second, Tyre will never again exist and play an important role in history as she had in the past (vv.20b, 21). Though some might look for her, she will not be found.

NOTES

19 (t^ehôm, “ocean depths”) probably refers to primeval waters of chaos. Tyre’s geography explains the way her destruction is seen.

20 Some render (tēšēbî, “dwell”) as tāšubî (“return”), but this is unnecessary. The MT declares that Tyre will not be inhabited again. (w^enātattî ṣ^ebî, “and I will give glory”) is a difficult phrase. The LXX reads ἀνασταθῇς (anastathēs, “stand up, take your place against”), the equivalent of the Hebrew word (w^etityaṣṣ^ebî, “take your stand”). Since the letters are the same except for the nun, and since the immediate context concerns Tyre’s failure to exist again and to carry on her prominent role, the reading of the Hebrew behind the LXX text is probably the best. Reading “I will give glory in the land of the living” is obscure.

2. Ezekiel’s Funeral Dirge over Tyre (27:1–36)

a. The building of Tyre’s ship of pride (27:1–11)

1The word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, take up a lament concerning Tyre. 3Say to Tyre, situated at the gateway to the sea, merchant of peoples on many coasts, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘You say, O Tyre,

“I am perfect in beauty.”

4Your domain was on the high seas;

your builders brought your beauty to perfection.

5They made all your timbers

of pine trees from Senir;

they took a cedar from Lebanon

to make a mast for you.

6Of oaks from Bashan

they made your oars;

of cypress wood from the coasts of Cyprus

they made your deck, inlaid with ivory.

7Fine embroidered linen from Egypt was your sail

and served as your banner;

your awnings were of blue and purple

from the coasts of Elishah.

8Men of Sidon and Arvad were your oarsmen;

your skilled men, O Tyre, were aboard as your seamen.

9Veteran craftsmen of Gebal were on board

as shipwrights to caulk your seams.

All the ships of the sea and their sailors

came alongside to trade for your wares.

10“‘Men of Persia, Lydia and Put

served as soldiers in your army.

They hung their shields and helmets on your walls,

bringing you splendor.

11Men of Arvad and Helech

manned your walls on every side;

men of Gammad

were in your towers.

They hung their shields around your walls;

they brought your beauty to perfection.’”

COMMENTARY

1–3 A previous dirge has been sung by neighboring kings (26:15–18). This new message is a funeral lament that Ezekiel will sing at Tyre’s death (v.2). The chief cause for this major maritime power’s collapse is her pride (v.3). Tyre thought she had the best of everything. As a result she became full of self-conceit, presuming herself to be “perfect” in all her grandeur, wealth, and material goods, which she had acquired through trade. The Lord hates pride (Prov 8:13). Pride comes before destruction (Prov 16:18) and keeps one from seeking God (Ps 10:4). This is the state of the city of Tyre.

4–11 The destruction of Tyre will be like the wreck of a magnificent ship. The imagery is sustained through the poem and climaxes in the wreckage (see Edwin M. Good, “Ezekiel’s Ship: Some Extended Metaphors in the Old Testament,” Semitics 1 [1970]: 79–103). Some have suggested that the imagery of a ship comes from the likeness of one of the island-city’s ships. In typical dirge style Tyre’s former splendor is first accented. Ezekiel uses the imagery of a ship’s being constructed and equipped to show Tyre’s pride and her development of prominence and dominion as a maritime empire.

Tyre’s domain (lit., “borders”) was in the heart of the sea (v.4). She was one of the greatest maritime leaders of her day (see comments at 26:1–6). Her sea traffic extended throughout the ancient Near East. The imagery in these verses demonstrates how Tyre built her empire and fame. She obtained the finest materials of each geographical area through maritime trade. She used her dominion over other nations to build and beautify her own “ship” (Tyre).

The construction of the “ship” of Tyre is described in vv.5–7. The wood for her frame came from the pine (or fir) in the district of Mount Hermon (Senir), while her “mast” was made from choice cedars of Lebanon (v.5). The ship’s “oars” were made from the oaks of Bashan. Her “deck,” inlaid with ivory, was made from cypress wood from Cyprus (v.6). Her “sail” and “banner” were made of Egypt’s fine linen, while her “awnings” were made of purple and blue textiles of Elishah (v.7). The thrust of these verses conveys the idea that Tyre’s development into a beautiful and great maritime city-state came through acquiring the finest materials of her day from the areas that produced them. She obtained these materials through the prominence and power of her sea merchants.

Those who engineered the development and expansion of Tyre’s merchant activity were native Phoenicians (vv.8–9). Tyre secured the best-trained veteran sea merchants from the Phoenician cities of Sidon, Arvad, and Gebal (Byblos) to be her “crew” and “shipwrights.” Phoenicians were experienced in maritime trade, but the intelligentsia of Tyre itself actually “sailed” the ship. She was so adept at sea trade that soon everyone traded with her. In turn this necessitated armed protection of her city and ships. She was then able to attract military mercenaries from far-off Persia, Lydia, and Put (in Africa), as well as more local soldiers from Arvad, Helech, and Gammad (vv.10–11). Tyre’s ability to allure these mercenaries came undoubtedly from her splendor, wealth, and power. In turn, the presence of these foreigners enhanced Tyre’s significance. Truly Tyre became a magnificent maritime empire that attracted nations from all over the ancient Near East to trade with her and to come and experience her greatness as a city. In the light of this Tyre can say, “I am perfect in beauty” (v.3).

NOTES

5 (ś^enîr, “Senir”) is identified in Deuteronomy 3:9 and Song of Songs 4:8 as Mount Hermon or Sirion. First Chronicles 5:23 relates Senir to Mount Hermon and Baal Hermon on the east of the Jordan rift. (b^erôš, “pine”) is a debated term. BDB, 141, renders the word “cypress” or “fir.” NIDOTTE, 1:740–41 translates the term “juniper.” The LXX has “cedar.”

6 (bat-ʾ^ašurîm, “daughter of Ashurim”) would read better in the context with the consonants arranged as (bit ʾaššurîm, “of cypress wood”). (t^eʾaššûr, cypress wood”) makes more sense in the context and is supported in the Targum. The same consonants are used but with a different division. “Cypress wood” is argued by NIDOTTE, 4:269, while BDB, 81, translates “box-tree . . . a small evergreen tree c. 20 ft high growing in Lebanon.” Cooke, 297, says the meaning is uncertain.

(kittîyim, “Cyprus”) is also a debated term. Genesis 10:4 uses the word to refer to one of the sons of (yāwān, “Greece”), along with Elishah, Tarshish, and Dodanim. Jeremiah 2:10 uses the phrase (ʾîyê kittîyîm), meaning either “coasts” or “islands of Kittim.” This verse implies that the location borders the sea. Most translations and scholars take the word to refer to Cyprus. Kition was a city of Cyprus, and the name was later extended to include southern Cyprus.

7 (ʾ^elîšâ, “Elishah”) is unknown except for its reference at Genesis 10:4 as one of the sons of Greece. Some have conjectured Italy, Sicily, or Carthage.

10–11 (lûd, “Lydia”) and (pûṭ, “Put”) are taken by most scholars to refer respectively to Lydia in western Asia Minor and to a country on the African coast of the Red Sea (cf. HALOT, 3:917). (ḥêlēk, “Helech”) and (gammādîm, “men of Gamad”) are unidentified place names. Many of the place names in this section are difficult to identify. Suggestions and problems will be dealt with below.

b. Tyre’s vast commercial relations (27:12–24)

12“‘Tarshish did business with you because of your great wealth of goods; they exchanged silver, iron, tin and lead for your merchandise.

13“‘Greece, Tubal and Meshech traded with you; they exchanged slaves and articles of bronze for your wares.

14“‘Men of Beth Togarmah exchanged work horses, war horses and mules for your merchandise.

15“‘The men of Rhodes traded with you, and many coastlands were your customers; they paid you with ivory tusks and ebony.

16“‘Aram did business with you because of your many products; they exchanged turquoise, purple fabric, embroidered work, fine linen, coral and rubies for your merchandise.

17“‘Judah and Israel traded with you; they exchanged wheat from Minnith and confections, honey, oil and balm for your wares.

18“‘Damascus, because of your many products and great wealth of goods, did business with you in wine from Helbon and wool from Zahar.

19“‘Danites and Greeks from Uzal bought your merchandise; they exchanged wrought iron, cassia and calamus for your wares.

20“‘Dedan traded in saddle blankets with you.

21“‘Arabia and all the princes of Kedar were your customers; they did business with you in lambs, rams and goats.

22“‘The merchants of Sheba and Raamah traded with you; for your merchandise they exchanged the finest of all kinds of spices and precious stones, and gold.

23“‘Haran, Canneh and Eden and merchants of Sheba, Asshur and Kilmad traded with you. 24In your marketplace they traded with you beautiful garments, blue fabric, embroidered work and multicolored rugs with cords twisted and tightly knotted.’”

COMMENTARY

12–24 Ezekiel’s lament enumerates the many trade relations Tyre had throughout the ancient Near East. Not only do these verses develop the extensiveness of her commercial enterprise, but they are also valuable for gaining an understanding of the geography, natural resources, and trade relations of the Near East during this historical period.

The dirge emphasizes the nations’ desire to trade with Tyre because of the abundance of goods she has to trade. The list of geographic locations and the major items each nation has to trade show the extent, abundance, and variety of Tyre’s trade (vv.12–23). When these various places are located on a map of the ancient Near East, it can be seen that Tyre traded with almost every region: from Tarshish (Spain) to northeast Anatolia (Tubal, Beth Togarmah) on an east-west axis (through the Aegean), and from Arabia through Syria and Palestine on a north-south axis. Each area traded its products with Tyre. Her commercial operations were vast!

NOTES

12 (taršîš, “Tarshish”) is listed as one of the sons of Greece (“Javan”) in Genesis 10:4. It is commonly thought to be located in southern Spain. An inscription from Esarhaddon’s reign implies that it is located at the west end of the Mediterranean Sea. Cf. HALOT, 4:1797–98.

13–14 (tûbal, “Tubal”) and (mešek, “Meshech”) are found together in Genesis 10:2 and are located by many scholars in central-eastern Asia Minor, on either side of the anti-Tarsus Mountains in present eastern Turkey. (bêt tôgarmâ, “Beth Togarmah”) is also mentioned in Genesis 10:3 and is normally identified as ancient Armenia, east of the area of Tubal and Meshech.

15 The Hebrew (b^enê d^edān, “men of Dedan”) is rendered in the LXX as υἱοὶ ῾Ροδίων (huioi Rhodiōn, “men of Rhodes”). The (d) in Hebrew is easily confused with the (r), and such is perhaps the case here. Some argue for the LXX’s reading because Dedan is mentioned in v.20 and would unlikely appear twice. Also, the term here is mentioned with many coastlands. Danuna, north of Tyre, may therefore be preferred (ANET, 73–74).

17 (minnît, “Minnith”) is a place in Ammon (Jdg 11:33). Yohanan Aharoni (The Land of the Bible, a Historical Geography, trans. A. F. Rainey [Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967], 243) locates Minnith in the area west of Rabbath-Ammon. The term (pannag, “confections”) is a hapax legomenon of uncertain meaning.

18 (ḥelbôn, “Helbon”) is thought by some to be located north of Damascus, while the site of (ṣāḥar, “Zahar”) is unknown.

19 (w^edān, “and Danites”) has also been rendered “Vedan” (NASB). This shows that there is no agreement as how to understand the Hebrew term in light of the context. (ʾûzzāl, “Uzal”) appears to be a place in Arabia (cf. Ge 10:27; 1Ch 1:21). HALOT, 1:21, suggests that it may be an old capital of Yemen. Alan Millard (“Ezekiel XXVII. 19: The Wine Trade of Damascus,” JSS 7 [1962]: 201–3) emends the text and links the initial phrase of v.19 to v.18. He then understands this to represent the wine trade of Damascus.

20 (d^edān, “Dedan”; cf. v.15) is normally thought to be a south Arabian tribal area on the Persian Gulf (cf. Ge 10:7).

21 (qēdār, “Kedar”) is usually located in Arabia as a region inhabited by nomadic people (cf. HALOT, 3:1072).

22 As descendants of Ham in Genesis 10:6–7, (š^ebāʾ, “Sheba”; cf. HALOT, 4:1381–82) and (raʿmâ, “Raamah”) are normally placed in the area of Arabia.

23 (ʿeden, “Eden”) is located south of Haran by some (cf. HALOT, 2:792–93), whereas (kannēh, “Canneh”) and (kilmad, “Kilmad”) are unknown.

c. The sinking of the ship of Tyre (27:25–36)

25“‘The ships of Tarshish serve

as carriers for your wares.

You are filled with heavy cargo

in the heart of the sea.

26Your oarsmen take you

out to the high seas.

But the east wind will break you to pieces

in the heart of the sea.

27Your wealth, merchandise and wares,

your mariners, seamen and shipwrights,

your merchants and all your soldiers,

and everyone else on board

will sink into the heart of the sea

on the day of your shipwreck.

28The shorelands will quake

when your seamen cry out.

29All who handle the oars

will abandon their ships;

the mariners and all the seamen

will stand on the shore.

30They will raise their voice

and cry bitterly over you;

they will sprinkle dust on their heads

and roll in ashes.

31They will shave their heads because of you

and will put on sackcloth.

They will weep over you with anguish of soul

and with bitter mourning.

32As they wail and mourn over you,

they will take up a lament concerning you:

“Who was ever silenced like Tyre,

surrounded by the sea?”

33When your merchandise went out on the seas,

you satisfied many nations;

with your great wealth and your wares

you enriched the kings of the earth.

34Now you are shattered by the sea

in the depths of the waters;

your wares and all your company

have gone down with you.

35All who live in the coastlands

are appalled at you;

their kings shudder with horror

and their faces are distorted with fear.

36The merchants among the nations hiss at you;

you have come to a horrible end

and will be no more.’”

COMMENTARY

25–27 This last section of Ezekiel’s funeral lament over Tyre gives God’s verdict and the nation’s response. The imagery of a sinking ship continues the metaphor and portrays Tyre’s demise. Laden with all the wealth of the nations and her resulting pride in materialism, the “ship” of Tyre becomes extremely vulnerable to the “seas” (v.25). Led out on the high seas of commercial adventure by her obsession for more wealth, Tyre quickly succumbs to the strong “east wind” of Babylon (v.26). (In the light of the judgment verdict of ch. 26, the imagery of the east wind surely must portray the nation of Babylon.) All Tyre’s “cargo” of wealth, materialism, and pride, along with those serving her (v.27; cf. vv.8–24), suddenly sink into the sea.

28–36 Those who have traded with Tyre (cf. vv.12–24) quickly “abandon their ships,” that is, their work for Tyre, and stand stunned and shocked on the shore (vv.28–29). They bitterly mourn for Tyre in her death, putting on sackcloth, shaving their heads, placing dust on their heads, and rolling in ashes—all normal conduct at a funeral (vv.30–32a). They loudly lament Tyre’s demise in vv.32b–36. They have never seen anyone collapse as quickly as Tyre. She had been supreme in the maritime world, constantly satisfying others with her wares, but now nothing is left. It has all sunk into the sea. Tyre is nonexistent (vv.32b–34).

These nations and their kings who have traded with Tyre become afraid that they will have the same thing happen to them (cf. 26:17–18). In fear and self-protection, they quickly turn from being those who adored Tyre to those who totally disown her. They hiss at her in a derogatory manner. Perhaps they feel that such actions will gain them favor with the Babylonians (vv.35–36).

How quickly the proud fall! Materialism and wealth, which seem so attractive, often make people prominent in the eyes of others. But God hates pride and materialism. Those who think of themselves as important will quickly fall before the judgment of God. Tyre has found this out. She will exist no more!

3. A Judgment Speech against the Ruler of Tyre (28:1–10)

1The word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, say to the ruler of Tyre, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘In the pride of your heart

you say, “I am a god;

I sit on the throne of a god

in the heart of the seas.”

But you are a man and not a god,

though you think you are as wise as a god.

3Are you wiser than Daniel?

Is no secret hidden from you?

4By your wisdom and understanding

you have gained wealth for yourself

and amassed gold and silver

in your treasuries.

5By your great skill in trading

you have increased your wealth,

and because of your wealth

your heart has grown proud.

6“‘Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘Because you think you are wise,

as wise as a god,

7I am going to bring foreigners against you,

the most ruthless of nations;

they will draw their swords against your beauty and wisdom

and pierce your shining splendor.

8They will bring you down to the pit,

and you will die a violent death

in the heart of the seas.

9Will you then say, “I am a god,”

in the presence of those who kill you?

You will be but a man, not a god,

in the hands of those who slay you.

10You will die the death of the uncircumcised

at the hands of foreigners.

I have spoken, declares the Sovereign LORD.’”

COMMENTARY

1–5 In ch. 26 Ezekiel announced judgment on Tyre and sang a funeral lament over the city in ch. 27, likening it to an overloaded ship that was sunk by the east wind of Babylon. In this chapter God commands Ezekiel to deliver a judgment speech against Tyre’s ruler—perhaps Ethbaal III or Baal II of those days.

With the normal introduction in vv.1–2, Ezekiel proclaims the accusation in vv.2b–5. Tyre’s ruler is described as a very wise man. Through wisdom and insight in commercial sea trade he has been able to amass Tyre’s abundance of wealth (vv.4–5; cf. ch. 27). But the accumulation of riches and the accompanying splendor and importance has created a haughty pride in this ruler (v.5b; cf. 27:3). He is so impressed with himself that he begins to think he is divine—perhaps even El, the chief deity of the Canaanite pantheon (v.2).

Ancient Near Eastern thought often viewed a king as the embodiment of his patron deity (cf. John Gray, “Canaanite Kingship in Theory and Practice,” VT 2 [1952]: 193–200). The king of Tyre is sitting with divine authority on the “throne of a god in the heart of the seas.” Most likely Tyre’s renowned, magnificent temple of Melkart, Tyre’s patron deity, is in the prophet’s mind. It was not uncommon for a city or a temple to be called the throne of a god even in the OT (cf. Ps 132:13–14; Jer 3:17; et al.). On ancient bas-reliefs of Tyre, the city and its temple are seen projecting high out of the surrounding sea.

It is this arrogant pride and self-exaltation as a god that brings God’s accusation against Tyre’s ruler. In rebuke God charges that Tyre’s ruler is not a god but merely a man, even though he thought of himself as having the character of a pagan deity. He thought he possessed divine wisdom. But God questions whether Tyre’s ruler is as wise as Daniel (v.3a), the prophet who revealed secrets to Nebuchadnezzar. The implied answer is no! Does Tyre’s ruler know all secrets (v.3b)? No! At least Daniel knew some. No, Tyre’s ruler is not a god but only a man. Though we may not blatantly exalt ourselves in this manner today, we actually do deify ourselves whenever we think we know better than God how things ought to be done.

6–10 Having summarized the accusation in v.6, Ezekiel announces the verdict against Tyre’s ruler in vv.7–10a. God will humble him by bringing him to a horrible death (v.8) at the hand of ruthless foreigners (vv.7, 10). No longer will he have beauty and splendor (v.7). Strangers’ swords will cut off his wealth and grandeur. A disgraceful death is conveyed by the phrase “the death of the uncircumcised” (v.10). Phoenicians practiced circumcision, so to be slain as an uncircumcised male will be to die a barbarian’s death. God mocks the ruler’s claim to divinity by declaring that the ruler will not claim deity before his slayers but will obviously be a mere mortal in their hands.

NOTES

2 (nāgîd, “prince”) is used only here in Ezekiel. Frequently the term is used in the OT for a charismatic “ruler.” Prominent leadership in various areas is conveyed by this more general term. “King” would be more specific. “King” and “prince” are found in parallelism in Psalm 76:13. Cf. NIDOTTE, 3:20–21.

Tyre’s ruler has asserted, “I am a god.” The word for “god” is (ʾēl, “divinity”). El, a pagan deity, was the chief god of the Canaanite pantheon. It is uncertain whether the king is claiming divinity only or also claiming to be El.

3 Many take the term (dāni ʾēl, “Daniel”) to be the mythological character Danel in Ugaritic religious literature. The claim is based on the variant writing of the name in this text. Elsewhere in the OT the name Daniel is spelled (dānîyē ʾl, “Daniel”). But the mythological character Danel is not particularly noted for great wisdom, whereas the prophet Daniel is. Also, the spelling of this word in our text is not the proper spelling of Danel. The variant between the reading in the text of Ezekiel and that of Daniel involves the addition of a (y, yod). The yod, as a mater lexionis, would explain its addition in Daniel and absence from Ezekiel. These are simply variant spellings of the same name (cf. Note at 14:14).

7 (ʿārîṣê gôyim, “the most ruthless of nations”) is plural, most likely referring to all the military hordes from subject nations that were part of the Babylonian army (cf. 30:11; 31:12; 32:12; with 23:23).

10 Some argue that in the light of 1 Samuel 18:25, 27, (ʿ^arēlîm, “uncircumcision”) may also be rendered “castration.” Such would also be a disgraceful death, though this meaning is not needed here to convey this idea.

4. A Funeral Dirge for the King of Tyre (28:11–19)

OVERVIEW

This is one of the more difficult passages in the book of Ezekiel—if not in the whole Bible! The reason for the difficulty lies mainly in the lack of sufficient data to reach precise conclusions. There are many terms and phrases that are only used in these verses in the OT. There are no parallels or other contexts from which to gain clues to the understanding of this lament, so any interpretation of this section must be constantly open to reevaluation in the light of new data from ancient languages and cultural concepts.

The most logical and expected understanding of this section is to see it as Ezekiel’s funeral lament for Tyre’s king. The structure of Ezekiel’s prophecies against Tyre alternates between judgment speeches and funeral laments. Chapter 26 presented a judgment speech against the city, and ch. 27 followed with a funeral dirge over the city. The first ten verses of ch. 28 announced a judgment speech against Tyre’s ruler, so one would expect that 28:11–19 would be the corresponding funeral dirge for this king. Thus one should start with the most natural and logical understanding of these verses, namely, that the human king of Tyre (the same as the ruler of Tyre in vv.1–10) is the person under discussion.

Many, however, have interpreted the passage in other ways. Some have understood the king of Tyre to be Satan. Others have seen ancient mythology as the basis of the passage. Ancient mythology should be kept in mind, for it shows the Phoenicians’ religious thinking and provides cultural insight for understanding the passage. To interpret the king of Tyre to be Satan also has its difficulties, as will be noted below. No interpretation is without problems, but the most natural and seemingly simplest position is to take Tyre’s king to be the human ruler of that city in Ezekiel’s day.

11The word of the LORD came to me: 12“Son of man, take up a lament concerning the king of Tyre and say to him: ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘You were the model of perfection,

full of wisdom and perfect in beauty.

13You were in Eden,

the garden of God;

every precious stone adorned you:

ruby, topaz and emerald,

chrysolite, onyx and jasper,

sapphire, turquoise and beryl.

Your settings and mountings were made of gold;

on the day you were created they were prepared.

14You were anointed as a guardian cherub,

for so I ordained you.

You were on the holy mount of God;

you walked among the fiery stones.

15You were blameless in your ways

from the day you were created

till wickedness was found in you.

16Through your widespread trade

you were filled with violence,

and you sinned.

So I drove you in disgrace from the mount of God,

and I expelled you, O guardian cherub,

from among the fiery stones.

17Your heart became proud

on account of your beauty,

and you corrupted your wisdom

because of your splendor.

So I threw you to the earth;

I made a spectacle of you before kings.

18By your many sins and dishonest trade

you have desecrated your sanctuaries.

So I made a fire come out from you,

and it consumed you,

and I reduced you to ashes on the ground

in the sight of all who were watching.

19All the nations who knew you

are appalled at you;

you have come to a horrible end

and will be no more.’”

COMMENTARY

11–12 The difficulty in the passage lies in explaining the description of this king. He is said to be full of wisdom and perfect in beauty (v.12)—concepts already conveyed about Tyre’s ruler (vv.2–5) and his city (27:3). He is also “the model of perfection” or, more literally, “the one sealing a plan.” As Tyre’s king and the mastermind of the city’s commercial sea traffic, it is easy to understand how he would be known as the one who established and approved the city’s maritime activity. It is he who affixed his seal to this plan, which enabled the city to become the maritime leader of its day.

13a This king is also declared to have been in “Eden, the garden of God.” Of course, the word “God” could refer either to the true God or to a god (cf. v.2). “Eden” is used often in the Scriptures to refer to the paradise described in Genesis 1–3. “Eden” clearly is used also as a simile to portray the splendor of a given geographical area, such as the Jordan Valley in Genesis 13:10. “Eden” is used figuratively by Ezekiel in 31:9, based on a literal understanding of “Eden.” It is impossible to conceive that Tyre’s contemporary king was in the garden of Eden at the time of creation, so many argue that Tyre’s king is Satan, since he was in Eden in Genesis 3; however, as will be noted below, there are elements that must be conjectured about Satan in this passage if one chooses to take this approach.

The concept of the garden of Eden presents one of the major difficulties in interpreting this section as Tyre’s human king. A possible solution may be found in understanding ancient Near Eastern temples. These ancient temples normally encompassed a large enclosure with a garden, not just a building (cf. H. J. Van Dijk, Ezekiel’s Prophecy on Tyre [Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1968], 117). If the term for “God” in this phrase is understood as “god,” then perhaps “Eden, a garden of a god,” was an expression used metaphorically to describe the splendor of the temple complex of Melkart, the “king of the city” (which was the meaning of the god’s name), with whom Tyre’s human king is seeking identity. Though this interpretation is a hypothesis (as are all others), normal cultural hermeneutics aid in the explanation of the text and should not be ignored. It is readily admitted that this phrase, “you were in Eden, the garden of God,” is the most difficult obstacle to the interpretation of the king of Tyre as the human king of the city. The above, however, is certainly a plausible understanding of the phrase.

13b–14a The remainder of v.13 and the first half of v.14 picture Tyre’s king as a cherub. In the ancient Near East a cherub was understood to be a sphinxlike creature with an animal’s body (normally that of a bull or lion), wings, and a human head (cf. comments at 1:13; 10:8–22). These statutory creatures normally guarded the entrances to pagan temples. The cherubim of God guarded the garden of Eden, the ark of the covenant, and formed the throne-chariot of God. It seems as though Tyre’s king is identifying himself with the patron deity of Tyre, Melkart, directly or symbolically as the god’s guardian sphinx. The Phoenician male-sphinx (or cherub) was normally bejeweled and sometimes had the head of the priest-king (cf. Barnett, 13). The sphinx was considered to be all-wise.

Such a description fits well the verses under discussion, for the king is called a guardian cherub (sphinx), and the many jewels listed in v.13 as his covering befit the many jewels that adorned the Phoenician sphinx (cherub). The passage is then declaring that the king of Tyre has become as the guardian cherub for the god Melkart and is bejeweled with his riches as a cherub-sphinx normally was. The term “created” is then used in the sense of bringing the king to the throne. God is always the Creator; so this would demonstrate that it was the true God who had sovereignly placed this contemporary king on the throne of Tyre (cf. Dt 4:19; 32:8, which confirm God’s sovereignty over pagan nations and religions).

To assume that the stones were the garment of Satan in the garden of Eden and that Satan was a guardian cherub of Eden would be pure hypothesis without any exegetical basis elsewhere in Scripture. In fact, neither Michael nor Gabriel is described as a cherub, and one might expect that Satan was on the same level as they were before his fall. Neither is Satan portrayed as a guardian cherub in Eden.

14b “The holy mount of God [or ‘god’]” may have at least two possible identities. The phrase “holy mount” is consistently used in the OT to describe Jerusalem and/or Zion as the central place of worship and the dwelling place of the Lord (Ps 99:9; Isa 56:7). It is to “my holy mountain” that the children of Israel will be regathered in the millennial kingdom (Isa 11:9; 65:25). If, therefore, the specific phrase “the holy mount of God” (which is only used in this passage in the OT) is taken to refer to Jerusalem, this means that the king of Tyre has been in (not on) the city of Jerusalem walking amid fiery stones. In the light of 26:1–6, which described the desire of Tyre to gather the spoils of Jerusalem after its fall to the Babylonians, the latter part of v.14 is then speaking of the entrance into Jerusalem by Tyre’s king to gather the spoils of that city even while its stones are still smoldering.

But the concept of “the mount of god” was used in Canaanite mythology to refer to the seat of the gods, normally in the recesses of the north. Perhaps this phrase then implies that Tyre’s king is in the domain of the pagan deities, since he himself claimed to be a god and was perhaps a guardian cherub of the god Melkart. If this position is taken, then one must explain the meaning of walking “among the fiery stones.” The ritual of burning a god has been discovered on a bowl from Sidon and is recorded in the cult of Melkart at Tyre (cf. Barnett, 9–10). Melkart’s resurrection was celebrated by a “burning in effigy,” from which he was then revitalized through the fire and the smelling of the burnt offering. In keeping with the Phoenician religious-cultural background, with which the passage is so closely tied by the king’s claim of deity, perhaps the explanation of walking among the fiery stones refers to the king’s self-exaltation even as the god Melkart—even to the extent of his claiming resurrection after burning by fire.

It should be observed at this point that the “holy mount of God” is never used in Scripture to mean heaven. Such would have to be its interpretation if the king of Tyre were identified with Satan. Likewise, walking among the fiery stones would be an enigma if Satan were the person described here. One of the two explanations above for the phrase “holy mount of God [god]” appears to be more plausible.

15–19 Last, this king is declared to be “blameless” or “perfect” in his ways from the day he was created until he sinned (v.15). The word “perfect” does not imply “sinlessness.” It is used to show that one is blameless or unobjectionable in a given area. This means that the king of Tyre was a good king, against whom objections were not raised from the moment of his coronation until pride possessed him and he sinned.

The sin of the king is pride that arose from the splendor he achieved through his vast commercial traffic (vv.15–17; cf. vv.2–5). The king’s obsession for material gain opened the city to all the evils prevalent amid those involved in maritime activity. He became filled with violence (v.16). His wisdom was dulled by the glitter of wealth and splendor. He became proud (v.17). He profaned his sanctuary, a reference most likely to the idolatries practiced in the temple of Melkart (v.18). Such a description of the sin of the king is totally unfitting for Satan. Contextually these descriptions relate to Tyre’s human king and his city as described repeatedly in chs. 26–28. Only by seeing Satan as a force behind Tyre’s king and the spirit working in him can one even begin to relate these verses to Satan. But, as noted above, there are many difficulties with identifying Satan as the king of Tyre when examining the descriptions here.

This funeral lament concludes with a description of the fall of this king under God’s judgment (vv.16–19). His pride is his downfall. God will bring him down in disgrace from his self-deification, from “the mount of god.” As a cherub he will be eliminated from the area of the fiery stones; that is, his professed immortality by fiery resurrection will be destroyed when he dies (or he will be removed from taking spoils from Jerusalem). God will cast him to the ground before all the world’s kings and cause fire to come forth from him to devour him.

The meaning of fire coming out from the king is not clear. His death will be sudden and horrible. He will exist no more. This description of the fall and judgment on Tyre’s king befits a human being. It does not coincide with what we know of Satan’s fall and ultimate destruction as revealed elsewhere in Scripture.

Therefore, I conclude that the king is best understood as the human contemporary king of Tyre in Ezekiel’s day. Each characteristic given about him in these verses can be explained in the light of the cultural and religious context of that day. Contrarily, the identification of the king as Satan must be made to a large extent on a presupposition that the descriptions here refer to Satan. But most of these descriptions—if they do relate to Satan—are revealed nowhere else in the Bible. But let it be stated again that the data for a clear interpretation of this passage is sparse. Therefore one must always be open to reevaluate and reexamine his or her position on this text.

NOTES

12 The phrase (ḥôtēm toknît, “sealing a plan”) is difficult. The specific form ḥôtēm is found only in this verse in the OT. Many equate it with the noun ḥôtām (“seal”; GK 2597). Though the form is a Qal active participle, some argue that the holem-waw normally is not found in a participle, so this is probably not a participle. But it seems best to understand the form as a Qal active participle, for the plene writing often is found in the participle elsewhere in the OT. So the word should be translated as “sealer” or “sealing” rather than as the noun “seal.” Toknît (GK 9422) is usually translated “plan” or “pattern”; its only other use in this book is in 43:10, where the context clearly conveys that meaning. Holladay (Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon, 390) translates it as “perfect example.” This agrees with the NIV’s “model of perfection” (see also BDB on both words; cf. HALOT, 4:1734–35). NIDOTTE, 4:292–93, sees the meaning as “one who seals the proportion, i.e., he set the standard of perfection . . . model of perfection.” The usage of “plan” or “standard” in 43:10 should guide the meaning of the word here. The concept of perfection is not present. “Sealer of the plan (or standard)” appears to be the best rendering.

13 The phrase (gan-ʾ^elōhîm, “the garden of God [gods]”) is only found in this chapter and in 31:9 in the OT. The phrase is related to Eden in both passages. The phrases (gan-yhwh, “garden of Yahweh”) and (gan-ʿēden, “garden of Eden”) are found several times in the OT. Both are used to describe the paradise in Genesis 1–3. All of these phrases are also used as figures of speech (especially similes) in the OT by which some land area is said to be extraordinarily beautiful.

The word (m^esukātekā, “adorned”) is also a hapax legomenon. If it is derived from the verb (sûk, “to fence, hedge”), then the noun means “hedge” or “fence,” as in Micah 7:4. If this is correct, then perhaps this passage is speaking about some fence of precious stones that surrounded “Eden, the garden of God.” This is unknown from the rest of Scripture; however, the “settings and mounting” (which are not without their own problems) mentioned later in the verse would imply jewelry perhaps more than fasteners of a fence. If the noun is derived from the verbal root (sākak, “overshadow, screen, cover”), then the noun has the usual meaning of a “covering,” often in reference to garments (cf. HALOT, 2:605). In this sense the noun would tend to refer to the clothing of the “king.”

The stones listed in this verse are similar to those on the high priest’s breastplate in Exodus 28:17–20. The order is different here in Ezekiel, which includes only nine of the twelve stones of Exodus 28:17–20. The LXX inserts all twelve stones from Exodus 28 into Ezekiel 28:13, but there is no substantial reason for assuming any relation to Exodus 28:17–20 on Ezekiel’s part.

(tuppeykā, “your settings”) is considered by most lexicographers to be the noun (tōp, “timbrel, tambourine, drum”). None of these meanings fits the context. Tōp (cf. HALOT, 4:1772) is derived from the verb (tāpap, “beat”), so perhaps this noun has another meaning that only appears in the OT at this one place. It may have something to do with beating jewelry into its shape. (n^eqābeykā, “your mountings”) comes from the root (nāqab, “pierce”) and is again most likely a jeweler’s technical term. Since both words are preceded by (m^eleʾket, “workmanship”), it seems more probable that the entire phrase is speaking about the mounting and setting of the many precious stones mentioned. The MT places the heavy accent (atnaḥ) under the word “gold.” The Masoretes considered gold to be in the list of precious metals and stones and not considered as the metal from which the settings and mountings are made.

When (bārāʾ, “create”; GK 1343) is used to denote creation, God is always the subject. Though not used in the OT in the sense of “ordain,” the word is used to convey the idea of one being brought into being for a specific task; and that appears to be the meaning in this verse.

14 (mimšaḥ, “anointed”) is a hapax legomenon, though most likely derived from the verb (māšaḥ, “anoint”). HALOT, 2:596, proposes that perhaps the root comes from the Akkadian meaning “sparkling.” “Some say the term is unexplainable” (Holladay, Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon, 200). (ʾabnê-ʾēš, “fiery stones”) is also a hapax legomenon phrase and therefore difficult to interpret.

16 The word (ʾabbedkā, “I will let you perish”) connotes destruction and perishing. Since it is syntactically related to “from the midst of the fiery stones,” some render it in the sense of “expel” (e.g., NIV, RSV, NAB), but this is probably not the best meaning. Likewise with (ʾeḥallelkā, “I will profane/pollute/disgrace”), the idea is not “to cast down” (KJV, RSV, NASB) or “drive out” (NIV).

18 The plural form (miqdāšeykā, “your sanctuaries”) likely stands for a single temple syntactically being a plural of extension. This is the way the form is used in 21:7 and by Jeremiah in Jeremiah 51:51.

C. Judgment on Sidon (28:20–24)

20The word of the LORD came to me: 21“Son of man, set your face against Sidon; prophesy against her 22and say: ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘I am against you, O Sidon,

and I will gain glory within you.

They will know that I am the LORD,

when I inflict punishment on her

and show myself holy within her.

23I will send a plague upon her

and make blood flow in her streets.

The slain will fall within her,

with the sword against her on every side.

Then they will know that I am the LORD.

24“‘No longer will the people of Israel have malicious neighbors who are painful briers and sharp thorns. Then they will know that I am the Sovereign LORD.’”

COMMENTARY

20–24 Sidon, a sister city of Tyre, lay in the shadow of Tyre’s maritime leadership in Ezekiel’s day. Equally, Sidon’s judgment is brief following that of Tyre.

God’s judgment on Sidon will consist of a plague and death by the sword (v.23). Bloodshed will be rampant; but God’s judgment is for good, not evil. It is a manifestation of God’s grace, for therein the Lord is glorified when the Sidonians realize that he is truly the Lord and God (v.22). God uses judgment as a last resort, so to speak, to bring people to himself. This will be effective among the Sidonians as well as other nations. Likewise, the Lord is shown to be holy, unique, and distinct from sinful humanity and all who might claim deity. God’s holiness demands the just execution of judgment on sin. This holiness is demonstrated in God’s judgment on sinful Sidon.

Verse 24 summarizes the previous judgment oracles against the nations (chs. 25–28). When these judgments are completed, Israel will be free from these despising and harassing nations’ constant pricking and pain, which she has endured for so long. Israel will observe that God has been faithful to the covenantal promises to eliminate her oppressors. Then she will also recognize and know that the Lord truly is her God.

D. Israel’s Restoration from the Nations (28:25–26)

25“‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: When I gather the people of Israel from the nations where they have been scattered, I will show myself holy among them in the sight of the nations. Then they will live in their own land, which I gave to my servant Jacob. 26They will live there in safety and will build houses and plant vineyards; they will live in safety when I inflict punishment on all their neighbors who maligned them. Then they will know that I am the LORD their God.’”

COMMENTARY

25–26 The judgment of the nations around Israel has been given to encourage the exiles that God will faithfully exercise divine righteousness against the nations as well as Judah. Ezekiel encourages the Judeans further with a reminder that the Lord will regather them from among all the nations where they have been scattered by God’s judgment. This restoration to Canaan will take place when God executes judgments on the nations, judgments that will not be completed fully until the end times. By regathering Israel, God will demonstrate to all nations that he is the holy God, unique and distinct. None of humankind’s proposed deities has ever been able to accomplish a restoration such as this, and they never will, for the Lord alone is God.

When the Lord restores Israel to Canaan, he will show his immutable character of faithfulness. He promised this land to Abraham (Ge 12:7), Isaac (26:3), and Jacob (35:12) in the Abrahamic covenant. The Lord will cause the chosen people to live in that land in security and prosperity. At that time they will know without doubt that he is the Lord their God.

This brief message is undoubtedly a source of encouragement to the exiles. Moreover, it is only a preview of the fuller development of the restoration message given in chs. 33–39.

E. Judgment on Egypt (29:1–32:32)

OVERVIEW

Ezekiel concludes his prophecies against the nations with a series of six judgment messages against Egypt. Egypt played a significant role in the final days of the Judean kingdom. From 609 BC until Judah’s fall to Babylon in 605 BC, Egypt dominated Judah. With the momentous victory over Egypt at Carchemish, Babylon began to rule Judah. Nevertheless, Egypt continued to try to regain Judean allegiance, frequently encouraging Judah to rebel against Babylon. Pharaoh Hophra tried unsuccessfully to interrupt the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem.

Since Ezekiel’s prophecies against Egypt are so intricately interwoven into the history of his day, a brief historical chronology is supplied to help the reader understand the relation between Ezekiel’s messages and contemporary historical events. (For a detailed treatment of the chronology of this period and its difficulties, see Freedy and Redford, 462–85; Richard A. Parker and Waldo H. Dubberstein, Babylonian Chronology 626 BC–AD 75 (Brown University Series 19; Providence, R.I.: Brown Univ. Press, 1956).

Date	Biblical reference	Event
December/January 589/588 BC	2 Kings 25:1; Ezekiel 24:1	Beginning of the second siege of Jerusalem (lasted twelve months)
588 BC	Jeremiah 37:5–11	Pharaoh Hophra’s interruption of the siege of Jerusalem (lasted three months)
December/January 588/587 BC	Ezekiel 29:1–16	Ezekiel’s introductory prophecy against Egypt
March/April 587 BC	Ezekiel 30:20–26	Ezekiel’s description of initial defeat of Hophra and the ultimate desolation of Egypt by Babylon
May/June 587 BC	Ezekiel 31:1–18	Egypt’s complete fall likened to Assyria’s collapse
587 BC	Jeremiah 32:1–5	Siege of Jerusalem in progress (thirteen months)
June/July 586 BC	2 Kings 25:7	End of Zedekiah’s regency
July/August 586 BC	2 Kings 25:8	Jerusalem’s destruction
December/January 586/585 BC	Ezekiel 33:21	The exiles’ reception of the report of Jerusalem’s fall
February/March 585 BC	Ezekiel 32:1–16	Egypt’s funeral dirge sung by Ezekiel
March/April 585 BC	Ezekiel 32:17–33:20	Ezekiel’s lament of Egypt’s fall and warning to the Judean exiles to turn to the Lord
March/April 573 BC	Ezekiel 29:17–30:19	Prophecy of Egypt as Babylon’s spoils in Egypt’s day of the Lord

In the above chronological survey it becomes evident that Ezekiel’s prophecies reflect his historical and chronological orientation as he dates his messages against Egypt. It appears that the advancement of Egyptian forces into Palestine under Hophra during Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem must have precipitated this series of oracles. Ezekiel’s first message is a general prophecy of Egypt’s complete desolation because of her pride and her unreliable support of Judah (29:1–16). In his third prophecy (30:20–26) Ezekiel refers to the defeats of Pharaoh Hophra by the Babylonian forces. This is only the beginning of God’s judgments on Egypt. There will also be a full destruction of the entire nation because of Egypt’s arrogant pride, a haughtiness that Ezekiel likens to that of Assyria at her height of power.

But just as God brought down Assyria, so also will Egypt fall, announces Ezekiel in his fourth message (31:1–18). As in previous prophecies against foreign nations, Ezekiel follows his judgment message with a lament, this time over Egypt’s demise (32:1–16). A summary of his oracles of judgment against Egypt and a warning to the Judean exiles to turn to the Lord and live while there is still opportunity concludes Ezekiel’s prophecies (32:17–33:20).

Two observations are important. Ezekiel not only follows historical and chronological development in these prophecies, but he also develops them logically and thematically. This combination of chronological and thematic development characterizes the book of Ezekiel. Second, the prophecy in 29:17–30:19 is chronologically out of place. Here Ezekiel’s thematic concern outweighs his chronological concern. By placing this chronologically final message immediately after the introductory prophecy of December/January 588/587 BC (29:1–16), Ezekiel provides for his readers an immediate and full understanding that Egypt’s ultimate and complete destruction foretold in that first message will come through the Babylonians after 571 BC. Everything prior to that time is only preliminary.

Likewise, the placement of the 571 BC message (29:17–30:19) after the introductory prophecy against Egypt provides a transition from the judgments on Tyre to those on Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar is the instrument of judgment on Tyre; but since he did not secure the spoils of war from Tyre, God will give Egypt as plunder to Babylon instead. Finally, with the knowledge of ultimate judgment on Egypt, each succeeding prophecy in this series of six messages can be better understood.

1. The Introductory Prophecy of Judgment on Egypt (29:1–16)

1In the tenth year, in the tenth month on the twelfth day, the word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, set your face against Pharaoh king of Egypt and prophesy against him and against all Egypt. 3Speak to him and say: ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘I am against you, Pharaoh king of Egypt,

you great monster lying among your streams.

You say, “The Nile is mine;

I made it for myself.”

4But I will put hooks in your jaws

and make the fish of your streams stick to your scales.

I will pull you out from among your streams,

with all the fish sticking to your scales.

5I will leave you in the desert,

you and all the fish of your streams.

You will fall on the open field

and not be gathered or picked up.

I will give you as food

to the beasts of the earth and the birds of the air.

6Then all who live in Egypt will know that I am the LORD.

“‘You have been a staff of reed for the house of Israel. 7When they grasped you with their hands, you splintered and you tore open their shoulders; when they leaned on you, you broke and their backs were wrenched.

8“‘Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I will bring a sword against you and kill your men and their animals. 9Egypt will become a desolate wasteland. Then they will know that I am the LORD.

“‘Because you said, “The Nile is mine; I made it,” 10therefore I am against you and against your streams, and I will make the land of Egypt a ruin and a desolate waste from Migdol to Aswan, as far as the border of Cush. 11No foot of man or animal will pass through it; no one will live there for forty years. 12I will make the land of Egypt desolate among devastated lands, and her cities will lie desolate forty years among ruined cities. And I will disperse the Egyptians among the nations and scatter them through the countries.

13“‘Yet this is what the Sovereign LORD says: At the end of forty years I will gather the Egyptians from the nations where they were scattered. 14I will bring them back from captivity and return them to Upper Egypt, the land of their ancestry. There they will be a lowly kingdom. 15It will be the lowliest of kingdoms and will never again exalt itself above the other nations. I will make it so weak that it will never again rule over the nations. 16Egypt will no longer be a source of confidence for the people of Israel but will be a reminder of their sin in turning to her for help. Then they will know that I am the Sovereign LORD.’”

COMMENTARY

1–7 Pharaoh is likened to a crocodile (“monster,” v.3) in the Nile. The Lord will catch it, pull it from the Nile, and leave it on dry land to die. Though tannîm may be translated either “monster” or “crocodile,” it seems best in the light of Egyptian culture and religion to use the imagery most fitting to the Egyptians. The “crocodile” was common as a fearful creature of the Nile; the “monster” was not. The crocodile normally was caught with hooks in the jaws and then pulled on dry land, where it would be slaughtered (cf. Herodotus 2.70). This is the figure used in these verses. The crocodile god, Sebek, was important to the Egyptians in the Nile Delta area. It was considered Egypt’s protector and at times was identified with the solar deity, Re (cf. Diodorus 1.35). Even the biblical references frequently use this term in imagery of Egypt (32:2; cf. Ps 74:13; Isa 51:9).

In the imagery the crocodile represents Pharaoh, the protector of Egypt, who dominated the Nile (a metonymy for the entire country of Egypt). This was Hophra’s (Apries’s) arrogant self-image. Herodotus implied that Pharaoh Apries was so strong in his position that he felt no god could dislodge him. In his reign he sent an expedition against Cyprus, besieged and took Gaza (cf. Jer 47:1) and the city of Sidon, was victorious against Tyre by sea, and considered himself master over Palestine and Phoenicia. Such pride is consistent with the denunciation in this message (v.3), for the pharaoh felt that the Nile (Egypt) belonged to him and that he had created it for himself. This arrogance also showed itself in an attempt to interrupt Babylon’s siege of Jerusalem—an attempt thwarted by God.

The imagery of catching a crocodile beautifully expresses God’s judgment on Pharaoh. He will be pulled from his position of dominance and pride and left as carnage for the birds and animals. He will not even be afforded the royal burial so important to the pharaohs. The tombs in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes demonstrate how important proper royal burial was to the pharaohs’ successful journey through the Egyptian afterlife. Lack of such burial would have been a horrible fate. The indictment is broadened to include all Egyptians (fish?; vv.4–5), for as a nation they failed to be of political support to Israel. Rather, they were as a staff made of reeds (a second image) that shattered when Israel leaned on it, seriously wounding her (vv.6–7; cf. Isa 36:6). Egypt never was a reliable support for Israel.

8–16 The imagery in vv.3–7 is interpreted and expanded in this latter portion of the message. The pharaoh stands as a metonymy for Egypt. Both the pharaoh and all Egypt will perish. The land of Egypt will become desolate when God brings the sword against that land because of their pride (vv.8–9). The ruin will affect the entire country, from Migdol in the northeast delta (generally identified with Tel el Her, about twelve and one-half miles northeast of modern Qantara) to Seveneh (Syene, located at modern Aswan opposite Elephantine Island on the east bank near the first cataract). These sites were essentially ancient Egypt’s northern and southern boundaries. The judgment will also extend to Cush, modern Ethiopia (ancient Nubia), between the Nile’s second and third cataracts. The streams or canals in the Nile’s delta will be affected also, as indicated in a later message (v.10; cf. 30:12; 32:13–14).

When Egypt is desolate for forty years (v.11), her inhabitants will be scattered among the nations (v.12). Though no specific data is available from Egypt’s ancient literature concerning this dispersion, such a scattering most certainly took place at the hands of the Babylonians (cf. later messages). Egypt’s fate is like a repetition of Judah’s (cf. the forty-years parallel in 4:6). If Egypt fell to the Babylonians about 568 BC, as implied in the chronicles of the Babylonian kings, then a forty-year “captivity” of Egypt ended under the Persians. Since it was the Persians’ practice to return many peoples displaced by the Babylonians, this very well may have been the case. Sources for Egyptian and Babylonian history of this period are sparse. In addition, kings of the ancient Near East did not normally admit failure. Just because there is no direct statement in ancient history concerning this dispersion does not mean that it did not occur. God’s Word is more valid than our conjectures or ignorance.

When Egypt is restored to her land after forty years (v.13), she will inhabit the area of Pathros, or “Upper Egypt,” the land area essentially between modern Cairo and Aswan. Never again will Egypt be a great kingdom over other nations. She will always be “a lowly kingdom,” for God will make Egypt weak (vv.14–15). No longer will Israel look with confidence toward Egypt. Every time she looks to Egypt in the future, Israel will be reminded of her sin in turning to Egypt for help in the past (v.16).

The purpose of God’s judgment messages is always the same. He desires that those whom he judges recognize through their discipline that he is the Lord, the only true God. This is also the purpose in Egypt’s judgment (vv.9b, 16b).

NOTES

3 The meaning of the Hebrew word (tannîm) is disputed. The normal rendering is (tannîn; GK 9490) rather than tannîm. The term may have become confused with the plural (tannînim, “monsters, crocodiles”) or with the plural of (tan, “jackal”). Moreover the (m) and the (n) are sometimes interchanged in Semitic languages. There is insufficient data for a definitive answer. The word’s meanings and its cognates range from “jackal” to “serpent,” “dragon,” “sea monster,” “monster,” and “crocodile.” In all OT contexts where the term is used, a fearful creature is imagined. Some interpret the term as a mythological creature of the deep, but there is no basis for such in most passages, especially in Ezekiel. Since “crocodile” is most fitting in the light of Egyptian culture, religion, and the context of the Nile, that interpretation is used in this commentary.

7 The NIV has rendered (bakkapk, “with your hand”) as “with their hands,” following the LXX and the Syriac. This reading seems to fit the context best. Singular “hand” can be understood as a collective.

2. A Day of the Lord: the Consummation of Egypt’s Judgment (29:17–30:19)

a. Egypt: Nebuchadnezzar’s compensation for his siege of Tyre (29:17–21)

17In the twenty-seventh year, in the first month on the first day, the word of the LORD came to me: 18“Son of man, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon drove his army in a hard campaign against Tyre; every head was rubbed bare and every shoulder made raw. Yet he and his army got no reward from the campaign he led against Tyre. 19Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I am going to give Egypt to Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, and he will carry off its wealth. He will loot and plunder the land as pay for his army. 20I have given him Egypt as a reward for his efforts because he and his army did it for me, declares the Sovereign LORD.

21“On that day I will make a horn grow for the house of Israel, and I will open your mouth among them. Then they will know that I am the LORD.”

COMMENTARY

17–21 As a fulfillment of God’s judgment on Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian army lay siege to Tyre for thirteen years (cf. Josephus, Ant. 10.228 [11.1]). The scant historical data may indicate that Egypt and Tyre became allies under Pharaoh Hophra (Apries). The extended siege of Tyre was perhaps due to the aid Tyre received from the Egyptians. In such an act Hophra was going contrary to God’s purposes. Not only might the siege have been prolonged by Egyptian support, but some also surmise that Egypt’s maritime aid enabled Tyre to secure her wealth in Egypt during the siege.

When Tyre surrendered about 573 BC (J. D. Newsome, By the Waters of Babylon [Atlanta: John Knox, 1979], 159), Babylon gained almost no spoils from the long siege (v.18). As a result, God promises in this oracle of Ezekiel (v.17; cf. chronological discussion in the Overview to 29:1–32:32) that Nebuchadnezzar will receive Egypt as compensation for the spoils he failed to receive from Tyre (v.19). “Every head was rubbed bare and every shoulder made raw” implies that Babylonians were perhaps carrying heavy loads on their heads and shoulders during the siege (so Wevers). They worked hard without recompense. Nebuchadnezzar will carry off Egypt’s superior wealth as pay for his army and as a belated “reward” for his execution of God’s judgment against Tyre (v.20).

Though some perceive that this passage demonstrates the incomplete fulfillment of Ezekiel’s prophecies against Tyre, such a position rests on silence. On the contrary, these verses demonstrate that God faithfully executed the word against Tyre through Babylon as promised. The Scriptures do not demand that complete fulfillment lay in this one siege alone. There were waves of nations that came against Tyre (cf. 26:19; Note on 28:7).

For the first time God’s instrument of judgment on Egypt is announced: Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar’s leadership (cf. Jer 43:9–13). Since Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 BC, this predicted desolation of Egypt by his army must have occurred before then. One fragmentary Babylonian text from the chronicles of the Chaldean king (ANET, 308) implies that Babylon invaded Egypt about 568/567 BC. This is corroborated by Josephus (Ant. 10.180–82 [9.7]).

God used Babylon’s conquest of Egypt to strengthen and encourage Israel in exile (v.21). To understand the phrase “make a horn grow” requires knowing that the “horn” symbolizes two things: (1) strength and (2) a leader or ruler. Some use the second of these and argue that “horn” here refers to the Messiah because of comparison with Psalm 132:17. But the context of Ezekiel 29 argues against the messianic interpretation. The present passage treats the judgment on Egypt and states that at the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s invasion “a horn” will grow for Israel. No Messiah—or any other ruler—came in Israel around 586 BC.

The horn symbol, therefore, refers to the strength and encouragement that Israel will receive when she observes God’s faithfulness to execute judgment on her enemy, Egypt, in accord with both these prophecies and the Abrahamic covenant (Ge 12:3). At this time Ezekiel’s mouth will be opened among the exiles to proclaim God’s purposes and workings more freely, since the exiles will be more ready to listen. Through these events the Israelites, who have not yet understood, will perceive that God, who accomplished these mighty acts in faithfulness, is the Lord their God (v.21).

b. Nebuchadnezzar’s invasion of Egypt (30:1–19)

1The word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, prophesy and say: ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘Wail and say,

“Alas for that day!”

3For the day is near,

the day of the LORD is near—

a day of clouds,

a time of doom for the nations.

4A sword will come against Egypt,

and anguish will come upon Cush.

When the slain fall in Egypt,

her wealth will be carried away

and her foundations torn down.

5Cush and Put, Lydia and all Arabia, Libya and the people of the covenant land will fall by the sword along with Egypt.

6“‘This is what the LORD says:

“‘The allies of Egypt will fall

and her proud strength will fail.

From Migdol to Aswan

they will fall by the sword within her,

declares the Sovereign LORD.

7“‘They will be desolate

among desolate lands,

and their cities will lie

among ruined cities.

8Then they will know that I am the LORD,

when I set fire to Egypt

and all her helpers are crushed.

9“‘On that day messengers will go out from me in ships to frighten Cush out of her complacency. Anguish will take hold of them on the day of Egypt’s doom, for it is sure to come.

10“‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘I will put an end to the hordes of Egypt

by the hand of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon.

11He and his army—the most ruthless of nations—

will be brought in to destroy the land.

They will draw their swords against Egypt

and fill the land with the slain.

12I will dry up the streams of the Nile

and sell the land to evil men;

by the hand of foreigners

I will lay waste the land and everything in it.

I the LORD have spoken.

13“‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘I will destroy the idols

and put an end to the images in Memphis.

No longer will there be a prince in Egypt,

and I will spread fear throughout the land.

14I will lay waste Upper Egypt,

set fire to Zoan

and inflict punishment on Thebes.

15I will pour out my wrath on Pelusium,

the stronghold of Egypt,

and cut off the hordes of Thebes.

16I will set fire to Egypt;

Pelusium will writhe in agony.

Thebes will be taken by storm;

Memphis will be in constant distress.

17The young men of Heliopolis and Bubastis

will fall by the sword,

and the cities themselves will go into captivity.

18Dark will be the day at Tahpanhes

when I break the yoke of Egypt;

there her proud strength will come to an end.

She will be covered with clouds,

and her villages will go into captivity.

19So I will inflict punishment on Egypt,

and they will know that I am the LORD.’”

COMMENTARY

Egypt in Ezekiel’s Day

1–19 “The day of the LORD” is frequently viewed as a technical theological phrase with a single meaning. This idiom and the phrase “a day of clouds” often refer to the day of the Lord at history’s end, when God will execute final judgment and blessing on Israel and the nations. But “a day of the LORD” may be any specific time period when God is doing a special work. Such appears the case in this passage.

The context demonstrates that this “day of the LORD” (v.3) relates specifically to God’s judgment on Egypt through the agency of Babylon. The specific geographical terminology from Ezekiel’s day is used, and Nebuchadnezzar is declared to be the instrument of judgment. In addition, the event is called a “day of Egypt’s doom” (v.9), limiting the judgment to Egypt and her satellites. It does occur during the “time of doom for the nations” (v.3), when Babylon brings God’s wrath on those nations that have in some manner “cursed” Israel (cf. Ge 12:3; Eze 25–32; Jer 25; 27; 45–51).

Egypt’s day of the Lord, a day of doom (v.9), will be a dark day in her history (“a day of clouds,” v.3). The masses will fear as Egypt’s proud strength (v.6) and idolatry (v.13) cease before Nebuchadnezzar’s sword. Many will be slain (vv.6, 10–11, 13, 18). Egypt’s great riches will be carried off to Babylon along with many people (vv.4, 17–18; cf. Josephus, Ant. 10.182 [9.7]). Not even a prince (leader) will be left in the country (v.13). Many idolatrous statues of the Egyptian gods will be destroyed in the Babylonian quest for complete victory and wealth.

The entire land will lie desolate from Migdol in the north to Syene in the south (v.6; cf. comment on 29:10). Pathros, that major portion of Upper Egypt between modern Cairo and Aswan, will be laid waste (cf. NIV note on v.14). Egypt’s major cities will bear the punishment of Babylon: Zoan in the northeastern delta; Thebes, Egypt’s perennial southern capital; Pelusium, or Sin, the residence of the ruling Twenty-Sixth Dynasty of Ezekiel’s day located on the northeast border; Heliopolis, a major religious center; Bubastis; and Tahpanhes, a frontier fortress perhaps identical with modern Tell Deferneh, ten miles west of Qantara (vv.14–18). The Nile’s streams will also be dried up, creating disaster (v.12; cf. 32:13–14).

Egypt’s allies will also fall to Babylon’s sword: Cush, or Ethiopia; Lydia in western Anatolia (modern Turkey); Libya to the west; and a mixture of foreign mercenaries (vv.5–7). Even Judean mercenaries (“people of the covenant land”; cf. Jer 24:8; 44:1) will suffer under the Babylonian invasion (v.5b). The judgment will be comprehensive and awful, though God’s purpose will be accomplished. This judgment will be, however, a manifestation of God’s grace; for through it he will cause the Egyptians to understand that he, the Lord God of Israel, is the only true God (vv.8, 19).

NOTES

3 (yôm layhwh, “a day of the LORD”) is not a construct state and therefore is not properly translated “the day of the LORD,” but literally “a day [belonging] to the LORD.” The word (yôm, “day”) is indefinite twice in this verse. Those who see the “day of the LORD” here as an earnest of the eschatological day of the Lord (cf. Joel), keeping it as a technical expression, generally link together the near and distant future into a singular meaning with multiple fulfillments. For a summary of proposals for the origin of this phrase, see A. Joseph Everson, “The Days of Yahweh,” JBL 93 (1974): 329–37.

5 The translation “Arabia” is based on a revocalization of (hāʿereb, “Arabia”?) to (ʿ^arāb, “Arabia”) with the Syriac. This reading is anachronistic. Others prefer to read ʿereb (“mixed company”) since the term is modified by (kol, “all”; so Wevers). The exact meaning is unclear, though the latter is preferable.

The LXX reads (lûb, “Libians”?) for (kûb, “Libians”?). Many accept this view (NIV); however, the LXX’s Λίβυες (Libues) normally means “Put,” and the LXX has a different list of countries. The exact meaning of kûb remains unknown.

3. Pharaoh’s Broken Arms (30:20–26)

20In the eleventh year, in the first month on the seventh day, the word of the LORD came to me: 21“Son of man, I have broken the arm of Pharaoh king of Egypt. It has not been bound up for healing or put in a splint so as to become strong enough to hold a sword. 22Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I am against Pharaoh king of Egypt. I will break both his arms, the good arm as well as the broken one, and make the sword fall from his hand. 23I will disperse the Egyptians among the nations and scatter them through the countries. 24I will strengthen the arms of the king of Babylon and put my sword in his hand, but I will break the arms of Pharaoh, and he will groan before him like a mortally wounded man. 25I will strengthen the arms of the king of Babylon, but the arms of Pharaoh will fall limp. Then they will know that I am the LORD, when I put my sword into the hand of the king of Babylon and he brandishes it against Egypt. 26I will disperse the Egyptians among the nations and scatter them through the countries. Then they will know that I am the LORD.”

COMMENTARY

20–26 Having shown Egypt’s ultimate demise, Ezekiel returns to his chronological sequence of messages (v.1). Pharaoh Hophra sought to interrupt Babylon’s siege of Jerusalem at some point during the year 588 BC (Jer 21:2; 34:1; 37:5, 9). The Judeans’ hopes were raised in expectation of deliverance from the siege. But Hophra was unsuccessful. The Babylonians defeated Hophra and his army and sent them back to Egypt, after which Nebuchadnezzar renewed his siege of Jerusalem. The prophetic message in these verses follows Hophra’s aborted intervention by a few months (March/April 587 BC). God declares that he has shattered Hophra’s arm (v.21).

The flexed arm was a common Egyptian symbol for the Pharaoh’s strength. Often statues or images of the pharaoh have this arm flexed and wielding a sword in battle. A king with great biceps was especially popular under the Saites Dynasty of Ezekiel’s day. In addition, Hophra took a second formal title that meant “possessed of a muscular arm” or “strong-armed” (Freedy and Redford, 482–83); therefore Hophra’s defeat is most suitably represented by “breaking his arm.” Ezekiel then takes the imagery further by declaring that to prevent Hophra’s arm from healing it has not been splinted. Hophra’s strength has been broken, and he has not regained that strength. He is unable to wield the sword.

This initial defeat of Hophra is only a prelude of the complete devastation that God will bring on Egypt by Babylon. In contrast God will strengthen Nebuchadnezzar’s arms and place the Lord’s sword in his hand to enable him to bring complete disability to Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar will symbolically break both arms of the pharaoh. Hophra will be unable to hold a sword at all (vv.22, 24–25). This will occur about 568 BC, according to Ezekiel’s prophecy delivered in 571 BC (29:17–30:19). Once again God reminds Egypt of her dispersion among the nations at that final destruction (vv.23, 26; of: 29:12; 30:17–18). The result is equally reinforced: the Egyptians will realize that the Lord has brought this judgment (v.26).

NOTE

22–25 Some interpret the breaking of both arms of Pharaoh as the defeat of Hophra’s two-pronged land and sea attack on Nebuchadnezzar (cf. Block, Ezekiel 25–48, 177).

4. Egypt’s Fall Compared with Assyria’s Fall (31:1–18)

1In the eleventh year, in the third month on the first day, the word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, say to Pharaoh king of Egypt and to his hordes:

“‘Who can be compared with you in majesty?

3Consider Assyria, once a cedar in Lebanon,

with beautiful branches overshadowing the forest;

it towered on high,

its top above the thick foliage.

4The waters nourished it,

deep springs made it grow tall;

their streams flowed

all around its base

and sent their channels

to all the trees of the field.

5So it towered higher

than all the trees of the field;

its boughs increased

and its branches grew long,

spreading because of abundant waters.

6All the birds of the air

nested in its boughs,

all the beasts of the field

gave birth under its branches;

all the great nations

lived in its shade.

7It was majestic in beauty,

with its spreading boughs,

for its roots went down

to abundant waters.

8The cedars in the garden of God

could not rival it,

nor could the pine trees

equal its boughs,

nor could the plane trees

compare with its branches—

no tree in the garden of God

could match its beauty.

9I made it beautiful

with abundant branches,

the envy of all the trees of Eden

in the garden of God.

10“‘Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: Because it towered on high, lifting its top above the thick foliage, and because it was proud of its height, 11I handed it over to the ruler of the nations, for him to deal with according to its wickedness. I cast it aside, 12and the most ruthless of foreign nations cut it down and left it. Its boughs fell on the mountains and in all the valleys; its branches lay broken in all the ravines of the land. All the nations of the earth came out from under its shade and left it. 13All the birds of the air settled on the fallen tree, and all the beasts of the field were among its branches. 14Therefore no other trees by the waters are ever to tower proudly on high, lifting their tops above the thick foliage. No other trees so well-watered are ever to reach such a height; they are all destined for death, for the earth below, among mortal men, with those who go down to the pit.

15“‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: On the day it was brought down to the grave I covered the deep springs with mourning for it; I held back its streams, and its abundant waters were restrained. Because of it I clothed Lebanon with gloom, and all the trees of the field withered away. 16I made the nations tremble at the sound of its fall when I brought it down to the grave with those who go down to the pit. Then all the trees of Eden, the choicest and best of Lebanon, all the trees that were well-watered, were consoled in the earth below. 17Those who lived in its shade, its allies among the nations, had also gone down to the grave with it, joining those killed by the sword.

18“‘Which of the trees of Eden can be compared with you in splendor and majesty? Yet you, too, will be brought down with the trees of Eden to the earth below; you will lie among the uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword.

“‘This is Pharaoh and all his hordes, declares the Sovereign LORD.’”

COMMENTARY

1–9 This beautiful poetic message was delivered two months after the previous prophecy concerning the shattering of Egypt’s strength (May/June 587 BC). The implication is that Egypt is still proud.

Ezekiel uses the imagery of a great cedar of Lebanon, the tallest of the known trees, to represent Assyria, which had recently fallen (612 BC). Egypt, in turn, is compared with Assyria (v.2). The great cedar, Assyria (v.3), was well watered—perhaps an indirect reference to her great water sources in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (v.4). Egypt, of course, equally prided herself in her unending supply of Nile water. The cedar (Assyria) was higher than all other trees (or nations; v.5). She had been more beautiful than any other tree, even every original variety of tree in the garden of Eden (vv.3, 7–9). Every bird nested in her boughs, and every beast bore its young and was shaded under her branches (v.6). These birds and beasts represented the nations under Assyria’s control and in her service (cf. Da 4:10–12, 19–22; Mt 13:31–32). Assyria was perhaps the greatest nation known to that point in history.

10–17 “Pride goes before destruction” (Pr 16:18) aptly describes the continued imagery. Assyria became proud of her greatness (“height,” v.10), so the cedar (Assyria) was handed over to the ruler of nations (Nebuchadnezzar) to treat her as she had treated other nations—ruthlessly (v.11). She was cut down and cast aside by the most ruthless of foreign nations (a phrase frequently used in these chapters to denote Babylon; v.12). God restrained Assyria’s water source (v.15). She was worthless after her fall. All nations (other trees, birds, and beasts) mourned and trembled at the cedar’s (Assyria’s) demise. They too were equally destined for the pit of Sheol (vv.12–14, 16–17). No other nation of that day would ever reach the height that Assyria had reached (v.14).

18 If Egypt thought she was more majestic and had greater splendor than other nations of her day, the Lord reminds her that she too will descend to Sheol. She will “die” disgracefully as an uncircumcised foreigner without a decent burial—a horrible thought for proud Egyptian royalty, who cherished royal burial and despised foreigners (cf. comment at 29:5). If God brought Assyria down, Egypt can be certain that she, who has never come close to Assyria’s greatness, will also fall.

NOTES

3 Many believe the word (ʾaššûr, “Assyria”) is unoriginal to the text on the basis of critical conjecture. There is no MS evidence for such rejection.

10 The verb (gābahtā, “it towered”) is a second person form (“you towered”) rather than third person. Only the Syriac text represents the word as a third person. This is insufficient to alter the text. The second person best fits direct address for an accusation.

5. A Funeral Dirge for Egypt (32:1–16)

1In the twelfth year, in the twelfth month on the first day, the word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, take up a lament concerning Pharaoh king of Egypt and say to him:

“‘You are like a lion among the nations;

you are like a monster in the seas

thrashing about in your streams,

churning the water with your feet

and muddying the streams.

3“‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘With a great throng of people

I will cast my net over you,

and they will haul you up in my net.

4I will throw you on the land

and hurl you on the open field.

I will let all the birds of the air settle on you

and all the beasts of the earth gorge themselves on you.

5I will spread your flesh on the mountains

and fill the valleys with your remains.

6I will drench the land with your flowing blood

all the way to the mountains,

and the ravines will be filled with your flesh.

7When I snuff you out, I will cover the heavens

and darken their stars;

I will cover the sun with a cloud,

and the moon will not give its light.

8All the shining lights in the heavens

I will darken over you;

I will bring darkness over your land,

declares the Sovereign LORD.

9I will trouble the hearts of many peoples

when I bring about your destruction among the nations,

among lands you have not known.

10I will cause many peoples to be appalled at you,

and their kings will shudder with horror because of you

when I brandish my sword before them.

On the day of your downfall

each of them will tremble

every moment for his life.

11“‘For this is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“‘The sword of the king of Babylon

will come against you.

12I will cause your hordes to fall

by the swords of mighty men—

the most ruthless of all nations.

They will shatter the pride of Egypt,

and all her hordes will be overthrown.

13I will destroy all her cattle

from beside abundant waters

no longer to be stirred by the foot of man

or muddied by the hoofs of cattle.

14Then I will let her waters settle

and make her streams flow like oil,

declares the Sovereign LORD.

15When I make Egypt desolate

and strip the land of everything in it,

when I strike down all who live there,

then they will know that I am the LORD.’

16“This is the lament they will chant for her. The daughters of the nations will chant it; for Egypt and all her hordes they will chant it, declares the Sovereign LORD.”

COMMENTARY

1–10 Two months have passed since the Babylonian exiles learned of Jerusalem’s fall seven months earlier. As they begin to comprehend that the Lord does exist and has been faithful to destroy Jerusalem as declared, they perhaps wonder whether God will be faithful to punish the heathen nations as promised. Conversely, Egypt has seen the collapse of Jerusalem and Judah, and Egypt may have begun to gloat in pride over her own survival and power. Lest, on the one hand, the Egyptians think that God will not follow through to judge them and, on the other hand, the exiles begin questioning their new understanding of God’s faithfulness to his word, Ezekiel delivers this funeral dirge for Egypt in March 585 BC.

In the previous judgment prophecies against the nations, Ezekiel often followed a judgment message with a lament over a nation. Having delivered three oracles of condemnation on Egypt, Ezekiel composes a funeral dirge (v.2), portraying Egypt as dead. The funeral dirge is to be sung by the “daughters of the nations” as they watch Egypt expire (v.16; see comment and Note at 19:1).

The lament over Egypt is principally a recapitulation of the judgment messages, emphasizing Egypt’s false pride and bewailing the fate of judgment. Once again the double imagery portrays Pharaoh’s energetic pride but ineffective strength. Hophra is likened to a young lion and a thrashing crocodile that only muddies the streams of the Nile (v.2; cf. 29:3). The crocodile (Pharaoh) will be captured with a net (v.3) and hurled on the open field as food for the birds and animals (v.4). The carnage will be so great that it will fill every ravine and mountain (vv.5–6). It will be as though a great darkness covers the land (vv.7–8), demonstrating that Egypt’s great sun gods are impotent to help. Cosmic collapse is a common image with earth-shaking events (cf. Joel 2:28–31; Ac 2). The nations who sing this funeral dirge will be stunned and horrified that Egypt has fallen in their midst (vv.9–10).

11–16 These verses help to interpret the imagery just described. The slaughter of Egypt will occur at the hands of the Babylonians, the most ruthless of all peoples (vv.11–12). Everyone and every place will be touched, including the great Nile. When all life has disappeared, then the Nile will cease to be stirred up and will flow as smoothly as oil (vv.13–14). Only then will Egypt’s pride be shattered (v.12). Pride is a terrible plague in anyone’s life. The Lord’s great care for Egypt prompts God in grace to bring this severe judgment in order finally to capture the minds and devotion of the Egyptians (v.15).

NOTE

1 The MT reads (bištê ʿeśrēh šānâ, “in the twelfth year”). This is unacceptable to some since it postdates Jerusalem’s fall and the prophecy in vv.3–16. They appeal to a LXX reading and that of thirteen Hebrew MSS: (b^eʿaštê ʿeśrēh šānâ, “in the eleventh year”). This reading, they argue, was altered to the present MT by a scribal omission of the (ʿ). This scant textual evidence is insufficient to change this chronological notice.

6. Ezekiel’s Summary Lament over Egypt (32:17–32)

17In the twelfth year, on the fifteenth day of the month, the word of the LORD came to me: 18“Son of man, wail for the hordes of Egypt and consign to the earth below both her and the daughters of mighty nations, with those who go down to the pit. 19Say to them, ‘Are you more favored than others? Go down and be laid among the uncircumcised.’ 20They will fall among those killed by the sword. The sword is drawn; let her be dragged off with all her hordes. 21From within the grave the mighty leaders will say of Egypt and her allies, ‘They have come down and they lie with the uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword.’

22“Assyria is there with her whole army; she is surrounded by the graves of all her slain, all who have fallen by the sword. 23Their graves are in the depths of the pit and her army lies around her grave. All who had spread terror in the land of the living are slain, fallen by the sword.

24“Elam is there, with all her hordes around her grave. All of them are slain, fallen by the sword. All who had spread terror in the land of the living went down uncircumcised to the earth below. They bear their shame with those who go down to the pit. 25A bed is made for her among the slain, with all her hordes around her grave. All of them are uncircumcised, killed by the sword. Because their terror had spread in the land of the living, they bear their shame with those who go down to the pit; they are laid among the slain.

26“Meshech and Tubal are there, with all their hordes around their graves. All of them are uncircumcised, killed by the sword because they spread their terror in the land of the living. 27Do they not lie with the other uncircumcised warriors who have fallen, who went down to the grave with their weapons of war, whose swords were placed under their heads? The punishment for their sins rested on their bones, though the terror of these warriors had stalked through the land of the living.

28“You too, O Pharaoh, will be broken and will lie among the uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword.

29“Edom is there, her kings and all her princes; despite their power, they are laid with those killed by the sword. They lie with the uncircumcised, with those who go down to the pit.

30“All the princes of the north and all the Sidonians are there; they went down with the slain in disgrace despite the terror caused by their power. They lie uncircumcised with those killed by the sword and bear their shame with those who go down to the pit.

31“Pharaoh—he and all his army—will see them and he will be consoled for all his hordes that were killed by the sword, declares the Sovereign LORD. 32Although I had him spread terror in the land of the living, Pharaoh and all his hordes will be laid among the uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword, declares the Sovereign LORD.”

COMMENTARY

17–32 This is Ezekiel’s final prophecy against Egypt, given in March/April 585 BC, and it concludes his oracles against the nations (chs. 25–32). Ezekiel is to wail for the Egyptians because they will descend into the pit of death, as have all other mighty nations (“daughters of mighty nations”) that preceded them (vv.18, 28, 31–32). Egypt will not be favored over the uncircumcised (without honor) nations she had proudly disdained (v.19). She too will die a shameful, barbarian’s death like that of all the other countries (vv.20–21).

Assyria (vv.22–23), Elam (to the southeast of Assyria; vv.24–25), Meshech and Tubal (in eastern Anatolia, modern Turkey; vv.26–27), Edom (v.29), all the princes of the north countries, and all the Sidonians (v.30) had wrought terror on the earth. For this reason they all had descended dishonorably to Sheol. God wrought divine terror on them, and he will continue to do so on any nation that deals violently with others in this world. That is why God quickly brings terror against Egypt through the Babylonians (vv.31–32).

NOTES

18, 23–25, 29–30 (bôr, “pit”) is frequently a synonym for “Sheol.” The idea of the place of the deceased as a “pit” most likely arose from the normal burial practice of digging a “pit,” or a large hole, for a burial place. Each country here is pictured in her grave with her hordes of armies strewn about her even as bones of the dead were normally scattered around the family tombs in the ancient Near East. “The daughters of the mighty nations” should be rendered as an epexegetical genitive: “the daughters who are the nations.”

21, 27 For a full discussion of š^eʾôl, see Daniel I. Block, “Beyond the Grave: Ezekiel’s Vision of Death and Afterlife,” BBR 2 (1992): 113–41.

7. Ezekiel’s Warning to the Exiles (33:1–20)

1The word of the LORD came to me: 2“Son of man, speak to your countrymen and say to them: ‘When I bring the sword against a land, and the people of the land choose one of their men and make him their watchman, 3and he sees the sword coming against the land and blows the trumpet to warn the people, 4then if anyone hears the trumpet but does not take warning and the sword comes and takes his life, his blood will be on his own head. 5Since he heard the sound of the trumpet but did not take warning, his blood will be on his own head. If he had taken warning, he would have saved himself. 6But if the watchman sees the sword coming and does not blow the trumpet to warn the people and the sword comes and takes the life of one of them, that man will be taken away because of his sin, but I will hold the watchman accountable for his blood.’

7“Son of man, I have made you a watchman for the house of Israel; so hear the word I speak and give them warning from me. 8When I say to the wicked, ‘O wicked man, you will surely die,’ and you do not speak out to dissuade him from his ways, that wicked man will die for his sin, and I will hold you accountable for his blood. 9But if you do warn the wicked man to turn from his ways and he does not do so, he will die for his sin, but you will have saved yourself.

10“Son of man, say to the house of Israel, ‘This is what you are saying: “Our offenses and sins weigh us down, and we are wasting away because of them. How then can we live?”’ 11Say to them, ‘As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, I take no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but rather that they turn from their ways and live. Turn! Turn from your evil ways! Why will you die, O house of Israel?’

12“Therefore, son of man, say to your countrymen, ‘The righteousness of the righteous man will not save him when he disobeys, and the wickedness of the wicked man will not cause him to fall when he turns from it. The righteous man, if he sins, will not be allowed to live because of his former righteousness.’ 13If I tell the righteous man that he will surely live, but then he trusts in his righteousness and does evil, none of the righteous things he has done will be remembered; he will die for the evil he has done. 14And if I say to the wicked man, ‘You will surely die,’ but he then turns away from his sin and does what is just and right—15if he gives back what he took in pledge for a loan, returns what he has stolen, follows the decrees that give life, and does no evil, he will surely live; he will not die. 16None of the sins he has committed will be remembered against him. He has done what is just and right; he will surely live.

17“Yet your countrymen say, ‘The way of the Lord is not just.’ But it is their way that is not just. 18If a righteous man turns from his righteousness and does evil, he will die for it. 19And if a wicked man turns away from his wickedness and does what is just and right, he will live by doing so. 20Yet, O house of Israel, you say, ‘The way of the Lord is not just.’ But I will judge each of you according to his own ways.”

COMMENTARY

1–20 This oracle, which concludes the judgment messages against Judah and the foreign nations, echoes two previous messages: Ezekiel’s commission as a watchman (v.7; ch. 3) and his exhortation to individual responsibility (v.8; chs. 3; 18). Ezekiel has faithfully performed his responsibility as a watchman for Israel (v.9) and for the nations. He warned of God’s impending judgment that loomed on the horizon (chs. 4–32). Three to four months prior to this present message, Ezekiel equally encouraged the exiles with messages of hope concerning their ultimate restoration to the land (33:21–39:29). They had not heeded his warning concerning judgment and consequently found themselves in captivity, with Jerusalem and Judah in ashes.

Ezekiel was exonerated from guilt for the destruction and captivity because he had been God’s responsible watchman. The Judeans could only blame themselves for failing to heed the warning. So Ezekiel gives one final warning to the exiles: Turn now to the Lord! Why die? (v.11). At least the exiles have come to recognize that God’s judgment has come because of their sin (v.10). Previously (ch. 18) the people blamed their parents’ sin for any coming judgment. Now they recognize fully their own wickedness has been causing them to waste away.

Ezekiel seeks to encourage the exiles. God does not find pleasure in death because of wickedness. Conversely God delights in those who turn from sin (v.11), follow the Mosaic covenant, and live! Each individual is personally responsible and cannot blame anyone else for his or her righteousness or wickedness. If a person were declared to be righteous, it is because that individual has decided personally to follow the Lord and the covenant. If one were judged to be wicked, it is because that individual has decided personally to reject the Lord and the law and to live as he or she wishes (vv.12–20). To some Judeans it does not seem that God’s ways are fair and just (v.17). They still want to put the godless on the same level as the righteous. But God’s ways are always fair and just, for the Lord does not blame one person for another person’s sin. God fairly judges every person according to his or her own actions (v.20).

Each Israelite in Babylonia who ponders God’s fulfillment of judgment on Jerusalem and Judah and the promised destruction of the heathen nations has a decision to make: turn from sin to God and physically live (cf. comments at chs. 3; 18), or not? That is the question that confronts each of us today as well. The warnings are over.

NOTE

17, 20 (yittākēn, “be just”; GK 9419) denotes both an “adjustment to ordinary standards” as well as “gauging” or “estimating by comparison with a standard.” With the negative it is used in the OT for “unfair, unscrupulous,” or “arbitrariness.” The Israelites did not feel that the Lord’s way was adjusted to their ordinary standards, that is, God was unfair or unjust (cf. NIDOTTE, 4:292–93; TWOT, 2:970).