INTRODUCTION
1. Steven Pinker and Ray Jackendoff, “The Faculty of Language: What’s Special about It?,” Cognition 95, no. 2 (2005): 201–236.
2. Julie Ann Smith and Robert W. Mitchell, Experiencing Animal Minds: An Anthology of Animal-Human Encounters (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).
3. Matt Ridley, The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature (London: Penguin, 1994).
4. Robert Axelrod and William Donald Hamilton, “The Evolution of Cooperation,” Science 211, no. 4489 (1981): 1390–1396.
5. Martin A. Nowak, “Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation,” Science 314, no. 5805 (2006): 1560–1563.
6. Joseph Henrich, Jean Ensminger, Richard McElreath, Abigail Barr, Clark Barrett, Alexander Bolyanatz, Juan Camilo Cardenas, Michael Gurven, Edwins Gwako, and Natalie Henrich, “Markets, Religion, Community Size, and the Evolution of Fairness and Punishment,” Science 327, no. 5972 (2010): 1480–1484.
7. Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan, Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Evolution from Our Microbial Ancestors (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
8. Pinker and Jackendoff, “The Faculty of Language.”
9. Y. E. Stuart, T. S. Campbell, P. A. Hohenlohe, R. G. Reynolds, L. J. Revell, and J. B. Losos, “Rapid Evolution of a Native Species Following Invasion by a Congener,” Science 346, no. 6208 (2014): 463–466.
11. Chris Stringer, “Evolution: What Makes a Modern Human,” Nature 485, no. 7396 (2012): 33–35.
1. M. B. Willis, “Genetic Aspects of Dog Behaviour with Particular Reference to Working Ability,” in The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour, and Interactions with People, ed. James Serpell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 51–64.
2. Dorit Karla Haubenhofer and Sylvia Kirchengast, “Physiological Arousal for Companion Dogs Working with Their Owners in Animal-assisted Activities and Animal-assisted Therapy,” Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 9, no. 2 (2006): 165–172.
3. Gordon M. Burghardt, The Genesis of Animal Play: Testing the Limits (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2005).
5. Satoshi Ikemoto and Jaak Panksepp, “The Role of Nucleus Accumbens Dopamine in Motivated Behavior: A Unifying Interpretation with Special Reference to Reward-seeking,” Brain Research Reviews 31, no. 1 (1999): 6–41.
6. Siri Leknes and Irene Tracey, “A Common Neurobiology for Pain and Pleasure,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9, no. 4 (2008): 314–320.
7. Marc Bekoff, “Social Play in Coyotes, Wolves, and Dogs,” BioScience no. 4 (1974): 225–230.
8. Marc Bekoff, “Play Signals as Punctuation: The Structure of Social Play in Canids,” Behaviour 132, no. 5 (1995): 419–429.
9. John W. S. Bradshaw and Helen M. R. Nott, “Social and Communication Behaviour of Companion Dogs,” in The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People, ed. James Serpell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 115–130.
10. Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce. Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.
11. Bekoff, “Social Play in Coyotes, Wolves, and Dogs,” 225–230.
12. K. Groos, The Play of Animals (New York: D. Appleton, 1898).
13. Frank E. Poirier and Euclid O. Smith, “Socializing Functions of Primate Play,” American Zoologist 14, no. 1 (1974): 275–287.
14. Jane B. Lancaster, “Play-mothering: The Relations between Juvenile Females and Young Infants among Free-ranging Vervet Monkeys Cevcopithecus aethiops,” Folia Primatologica 15, no. 3–4 (1971): 161–182.
15. Johanna H. Meijer and Yuri Robbers, “Wheel Running in the Wild,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1786 (July 7, 2014).
16. Marc Bekoff, “Social Play Behaviour: Cooperation, Fairness, Trust, and the Evolution of Morality,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 8, no. 2 (2001): 81–90.
17. Anne Pusey and Marisa Wolf, “Inbreeding Avoidance in Animals,” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 11, no. 5 (1996): 201–206.
18. Anne E. Pusey, “Inbreeding Avoidance in Chimpanzees,” Animal Behaviour 28, no. 2 (1980): 543–552.
19. Michael Potegal and Dorothy Einon, “Aggressive Behaviors in Adult Rats Deprived of Playfighting Experience as Juveniles,” Developmental Psychobiology 22, no. 2 (1989): 159–172.
20. Elisabetta Palagi, “Play at Work: Revisiting Data Focusing on Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes),” Journal of Anthropological Science 85 (2007): 63–81.
21. J. I. Webster Marketon and R. Glaser, “Stress Hormones and Immune Function,” Cellular Immunology 252, no. 1–2 (2008): 16–26.
22. William R. Lovallo, Stress and Health: Biological and Psychological Interactions (New York: Sage, 2005).
23. Nikolaas Tinbergen, “Ethology and Stress Diseases,” Science 185, no. 4145 (1974): 20–27.
24. Marek Spinka, Ruth C. Newberry, and Marc Bekoff, “Mammalian Play: Training for the Unexpected,” Quarterly Review of Biology 76, no. 2 (2001): 141–168.
25. Michael J. Meaney, John B. Mitchell, David H Aitken, Seema Bhatnagar, Shari R Bodnoff, Linda J Iny, and Alain Sarrieau, “The Effects of Neonatal Handling on the Development of the Adrenocortical Response to Stress: Implications for Neuropathology and Cognitive Deficits in Later Life,” Psychoneuroendocrinology 16, no. 1 (1991): 85–103.
26. Potegal and Einon, “Aggressive Behaviors in Adult Rats Deprived of Playfighting Experience as Juveniles,” 159–172.
27. Miriam Schneider and Michael Koch, “Deficient Social and Play Behavior in Juvenile and Adult Rats after Neonatal Cortical Lesion: Effects of Chronic Pubertal Cannabinoid Treatment,” Neuropsychopharmacology 30, no. 5 (2004): 944–957; Sergio M. Pellis, Vivien C. Pellis, and Ian Q. Whishaw, “The Role of the Cortex in Play Fighting by Rats: Developmental and Evolutionary Implications,” Brain, Behavior and Evolution 39, no. 5 (1992): 270–284.
28. Pellis, Pellis, and Whishaw, “The Role of the Cortex in Play Fighting by Rats,” 270–284.
29. John A. Byers, Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative and Ecological Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
30. Joe L. Frost, Sue Clark Wortham, and Robert Stuart Reifel, Play and Child Development (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall, 2008).
31. Dorothy G. Singer, The House of Make-Believe: Children’s Play and the Developing Imagination (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992).
32. James Paul Gee, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2014); Kaveri Subrahmanyam and Patricia M Greenfield, “Effect of Video Game Practice on Spatial Skills in Girls and Boys,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 15, no. 1 (1994): 13–32.
33. Lloyd P. Rieber, “Seriously Considering Play: Designing Interactive Learning Environments Based on the Blending of Microworlds, Simulations, and Games,” Educational Technology Research and Development 44, no. 2 (1996): 43–58.
35. Scott Nunes, Eva-Maria Muecke, Lesley T. Lancaster, Nathan A. Miller, Marie A. Mueller, Jennifer Muelhaus, and Lina Castro, “Functions and Consequences of Play Behaviour in Juvenile Belding’s Ground Squirrels,” Animal Behaviour 68, no. 1 (2004): 27–37.
36. Robert Fagen and Johanna Fagen, “Play Behaviour and Multi-year Juvenile Survival in Free-ranging Brown Bears, Ursus arctos,” Evolutionary Ecology Research 11 (2009): 1–15.
37. Elissa Z. Cameron, Wayne L. Linklater, Kevin J. Stafford, and Edward O. Minot, “Maternal Investment Results in Better Foal COndition through Increased Play Behaviour in Horses,” Animal Behaviour 76, no. 5 (2008): 1511–1518.
38. Stuart L. Brown, Play: How It Shapes the Brain, Opens the Imagination, and Invigorates the Soul (New York: Avery, 2009), 126.
2. ANIMAL SYSTEMS OF JUSTICE
1. S. F. Brosnan, C. Talbot, M. Ahlgren, S. P. Lambeth, and S. J. Schapiro, “Mechanisms Underlying Responses to Inequitable Outcomes in Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes,” Animal Behaviour 79, no. 6: 1229–1237.
2. S. F. Brosnan and F. B. M. de Waal, “Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay,” Nature 425, no. 6955 (2003): 297–299.
3. Darby Proctor, Rebecca A. Williamson, Frans B. M. de Waal, and Sarah F. Brosnan, “Chimpanzees Play the Ultimatum Game,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 6 (February 5, 2013): 2070–2075.
4. Friederike Range, Lisa Horn, Zsófia Viranyi, and Ludwig Huber, “The Absence of Reward Induces Inequity Aversion in Dogs,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 1 (2009): 340–345.
5. Sarah F. Brosnan and Frans B. M. de Waal, “Evolution of Responses to (un) Fairness,” Science 346, no. 6207 (2014): 314.
6. Robert Boyd and Peter J. Richerson, “Punishment Allows the Evolution of Cooperation (or Anything Else) in Sizable Groups,” Ethology and Sociobiology 13, no. 3 (1992): 171–195.
7. Victoria J. Horner, Devyn Carter, Malini Suchak, and Frans B. M. de Waal, “Spontaneous Prosocial Choice by Chimpanzees,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 33 (August 16, 2011): 13847–13851.
8. K. V. Thompson, “Self Assessment in Juvenile Play,” in Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative, and Ecological Perspectives, ed. John A. Byers (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 183–204.
10. Marc Bekoff, “Social Play and Play-soliciting by Infant Canids,” American Zoologist 14, no. 1 (1974): 323.
11. Marc Bekoff, “Play Signals as Punctuation: The Structure of Social Play in Canids,” Behaviour 132, no. 5–6 (1995): 5–6.
12. Tim H. Clutton-Brock and Geoffrey A. Parker, “Punishment in Animal Societies,” Nature 373, no. 6511 (1995): 209–216.
14. Milanda Petrů, Marek Spinka, Veronika Charvátová, and Stanislav Lhota, “Revisiting Play Elements and Self-handicapping in Play: A Comparative Ethogram of Five Old World Monkey Species,” Journal of Comparative Psychology 123, no. 3 (2009): 250.
15. Jessica C. Flack, Lisa A. Jeannotte, and Frans de Waal, “Play Signaling and the Perception of Social Rules by Juvenile Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes),” Journal of Comparative Psychology 118, no. 2 (2004): 149.
16. Gerald S. Wilkinson, “Reciprocal Food Sharing in the Vampire Bat,” Nature 308, no. 5955 (1984): 181–184.
17. Meredith P. Crawford, The Cooperative Solving of Problems by Young Chimpanzees (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1937).
19. Maynard J. Smith, “The Evolution of Alarm Calls,” American Naturalist 99, no. 904 (1965): 59–63.
20. Robert M. Seyfarth and Dorothy L. Cheney, “Grooming, Alliances and Reciprocal Altruism in Vervet Monkeys,” Nature 308, no. 5959 (1984): 541–543.
21. C. J. O. Harrison, “Allopreening as Agonistic Behaviour,” Behaviour 24, no. 3 (1965): 161–208.
22. Geoffrey W. Potts, “The Ethology of Crenilabrus Melanocercus, with Notes on Cleaning Symbiosis,” Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 48, no. 2 (1968): 279–293.
3. MORAL ANIMALS
1. R. M. Church, “Emotional Reactions of Rats to the Pain of Others,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 52, no. 2 (1959): 132.
2. Jules H. Masserman, Stanley Wechkin, and William Terris, “ ‘Altruistic’ Behavior in Rhesus Monkeys,” The American Journal of Psychiatry 121, no. 6 (1964): 584–585.
3. Inbal Ben-Ami Bartal, Jean Decety, and Peggy Mason, “Empathy and Pro-social Behavior in Rats,” Science 334, no. 6061 (2011): 1427–1430.
4. Nobuya Sato, Ling Tan, Kazushi Tate, and Maya Okada, “Rats Demonstrate Helping Behavior toward a Soaked Conspecific,” Animal Cognition (May 2015): 1–9.
5. Carolyn Zahn-Waxler, Barbara Hollenbeck, and Marian Radke-Yarrow. “The Origins of Empathy and Altruism,” in Advances in Animal Welfare Science 1984, ed. M. W. Fox and Linda Mickley (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1985), 21–41.
6. Marc Bekoff, “Are You Feeling What I’m Feeling?,” New Scientist 194, no. 2605 (2007): 42–47.
7. H. Markowitz and V. J. Stevens, Behavior of Captive Wild Animals (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1978).
8. Elizabeth V. Lonsdorf, “Chimpanzee Mind, Behavior, and Conservation,” in The Mind of the Chimpanzee: Ecological and Experimental Perspectives, ed. Elizabeth Lonsdorf, Stephen R Ross, and Tetsurō Matsuzawa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 361.
9. Lawrence Anthony and Graham Spence, The Elephant Whisperer: My Life with the Herd in the African Wild (New York: Macmillan, 2009).
10. S. C. Minta, K. A. Minta, and D. F. Lott, “Hunting Associations between Badgers (Taxidea taxus) and Coyotes (Canis latrans),” Journal of Mammalogy 73 no. 4 (1992): 814–820.
11. I. Karpulus, R. Szlep, and M. Tsurnamal, “Associative Behavior of the Fish Cryptocentrus cryptocentrus (Gobiidae) and the Pistol Shrimp Alpheus djiboutensis (Alpheidae) in Artificial Burrows,” Marine Biology 15, no. 2 (1972): 95–104.
12. “Beluga Whale ‘Saves’ Diver,” The Telegraph, July 29, 2009.
13. Douglas Allchin, “The Evolution of Morality,” Evolution: Education and Outreach 2, no. 4 (2009): 590–601.
14. Jeheskel Shoshani, Elephants: Majestic Creatures of the Wild (Emmaus, Penn.: Rodale Press, 1992).
15. Robert R. Provine, “Yawning: The Yawn Is Primal, Unstoppable and Contagious, Revealing the Evolutionary and Neural Basis of Empathy and Unconscious Behavior,” American Scientist 93 no. 6 (2005): 532–539.
16. Steven M. Platek, Samuel R. Critton, Thomas E. Myers, and Gordon G. Gallup, “Contagious Yawning: The Role of Self-awareness and Mental State Attribution,” Cognitive Brain Research 17, no. 2 (2003): 223–227.
17. Atsushi Senju, Makiko Maeda, Yukiko Kikuchi, Toshikazu Hasegawa, Yoshikuni Tojo, and Hiroo Osanai, “Absence of Contagious Yawning in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder,” Biology letters 3, no. 6 (2007): 706–708; Helene Haker and Wulf Rössler, “Empathy in Schizophrenia: Impaired Resonance,” European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 259, no. 6 (2009): 352–361.
18. Steven M. Platek, Feroze B. Mohamed, and Gordon G. Gallup, “Contagious Yawning and the Brain,” Cognitive Brain Research 23, no. 2 (2005): 448–452.
19. Ramiro M. Joly-Mascheroni, Atsushi Senju, and Alex J. Shepherd, “Dogs Catch Human Yawns,” Biology Letters 4, no. 5 (2008): 446–448.
20. E. Palagi, A. Leone, G. Mancini, and P. F. Ferrari, “Contagious Yawning in Gelada Baboons as a Possible Expression of Empathy,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 46 (2009): 19262–19267.
21. Giacomo Rizzolatti, Luciano Fadiga, Vittorio Gallese, and Leonardo Fogassi, “Premotor Cortex and the Recognition of Motor Actions,” Cognitive Brain Research 3, no. 2 (1996): 131–141.
22. Evelyne Kohler, Christian Keysers, M. Alessandra Umilta, Leonardo Fogassi, Vittorio Gallese, and Giacomo Rizzolatti, “Hearing Sounds, Understanding Actions: Action Representation in Mirror Neurons,” Science 297, no. 5582 (2002): 846–848.
23. Evelyne Gallese, “The Shared Manifold Hypothesis: From Mirror Neurons to Empathy,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 8, no. 5–7 (2001): 5–7.
24. Lindsay M. Oberman, Edward M. Hubbard, Joseph P. McCleery, Eric L. Altschuler, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, and Jaime A. Pineda, “EEG Evidence for Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Cognitive Brain Research 24, no. 2 (2005): 190–198.
25. Steven M. Platek, Feroze B. Mohamed, and Gordon G. Gallup Jr., “Contagious Yawning and the Brain,” Cognitive Brain Research 23, no. 2 (2005): 448–452.
26. Marco Iacoboni, “Imitation, Empathy, and Mirror Neurons,” Annual Review of Psychology 60 (2009): 653–670.
27. Oberman et al., “EEG Evidence for Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Autism Spectrum Disorders,” 190–198.
28. Shirley Fecteau, Alvaro Pascual-Leone, and Hugo Théoret, “Psychopathy and the Mirror Neuron System: Preliminary Findings from a Non-psychiatric Sample,” Psychiatry Research 160, no. 2 (2008): 137–144.
29. Scott O. Lilienfeld, Jonathan Gershon, Marshall Duke, Lori Marino, and Frans de Waal, “A Preliminary Investigation of the Construct of Psychopathic Personality (Psychopathy) in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes),” Journal of Comparative Psychology 113, no. 4 (1999): 365.
30. Frans de Waal, Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2009).
31. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man: And Selection in Relation to Sex, 2nd ed. (New York: D. Appleton, 1882).
32. Marc Bekoff, Minding Animals: Awareness, Emotions, and Heart (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
4. SEXUAL POLITICS
1. Hans Kruuk, The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972).
2. Gaël Trionnaire, Jim Hardie, Stéphanie Jaubert-Possamai, Jean-Christophe Simon, and Denis Tagu, “Shifting from Clonal to Sexual Reproduction in Aphids: Physiological and Developmental Aspects,” Biology of the Cell 100, no. 8 (2008): 441–451.
3. Scott Pitnick, “Investment in Testes and the Cost of Making Long Sperm in Drosophila,” American Naturalist 148, no. 1 (1996): 57–80.
4. J. Roughgarden, Evolution’s Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
6. Frans B. M. De Waal, “Bonobo Sex and Society,” Scientific American 272, no. 3 (1995): 82–88.
7. Amy Randall Parish, “Sex and Food Control in the ‘Uncommon Chimpanzee’: How Bonobo Females Overcome a Phylogenetic Legacy of Male Dominance,” Ethology and Sociobiology 15, no. 3 (1994): 157–179.
8. Craig B. Stanford, “The Social Behavior of Chimpanzees and Bonobos: Empirical Evidence and Shifting Assumptions 1,” Current Anthropology 39, no. 4 (1998): 399–420.
9. Robert T. Mason and David Crews, “Female Mimicry in Garter Snakes,” Nature 316, no. 6023 (1985): 59–60.
10. K. E. Levan, T. Y. Fedina, and S. M. Lewis, “Testing Multiple Hypotheses for the Maintenance of Male Homosexual Copulatory Behaviour in Flour Beetles,” Journal of Evolutionary Biology 22, no. 1 (2009): 60–70.
11. Ruth E. Buskirk, Cliff Frohlich, and Kenneth G. Ross, “The Natural Selection of Sexual Cannibalism,” American Naturalist 123 no. 5 (1984): 612–625.
12. Jonathan P. Lelito, and William D. Brown, “Mate Attraction by Females in a Sexually Cannibalistic Praying Mantis,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 63, no. 2 (2008): 313–320.
14. L. W. Simmons and G. A. Parker, “Nuptial Feeding in Insects: Mating Effort versus Paternal Investment,” Ethology 81, no. 4 (1989): 332–343.
15. T. Royama, “A Re-interpretation of Courtship Feeding,” Bird Study 13, no. 2 (1966): 116–129.
16. F. M. Hunter and L. S. Davis, “Female Adélie Penguins Acquire Nest Material from Extrapair Males after Engaging in Extrapair Copulations,” The Auk 115, no. 2 (1998): 526–528.
18. Keith Chen, Venkat Lakshminarayanan, and Laurie Santos, “The Dvolution of Our Preferences: Evidence from Capuchin Monkey Trading Behavior,” Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper, no. 1524 (2005).
19. Daniel J. Kruger, “Young Adults Attempt Exchanges in Reproductively Relevant Currencies,” Evolutionary Psychology 6, no. 1 (2008): 204–212.
20. Piotr Tryjanowski and Martin Hromada, “Do Males of the Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor, Trade Food for Extrapair Copulations?” Animal Behaviour 69, no. 3 (2005): 529–533.
21. Darryl T. Gwynne, “Courtship Feeding in Katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae): Investment in Offspring or in Obtaining Fertilizations?” American Naturalist 128, no. 3 (1986): 342–352.
22. Darryl T. Gwynne, “Mate Selection by Female Katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae, Conocephalus nigropleurum),” Animal Behaviour 30, no. 3 (1982): 734–738.
23. R. Robin Baker and Mark A. Bellis, “Human Sperm Competition: Ejaculate Adjustment by Males and the Function of Masturbation,” Animal Behaviour 46, no. 5 (1993): 861–885.
24. Anne E. Russon, Carel P. van Schaik, P. Kuncoro, A. Ferisa, D. P. Handayani, and M. A. Van Noordwijk, “Innovation and Intelligence in Orangutans,” in Orangutans: Geographic Variation in Behavioral Ecology and Conservation, ed. Serge A. Wich, S. Suci Utami Atmoko, Tatang Mitra Setia, and Carel P. van Schaik (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 279–298.
25. A. De Vos, P. Brokx, and V. Geist, “A Review of Social Behavior of the North American Cervids during the Reproductive Period,” American Midland Naturalist 77, no. 2 (1967): 390–417.
26. Petra A. Mertens, “Reproductive and Sexual Behavioral Problems in Dogs,” Theriogenology 66, no. 3 (2006): 606–609; Sue M. McDonnell, M. Henry, and F. Bristol, “Spontaneous Erection and Masturbation in Equids,” Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 44 (Suppl.), (1991): 664–665.
27. Katherine A. Houpt and Gwendolyn Wollney, “Frequency of Masturbation and Time Budgets of Dairy Bulls Used for Semen Production,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 24, no. 3 (1989): 217–225; F. B. M. De Waal, “Bonobo Sex and Society,” Scientific American 272, no. 3 (1995): 82–88.
28. Baker and Bellis, “Human Sperm Competition,” 861–885.
29. Alexander H. Harcourt, Paul H. Harvey, Susan G. Larson, and R. V. Short, “Testis Weight, Body Weight and Breeding System in Primates,” Nature 293, no. 5827 (1981): 55–57.
30. Ruth Thomsen and Joseph Soltis, “Male Masturbation in Free-ranging Japanese Macaques,” International Journal of Primatology 25, no. 5 (2004): 1033–1041.
31. Jane M. Waterman, “The Adaptive Function of Masturbation in a Promiscuous African Ground Squirrel,” PloS one 5, no. 9 (2010): e13060.
32. James Valsa, Kalanghot Padmanabhan Skandhan, Prabhakar Gusani, Pulikkal Sahab Khan, Skandhan Amith, and Meenaxi Gondalia, “Effect of Daily Ejaculation on Semen Quality and Calcium and Magnesium in Semen,” Revista Internacional de Andrología 11, no. 3 (2013).
5. DO ANIMALS FALL IN LOVE?
1. Jeffrey M. Black and Mark Hulme, Partnerships in Birds: The Study of Monogamy: The Study of Monogamy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
2. Ulrich H. Reichard and Christophe Boesch, Monogamy: Mating Strategies and Partnerships in Birds, Humans and Other Mammals (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Virginia Morell, “A New look at Monogamy,” Science 281, no. 5385 (1998): 1982.
3. Larry J. Young and Zuoxin Wang, “The Neurobiology of Pair Bonding,” Nature Neuroscience 7, no. 10 (2004): 1048–1054.
4. C. Nathan De Wall, Omri Gillath, Sarah D. Pressman, Lora L. Black, Jennifer A. Bartz, Jackob Moskovitz, and Dean A. Stetler, “When the Love Hormone Leads to Violence: Oxytocin Increases Intimate Partner Violence Inclinations among High Trait Aggressive People,” Social Psychological and Personality Science no. 5 (2014): 691–697.
5. Young and Wang, “The Neurobiology of Pair Bonding,” 1048–1054.
6. Melvyn S. Soloff, Maria Alexandrova, and Martha J. Fernstrom, “Oxytocin Receptors: Triggers for Parturition and Lactation?” Science 204, no. 4399 (1979): 1313–1315.
7. Oliver J. Bosch, Simone L. Meddle, Daniela I. Beiderbeck, Alison J. Douglas, and Inga D. Neumann, “Brain Oxytocin Correlates with Maternal Aggression: Link to Anxiety,” Journal of Neuroscience 25, no. 29 (2005): 6807–6815.
8. Carsten K. W. De Dreu, Lindred L. Greer, Michel J. J. Handgraaf, Shaul Shalvi, Gerben A. Van Kleef, Matthijs Baas, Femke S. Ten Velden, Eric Van Dijk, and Sander W. W. Feith, “The Neuropeptide Oxytocin Regulates Parochial Altruism in Intergroup Conflict among Humans,” Science 328, no. 5984 (2010): 1408–1411.
9. Jennifer Bartz, Daphne Simeon, Holly Hamilton, Suah Kim, Sarah Crystal, Ashley Braun, Victor Vicens, and Eric Hollander, “Oxytocin can Hinder Trust and Cooperation in Borderline Personality Disorder,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 6 no. 5 (2011): nsq085.
10. Jennifer A. Bartz, Jamil Zaki, Niall Bolger, and Kevin N. Ochsner, “Social Effects of Oxytocin in Humans: Context and Person Matter,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 15, no. 7 (2011): 301–309.
11. Dirk Scheele, Nadine Striepens, Onur Güntürkün, Sandra Deutschländer, Wolfgang Maier, Keith M. Kendrick, and René Hurlemann, “Oxytocin Modulates Social Distance between Males and Females,” Journal of Neuroscience 32, no. 46 (2012): 16074–16079.
12. Jessie R. Williams, Thomas R. Insel, Carroll R. Harbaugh, and C. Sue Carter, “Oxytocin Administered Centrally Facilitates Formation of a Partner Preference in Female Prairie Voles (Microtus ochrogaster),” Journal of Neuroendocrinology 6, no. 3 (1994): 247–250.
13. Beate Ditzen, Marcel Schaer, Barbara Gabriel, Guy Bodenmann, Ulrike Ehlert, and Markus Heinrichs, “Intranasal Oxytocin Increases Positive Communication and Reduces Cortisol Levels During Couple Conflict,” Biological Psychiatry 65, no. 9 (2009): 728–731.
14. C. Nathan De Wall et al., “When the Love Hormone Leads to Violence.”
15. Olga A. Wudarczyk, Brian D. Earp, Adam Guastella, and Julian Savulescu, “Could Intranasal Oxytocin Be Used to Enhance Relationships? Research Imperatives, Clinical Policy, and Ethical Considerations,” Current Opinion in Psychiatry 26, no. 5 (2013): 474.
16. Charles R. Brown, Mary Bomberger Brown, and Martin L. Shaffer, “Food-sharing Signals Among Socially Foraging Cliff Swallows,” Animal Behaviour 42, no. 4 (1991): 551–564; John T. Emlen, “Territory, Nest Building, and Pair Formation in the Cliff Swallow,” The Auk 71, no. 1 (1954): 16–35; Charles R. Brown, Swallow Summer (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998).
17. Richard H. Wagner, “The Pursuit of Extra-pair Copulations by Female Birds: A New Hypothesis of Colony Formation,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 163, no. 3 (1993): 333–346.
18. Douglas E. Gladstone, “Promiscuity in Monogamous Colonial Birds,” American Naturalist 114, no. 4 (1979): 545–557.
19. Joan Roughgarden, Evolution’s Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
20. Charles R. Brown and Mary Bomberger Brown, “Genetic Evidence of Multiple Parentage in Broods of Cliff Swallows,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 23, no. 6 (1988): 379–387.
22. Charles R. Brown and Mary Bomberger Brown, “Behavioural Dynamics of Intraspecific Brood Parasitism in Colonial Cliff Swallows,” Animal Behaviour 37, no. 5 (1989): 777–796.
23. Roughgarden, Evolution’s Rainbow.
24. Wagner, “The Pursuit of Extra-pair Copulations by Female Birds,” 333–346.
25. Tim Clutton-Brock, “Breeding Together: Kin Selection and Mutualism in Cooperative Vertebrates,” Science 296, no. 5565 (2002): 69–72.
26. Charles R. Brown and Mary Bomberger Brown, Coloniality in the Cliff Swallow: The Effect of Group Size on Social Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
27. Brown and Bomberger Brown, “Genetic Evidence of Multiple Parentage in Broods of Cliff Swallows,” 379–387.
28. Robert W. Butler, “Wing Fluttering by Mud-gathering Cliff Swallows: Avoidance of ‘Rape’ Attempts?” The Auk 99, no. 4 (1982): 758–761; Charles Robert Brown, Swallow Summer.
29. Brown, Swallow Summer.
30. Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity (New York: Macmillan, 1999); Roughgarden, Evolution’s Rainbow.
31. Alistair D. Stutt and Michael T. Siva-Jothy, “Traumatic Insemination and Sexual Conflict in the Bed Bug Cimex lectularius,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 10 (2001): 5683–5687.
32. Camilla Ryne, “Homosexual Interactions in Bed Bugs: Alarm Pheromones as Male Recognition Signals,” Animal Behaviour 78, no. 6 (2009): 1471–1475.
33. E. B. Hale, “Visual Stimuli and Reproductive Behavior in Bulls,” Journal of Animal Science 25, (1966): 36–44.
34. Paul L. Vasey, “Same-sex Sexual Partner Preference in Hormonally and Neurologically Unmanipulated Animals,” Annual Review of Sex Research 13, no. 1 (2002): 141–179.
35. Bruce Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance.
36. Anne Innis Dagg, “Homosexual Behaviour and Female-male Mounting in Mammals—A First Survey,” Mammal Review 14, no. 4 (1984): 155–185.
37. Srđan Randić, Richard C. Connor, William B. Sherwin, and Michael Krützen, “A Novel Mammalian Social Structure in Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops sp.): Complex Male Alliances in an Open Social Network,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 282, no. 1813 (2012): rspb20120264.
38. Erin M. Scott, Janet Mann, Jana J. Watson-Capps, Brooke L. Sargeant, and Richard C. Connor, “Aggression in Bottlenose Dolphins: Evidence for Sexual Coercion, Male-Male Competition, and Female Tolerance through Analysis of Tooth-rake Marks and Behaviour,” Behaviour 142, no. 1 (2005): 21–44.
39. Charles E. Roselli and Fred Stormshak, “The Neurobiology of Sexual Partner Preferences in Rams,” Hormones and Behavior 55, no. 5 (2009): 611–620.
40. J. A. Resko, A. Perkins, C. E. Roselli, J. N. Stellflug, and F. K. Stormshak, “Sexual Behaviour of Rams: Male Orientation and Its Endocrine Correlates,” Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement 54, (1999): 259.
41. Bagemihl, Biological Exuberance.
42. Lindsay C. Young, Brenda J. Zaun, and Eric A. VanderWerf, “Successful Same-Sex Pairing in Laysan Albatross,” Biology Letters 4, no. 4 (2008): 323–325.
43. Justin Richardson and Peter Parnell, And Tango Makes Three (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015).
44. L. Wayne Braithwaite, “Ecological Studies of the Black Swan III. Behaviour and Social Organisation,” Wildlife Research 8, no. 1 (1981): 135–146.
45. Peter Bogucki, The Origins of Human Society (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1999).
46. Katherine Ralls, “Mammals in which Females Are Larger Than Males,” Quarterly Review of Biology 51, no. 2 (1976): 245–276.
47. L. David Mech, “Alpha Status, Dominance, and Division of Labor in Wolf Packs,” Canadian Journal of Zoology 77, no. 8 (1999): 1196–1203.
48. Paul L. Vasey, David S. Pocock, and Doug P. VanderLaan, “Kin Selection and Male Androphilia in Samoan Fa’afafine,” Evolution and Human Behavior 28, no. 3 (2007): 159–167.
49. Andrea Camperio-Ciani, Francesca Corna, and Claudio Capiluppi, “Evidence for Maternally Inherited Factors Favouring Male Homosexuality and Promoting Female Fecundity,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 271, no. 1554 (2004): 2217–2221; Qazi Rahman, Anthony Collins, Martine Morrison, Jennifer Claire Orrells, Khatija Cadinouche, Sherene Greenfield, and Sabina Begum, “Maternal Inheritance and Familial Fecundity Factors in Male Homosexuality,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 37, no. 6 (2008): 962–969; Francesca Iemmola and Andrea Camperio Ciani, “New Evidence of Genetic Factors Influencing Sexual Orientation in Men: Female Fecundity Increase in the Maternal Line,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 38, no. 3 (2009): 393–399; Andrea Camperio Ciani, Francesca Iemmola, and Stan R. Blecher, “Genetic Factors Increase Fecundity in Female Maternal Relatives of Bisexual Men as in Homosexuals,” Journal of Sexual Medicine 6, no. 2 (2009): 449–455; Doug P. VanderLaan and Paul L. Vasey, “Male Sexual Orientation in Independent Samoa: Evidence for Fraternal Birth Order and Maternal Fecundity Effects,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 40, no. 3 (2011): 495–503.
50. J. A. Resko, A. Perkins, C. E. Roselli, J. N. Stellflug, and F. K. Stormshak, “Sexual Behaviour of Rams, 259.
51. Stella Hu, Angela M. L. Pattatucci, Chavis Patterson, Lin Li, David W. Fulker, Stacey S. Cherny, Leonid Kruglyak, and Dean H. Hamer, “Linkage between Sexual Orientation and Chromosome Xq28 in Males but Not in Females,” Nature Genetics 11, no. 3 (1995): 248–256.
52. T. Bereczkei, P. Gyuris, P. Koves, and L. Bernath, “Homogamy, Genetic Similarity, and Imprinting; Parental Influence on Mate Choice Preferences,” Personality and Individual Differences 33, no. 5 (2002): 677–690.
53. A. C. Little, I. S. Penton-Voak, D. M. Burt, and D. I. Perrett, “Investigating an Imprinting-like Phenomenon in Humans: Partners and Opposite-sex Parents Have Similar Hair and Eye Colour,” Evolution and Human Behavior 24, no. 1 (2003): 43–51.
54. Agnieszka Wiszewska, Boguslaw Pawlowski, and Lynda G. Boothroyd, “Father–Daughter Relationship as a Moderator of Sexual Imprinting: A Facialmetric Study,” Evolution and Human Behavior 28, no. 4 (2007): 248–252; Tamas Bereczkei, Petra Gyuris, and Glenn E. Weisfeld, “Sexual Imprinting in Human Mate Choice,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 271, no. 1544 (2004): 1129–1134; Glenn D. Wilson and Paul T. Barrett, “Parental Characteristics and Partner Choice: Some Evidence for Oedipal Imprinting,” Journal of Biosocial Science 19, no. 2 (1987): 157–161.
55. Edward Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage (New York: Macmillan, 1921).
56. Joseph Shepher, “Mate Selection among Second Generation Kibbutz Adolescents and Adults: Incest Avoidance and Negative Imprinting,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 1, no. 4 (1971): 293–307.
58. Melford E. Spiro, Children of the Kibbutz (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958).
59. Eran Shor and Dalit Simchai, “Incest Avoidance, the Incest Taboo, and Social Cohesion: Revisiting Westermarck and the Case of the Israeli Kibbutzim,” American Journal of Sociology 114, no. 6 (2009): 1803–1842.
60. David F. Aberle, Urie Bronfenbrenner, Eckhard H. Hess, Daniel R. Miller, David M. Schneider, and James N. Spuhler, “The Incest Taboo and the Mating Patterns of Animals,” American Anthropologist 65, no. 2 (1963): 253–265.
61. Jane Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986).
62. Lewis Thomas, The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher (New York: Viking, 1978).
63. Suma Jacob, Martha K. McClintock, Bethanne Zelano, and Carole Ober, “Paternally Inherited HLA Alleles are Associated with Women’s Choice of Male Odor,” Nature Genetics 30, no. 2 (2002): 175–179.
64. Trese Leinders-Zufall, Peter Brennan, Patricia Widmayer, Andrea Maul-Pavicic, Martina Jäger, Xiao-Hong Li, Heinz Breer, Frank Zufall, and Thomas Boehm, “MHC Class I Peptides as Chemosensory Signals in the Vomeronasal Organ,” Science 306, no. 5698 (2004): 1033–1037.
65. T. Tregenza and N. Wedell, “Genetic Compatibility, Mate Choice and Patterns of Parentage: Invited Review,” Molecular Ecology 9, no. 8 (2000): 1013–1027.
66. Claus Wedekind, Thomas Seebeck, Florence Bettens, and Alexander J. Paepke, “MHC-dependent Mate Preferences in Humans,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 260, no. 1359 (1995): 245–249.
67. Jacob et al., “Paternally Inherited HLA Alleles are Associated with Women’s Choice of Male Odor,” 175–179.
68. Wedekind et al., “MHC-dependent Mate Preferences in Humans,” 245–249.
6. THE AGONY OF GRIEF
1. Jane Goodall, Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010).
2. Barbara J. King, How Animals Grieve (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
3. Diana Reiss and Lori Marino, “Mirror Self-recognition in the Bottlenose Dolphin: A Case of Cognitive Convergence,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 10 (2001): 5937–5942.
4. Rowan Hooper, “Dolphins Appear to Grieve in Different Ways,” New Scientist 211, no. 2828 (2011): 10.
6. Francesco Mazzini, Simon W. Townsend, Zsófia Virányi, and Friederike Range, “Wolf Howling is Mediated by Relationship Quality Rather than Underlying Emotional Stress,” Current Biology 23, no. 17 (2013): 1677–1680.
7. Rennie Bere, The African Elephant (West Sussex, UK: Littlehampton Book Services, 1966).
8. Joyce Poole, Coming of Age with Elephants: A Memoir (New York: Hyperion, 1996).
13. Carrie Packwood Freeman, Marc Bekoff, and Sarah M. Bexell, “Giving Voice to the ‘Voiceless:’ Incorporating Nonhuman Animal Perspectives as Journalistic Sources,” Journalism Studies 12, no. 5 (2011): 590–607.
14. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927), 397.
15. Marc Bekoff and Jane Goodall, Minding Animals: Awareness, Emotions, and Heart (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
16. Robert W. Mitchell, Nicholas S. Thompson, and H. Lyn Miles, Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes, and Animals (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997).
17. Vicki Hamilton, Karen Evans, Ben Raymond, and Mark A. Hindell, “Environmental Influences on Tooth Growth in Sperm Whales from Southern Australia,” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 446 (2013): 236–244.
18. Mary-Frances O’Connor, Michael R. Irwin, and David K. Wellisch, “When Grief Heats Up: Pro-inflammatory Cytokines Predict Regional Brain Activation,” Neuroimage 47, no. 3 (2009): 891–896.
19. C. Sue Carter, “Neuroendocrine Perspectives on Social Attachment and Love,” Psychoneuroendocrinology 23, no. 8 (1998): 779–818; Jaak Panksepp, “Oxytocin Effects on Emotional Processes: Separation Distress, Social Bonding, and Relationships to Psychiatric Disorders,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 652, no. 1 (1992): 243–252.
20. Miranda M. Lim and Larry J. Young, “Neuropeptidergic Regulation of Affiliative Behavior and Social Bonding in Animals,” Hormones and Behavior 50, no. 4 (2006): 506–517.
21. James R. Averill, Emotions in Personality and Psychopathology (New York: Plenum, 1979), 337–368.
22. John Archer, “Grief from an Evolutionary Perspective,” in Handbook of Bereavement Research: Consequences, Coping, and Care, ed. Margaret S. Stroebe (Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association, 2001): 263–83.
23. Anne L. Engh, Jacinta C. Beehner, Thore J. Bergman, Patricia L. Whitten, Rebekah R. Hoffmeier, Robert M. Seyfarth, and Dorothy L. Cheney, “Behavioural and Hormonal Responses to Predation in Female Chacma Baboons (Papio hamadryas ursinus),” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273, no. 1587 (2006): 707–712.
25. Joyce Poole, Coming of Age with Elephants: A Memoir (New York: Hyperion, 1996).
27. Karen McComb, Lucy Baker, and Cynthia Moss, “African Elephants Show High Levels of Interest in the Skulls and Ivory of Their Own Species,” Biology Letters 2, no. 1 (2006): 26–28.
28. Michael Parker Pearson, The Archaeology of Death and Burial (Phoenix Mill, UK: Sutton, 1999).
29. William Rendu, Cédric Beauval, Isabelle Crevecoeur, Priscilla Bayle, Antoine Balzeau, Thierry Bismuth, Laurence Bourguignon, Géraldine Delfour, Jean-Philippe Faivre, and François Lacrampe-Cuyaubère, “Evidence Supporting an Intentional Neandertal Burial at La Chapelle-aux-Saints,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 1 (2014): 81–86.
30. Paul Pettitt, The Palaeolithic Origins of Human Burial (London: Routledge, 2013).
31. Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2000).
33. T. L. Iglesias, R. McElreath, and G. L. Patricelli, “Western Scrub-Jay Funerals: Cacophonous Aggregations in Response to Dead Conspecifics,” Animal Behaviour 84, no. 5 (2012): 1103–1111.
35. Marc Bekoff, “Are You Feeling What I’m Feeling?” New Scientist 194, no. 2605 (2007): 42–47.
36. Barbara J. King, “When Animals Mourn,” Scientific American 309, no. 1 (2013): 62–67.
37. Konrad Lorenz, Michael Martys, and Angelika Tipler, Here Am I: Where Are You?: The Behavior of the Greylag Goose (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1991).
39. Carol Buckley, Tarra & Bella: The Elephant and Dog Who Became Best Friends (London: Penguin, 2009).
40. Francine Patterson, Koko’s Kitten (New York: Scholastic, 1995).
7. JEALOUS BEASTS
1. Esther Herrmann, Josep Call, María Victoria Hernández-Lloreda, Brian Hare, and Michael Tomasello, “Humans Have Evolved Specialized Skills of Social Cognition: The Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis,” Science 317, no. 5843 (2007): 1360–1366; Anne E. Russon, “Naturalistic Approaches to Orangutan Intelligence and the Question of Enculturation,” International Journal of Comparative Psychology 12, no. 4 (1999).
3. “Killed By Gorilla,” Alexandria Gazette, March 10, 1902).
4. J. Wong and Nico K. Michiels, “Control of Social Monogamy through Aggression in a Hermaphroditic Shrimp,” Front Zool 8, no. 30 (2011): 30–37.
5. Marta M. Rufino and David A. Jones, “Binary Individual Recognition in Lysmata Debelius (Decapoda: Hippolytidae) under Laboratory Conditions,” Journal of Crustacean Biology 21, no. 2 (2001): 388–392.
6. Sally P. Mendoza and William A. Mason, “Parental Division of Labour and Differentiation of Attachments in a Monogamous Primate (Callicebus moloch),” Animal Behaviour 34, no. 5 (1986): 1336–1347.
7. D. D. Cubicciotti III and W. A. Mason, “Comparative Studies of Social Behavior in Callicebus and Saimiri: Heterosexual Jealousy Behavior,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 3, no. 3 (1978): 311–322.
8. Dorothy L. Cheney and Robert M. Seyfarth, Baboon Metaphysics: The Evolution of a Social Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008).
9. Susan C. Alberts, Jeanne Altmann, and Michael L. Wilson, “Mate Guarding Constrains Foraging Activity of Male Baboons,” Animal Behaviour 51, no. 6 (1996): 1269–1277.
10. Ryne A. Palombit and Julia Fischer Cheney, “Male Infanticide and Defense of Infants in Chacma Baboons,” in Infanticide by Males and Its Implications, ed. Carel van Schaik and Charles Janson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000): 123–152.
11. David P. Watts, “Infanticide in Mountain Gorillas: New Cases and a Reconsideration of the Evidence,” Ethology 81, no. 1 (1989): 1–18.
12. “Third Tragedy Hits London Zoo’s Gorillas: First Two Males Die…Now Baby Tiny is Crushed by Jealous Silverback,” The Daily Mail, 14 May 2011.
13. Barry S. Hewlett, Father-Child Relations: Cultural and Biosocial Contexts (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1992).
14. David M. Buss, Randy J. Larsen, Drew Westen, and Jennifer Semmelroth, “Sex Differences in Jealousy: Evolution, Physiology, and Psychology,” Psychological Science 3, no. 4 (1992): 251–255.
15. Barbara Smuts, “The Evolutionary Origins of Patriarchy,” Human Nature 6, no. 1 (1995): 1–32.
16. A. Cooper and E. L. Smith. “Homicide in the U.S. Known to Law Enforcement, 2011” (Washington D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2013).
17. David M. Buss, The Murderer Next Door: Why the Mind is Designed to Kill (New York: Penguin, 2006).
18. Susan Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York: Open Road Media, 2013).
19. James K. Rilling, James T. Winslow, and Clinton D. Kilts, “The Neural Correlates of Mate Competition in Dominant Male Rhesus Macaques,” Biological Psychiatry 56, no. 5 (2004): 364–375.
20. Karen L. Bales, William A. Mason, Ciprian Catana, Simon R. Cherry, and Sally P. Mendoza, “Neural Correlates of Pair-bonding in a Monogamous Primate,” Brain Research 1184 (2007): 245–253.
21. Hidehiko Takahashi, Masato Matsuura, Noriaki Yahata, Michihiko Koeda, Tetsuya Suhara, and Yoshiro Okubo, “Men and Women Show Distinct Brain Activations during Imagery of Sexual and Emotional Infidelity,” Neurolmage 32, no. 3 (2006): 1299–1307.
22. Heidi Greiling and David M. Buss, “Women’s Sexual Strategies: The Hidden Dimension of Extra-pair Mating,” Personality and Individual Differences 28, no. 5 (2000): 929–963.
23. Bram P. Buunk and Pieternel Dijkstra, “Men, Women, and Infidelity: Sex Differences in Extradyadic Sex and Jealousy,” in The State of Affairs: Explorations in Infidelity and Commitment, ed. J. Duncombe, K. Harrison, G. Allan, and D. Marsden (New York: Routledge, 2004), 103–120.
24. Steven W. Gangestad, Randy Thornhill, and Christine E. Garver, “Changes in Women’s Sexual Interests and Their Partner’s Mate–retention Tactics across the Menstrual Cycle: Evidence for Shifting Conflicts of Interest,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 269, no. 1494 (2002): 975–982.
25. Nancy Burley, “The Evolution of Concealed Ovulation,” American Naturalist 114, no. 6 (1979): 835–858.
26. Brad J. Sagarin, D. Vaughn Becker, Rosanna E. Guadagno, Wayne W. Wilkinson, and Lionel D. Nicastle, “A Reproductive Threat-based Model of Evolved Sex Differences in Jealousy,” Evolutionary Psychology 10, no. 3 (2012): 487.
27. Christopher J. Carpenter, “Meta-analyses of Sex Differences in Responses to Sexual versus Emotional Infidelity in Men and Women Are More Similar than Different,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 36, no. 1 (2012): 25–37.
28. Brian C. Bertram, “The Social System of Lions,” Scientific American 232, no. 5 (1975).
8. DARKER STILL
1. John T. Emlen, “Social Behavior in Nesting Cliff Swallows,” The Condor 54, no. 4 (1952): 177–199.
2. John L. Hoogland and Paul W. Sherman, “Advantages and Disadvantages of Bank Swallow (Riparia riparia) Coloniality,” Ecological Monographs 46, no. 1 (1976): 33–58.
3. Charles R. Brown and Mary Bomberger Brown, “Selection of High-quality Host Nests by Parasitic Cliff Swallows,” Animal Behaviour 41, no. 3 (1991): 457–465.
4. Angela D. Bryan, Gregory D. Webster, and Amanda L. Mahaffey, “The Big, the Rich, and the Powerful: Physical, Financial, and Social Dimensions of Dominance in Mating and Attraction,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37, no. 3 (2011): 365–382.
5. Nadia R. Bardack and Francis T. McAndrew, “The Influence of Physical Attractiveness and Manner of Dress on Success in a Simulated Personnel Decision,” Journal of Social Psychology 125, no. 6 (1985): 777–778.
6. Matthew Mulford, John Orbell, Catherine Shatto, and Jean Stockard, “Physical Attractiveness, Opportunity, and Success in Everyday Exchange 1,” American Journal of Sociology 103, no. 6 (1998): 1565–1592.
7. Chris J. Boyatzis, Peggy Baloff, and Cheri Durieux, “Effects of Perceived Attractiveness and Academic Success on Early Adolescent peer Popularity,” Journal of Genetic Psychology 159, no. 3 (1998): 337–344.
8. Larry L. Wolf and F. Reed Hainsworth, “Time and Energy Budgets of Territorial Hummingbirds,” Ecology 52, no. 6 (1971): 980–988.
9. John Byers, Eileen Hebets, and Jeffrey Podos, “Female Mate Choice Based upon Male Motor Performance,” Animal Behaviour 79, no. 4 (2010): 771–778.
10. Jerram L. Brown, “The Evolution of Diversity in Avian Territorial Systems,” Wilson Bulletin 76, no. 2 (1964): 160–169.
11. Celia Haigh Holm, “Breeding Sex Ratios, Territoriality, and Reproductive Success in the Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus),” Ecology 54, no. 2 (1973): 356–365.
12. J. Roughgarden, Evolution’s Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
13. William F. Wood, Miranda N. Terwilliger, and Jeffrey P. Copeland, “Volatile Compounds from Anal Glands of the Wolverine, Gulo gulo,” Journal of Chemical Ecology 31, no. 9 (2005): 2111–2117.
14. Hiroshi Yamada, Agnieszka Tymula, Kenway Louie, and Paul W. Glimcher, “Thirst-dependent Risk Preferences in Monkeys Identify a Primitive Form of Wealth,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 39 (2013): 15788–15793.
15. Charles A. Holt and Susan K. Laury, “Risk Aversion and Incentive Effects,” American Economic Review 92, no. 5 (2002): 1644–1655.
16. Kristy van Marle, Justine Aw, Koleen McCrink, and Laurie R. Santos, “How Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella) Quantify Objects and Substances,” Journal of Comparative Psychology 120, no. 4 (2006): 416.
17. M. Keith Chen, Venkat Lakshminarayanan, and Laurie R. Santos, “How Basic Are Behavioral Biases? Evidence from Capuchin Monkey Trading Behavior,” Journal of Political Economy 114, no. 3 (2006): 517–537.
18. Venkat Lakshminaryanan, M. Keith Chen, and Laurie R. Santos, “Endowment Effect in Capuchin Monkeys,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363, no. 1511 (2008): 3837–3844.
19. Richard B. D’Eath, Bert J. Tolkamp, Ilias Kyriazakis, and Alistair B. Lawrence, “ ‘Freedom from Hunger’ and Preventing Obesity: The Animal Welfare Implications of Reducing Food Quantity or Quality,” Animal Behaviour 77, no. 2 (2009): 275–288.
20. Amy Luke, Lara R. Dugas, Kara Ebersole, Ramon A Durazo-Arvizu, Guichan Cao, Dale A. Schoeller, Adebowale Adeyemo, William R. Brieger, and Richard S. Cooper, “Energy Expenditure Does Not Predict Weight Change in Either Nigerian or African American Women,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 89, no. 1 (2009): 169–176.
21. Peter N. Stearns, Fat History: Bodies and Beauty in the Modern West (New York: NYU Press, 2002).
22. L. J. Arone, Ronald Mackintosh, Michael Rosenbaum, Rudolph L. Leibel, and Jules Hirsch, “Autonomic Nervous System Activity in Weight Gain and Weight Loss,” American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 269, no. 1 (1995): R222–R225.
23. Eric Ravussin, Stephen Lillioja, William C. Knowler, Laurent Christin, Daniel Freymond, William G. H. Abbott, Vicky Boyce, Barbara V. Howard, and Clifton Bogardus, “Reduced Rate of Energy Expenditure as a Risk Factor for Body-weight Gain,” New England Journal of Medicine 318, no. 8 (1988): 467–472.
9. AFRAID OF THE DARK
1. Robert Plutchik, “The Nature of Emotions: Human Emotions Have Deep Evolutionary Roots, a Fact That May Explain Their Complexity and Provide Tools for Clinical Practice,” American Scientist 89, no. 4 (2001): 344–350.
2. Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (New York: D. Appleton, 1886), 38.
3. Peter J. Lang, Margaret M. Bradley, and Bruce N. Cuthbert, “Emotion, Attention, and the Startle Reflex,” Psychological Review 97, no. 3 (1990): 377.
4. Robert C. Eaton, Neural Mechanisms of Startle Behavior (New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2013).
5. Edmund D. Brodie, “Predator-Prey Arms Races: Asymmetrical Selection on Predators and Prey May be Reduced When Prey Are Dangerous,” Bioscience 49, no. 7 (1999): 557–568.
6. John B. Watson, and Rosalie Rayner, “Conditioned Emotional Reactions,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 3, no. 1 (1920): 1.
7. Markus Fendt and Michael S. Fanselow, “The Neuroanatomical and Neurochemical Basis of Conditioned Fear,” Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 23, no. 5 (1999): 743–760.
8. Michael Davis, “The Role of the Amygdala in Fear and Anxiety,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 15, no. 1 (1992): 353–375.
9. Ahmad R. Hariri, Susan Y. Bookheimer, and John C. Mazziotta, “Modulating Emotional Responses: Effects of a Neocortical Network on the Limbic System,” Neuroreport 11, no. 1 (2000): 43–48.
10. Frederick A. King, “Effects of Septal and Amygdaloid Lesions on Emotional Behavior and Conditioned Avoidance Responses in the Rat,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 126, no. 1 (1958): 57–63.
11. Mark Barad, Po-Wu Gean, and Beat Lutz, “The Role of the Amygdala in the Extinction of Conditioned Fear,” Biological Psychiatry 60, no. 4 (2006): 322–328.
12. Stefan G. Hofmann, “Cognitive Processes during Fear Acquisition and Extinction in Animals and Humans: Implications for Exposure Therapy of Anxiety Disorders,” Clinical Psychology Review 28, no. 2 (2008): 199–210.
13. Gregory S. Berns, Jonathan Chappelow, Milos Cekic, Caroline F. Zink, Giuseppe Pagnoni, and Megan E. Martin-Skurski, “Neurobiological Substrates of Dread,” Science 312, no. 5774 (2006): 754–758.
14. Giles W. Story, Ivaylo Vlaev, Ben Seymour, Joel S. Winston, Ara Darzi, and Raymond J. Dolan, “Dread and the Disvalue of Future Pain,” PLoS Computational Biology 9, no. 11 (2013): e1003335; Simon Makin, “Waiting for Pain Can Cause More Dread Than Pain Itself,” New Scientist 220, no. 2945 (2013): 16.
15. Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing, and Elizabeth A. Phelps, “Learning Fears by Observing Others: The Neural Systems of Social Fear Transmission,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2, no. 1 (2007): 3–11.
16. Andreas Olsson and Elizabeth A. Phelps, “Social Learning of Fear,” Nature Neuroscience 10, no. 9 (2007): 1095–1102.
17. Mark J. Boschen, “Reconceptualizing Emetophobia: A Cognitive–Behavioral Formulation and Research Agenda,” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 21, no. 3 (2007): 407–419.
18. Vincent Paquette, Johanne Lévesque, Boualem Mensour, Jean-Maxime Leroux, Gilles Beaudoin, Pierre Bourgouin, and Mario Beauregard, “ ‘Change the Mind and You Change the Brain’: Effects of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy on the Neural Correlates of Spider Phobia,” Neuroimage 18, no. 2 (2003): 401–409.
19. Aaron T. Beck, Gary Emery, and Ruth L. Greenberg, Anxiety Disorders and Phobias: A Cognitive Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Basic Books, 2005); Jan Resnick, “Far-out Philias and Phobias,” Psychotherapy in Australia 17, no. 4 (2011): 65; and “The Ultimate List of Phobias and Fears,” http://www.fearof.net.
20. Karen L. Overall, Arthur E. Dunham, and Diane Frank, “Frequency of Nonspecific Clinical Signs in Dogs with Separation Anxiety, Thunderstorm Phobia, and Noise Phobia, Alone or in Combination,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219, no. 4 (2001): 467–473.
21. David M. Clark, Anke Ehlers, Ann Hackmann, Freda McManus, Melanie Fennell, Nick Grey, Louise Waddington, and Jennifer Wild, “Cognitive Therapy versus Exposure and Applied Relaxation in Social Phobia: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74, no. 3 (2006): 568.
22. Arne Öhman, “Face the Beast and Fear the Face: Animal and Social Fears as Prototypes for Evolutionary Analyses of Emotion,” Psychophysiology 23, no. 2 (1986): 123–145.
23. Douglas W. Morrison, “Lunar Phobia in a Neotropical Fruit Bat, Artibevs jamaicensis (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae),” Animal Behaviour 26, no. 3 (1978): 852–855.
24. Sharon Gursky, “Lunar Philia in a Nocturnal Primate,” International Journal of Primatology 24, no. 2 (2003): 351–367.
25. Sharon Gursky and K.A.I. Nekaris, Primate Anti-predator Strategies (New York: Springer, 2007).
26. Martin E. P. Seligman, “Phobias and Preparedness,” Behavior Therapy 2, no. 3 (1971): 307–320.
27. Judy S. DeLoache and Vanessa LoBue, “The Narrow Fellow in the Grass: Human Infants Associate Snakes and Fear,” Developmental Science 12, no. 1 (2009): 201–207.
28. Glenn E. King, “The Attentional Basis for Primate Responses to Snakes,” Annual Meeting of the American Society of Primatologists, San Diego, California (June 1997).
29. Michael Cook and Susan Mineka, “Selective Associations in the Observational Conditioning of Fear in Rhesus Monkeys,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 16, no. 4 (1990): 372.
30. Susan Mineka, “A Primate Model of Phobic Fears,” in Theoretical Foundations of Behavior Therapy, ed. H. Eysenck and I. Martin (New York: Springer, 1987), 81–111.
31. Lynne A. Isbell, “Snakes as Agents of Evolutionary Change in Primate Brains,” Journal of Human Evolution 51, no. 1 (2006): 1–35.
32. Charles Siebert, “Orphan Elephants,” National Geographic, September 2011.
33. Gay A. Bradshaw, Allan N. Schore, Janine L. Brown, Joyce H. Poole, and Cynthia J. Moss, “Elephant Breakdown,” Nature 433, no. 7028 (2005): 807–807; Graeme Shannon, Rob Slotow, Sarah M. Durant, Katito N. Sayialel, Joyce Poole, Cynthia Moss, and Karen McComb, “Effects of Social Disruption in Elephants Persist Decades after Culling,” Frontiers in Zoology 10, no. 1 (2013): 62.
34. Hope R. Ferdowsian, Debra L. Durham, Charles Kimwele, Godelieve Kranendonk, Emily Otali, Timothy Akugizibwe, J. B. Mulcahy, Lilly Ajarova, and Cassie Meré Johnson, “Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees,” PLoS One 6, no. 6 (2011): e19855.
35. Richard G. Lister, “Ethologically-based Animal Models of Anxiety Disorders,” Pharmacology & Therapeutics 46, no. 3 (1990): 321–340.
10. THE RICHNESS OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
1. Jared Diamond, “The Great Leap Forward,” Discover Magazine, October 1989, 15–23.
2. Constance Holden, “The Origin of Speech,” Science 303, no. 5662 (2004): 1316–1319; Elizabeth Pennisi, “The First Language?,” Science 303, no. 5662 (2004): 1319–1320.
3. Barbara Pease and Allan Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York: Bantam, 2004).
4. Donald D. Price, Ronald Dubner, and James W Hu, “Trigeminothalamic Neurons in Nucleus Caudalis Responsive to Tactile, Thermal, and Nociceptive Stimulation of Monkey’s Face,” Journal of Neurophysiology 39, no. 5 (1976): 936–953; Richard A. Depue and Jeannine V. Morrone-Strupinsky, “A Neurobehavioral Model of Affiliative Bonding: Implications for Conceptualizing a Human Trait of Affiliation,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28, no. 3 (2005): 313–349.
5. John R. Krebs and Richard Dawkins, “Animal Signals: Mind-Reading and Manipulation,” in Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach, ed. J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies (Oxford: Blackwell, 1984), 380–402.
6. Signe Preuschoft, “Primate Faces and Facial Expressions,” Social Research 67, no. 1 (2000): 245–271.
7. Harry Walter Greene, “Antipredator Mechanisms in Reptiles,” Biology of the Reptilia 16 (1988): 1–152.
8. Rufus A. Johnstone, “Honest Advertisement of Multiple Qualities Using Multiple Signals,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 177, no. 1 (1995): 87–94.
9. Claire D. FitzGibbon and John H. Fanshawe, “Stotting in Thomson’s Gazelles: An Honest Signal of Condition,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 23, no. 2 (1988): 69–74.
11. T. M. Caro, “The Functions of Stotting: A Review of the Hypotheses,” Animal Behaviour 34, no. 3 (1986): 649–662.
12. Oren Hasson, “Pursuit-Deterrent Signals: Communication Between Prey and Predator,” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 6, no. 10 (1991): 325–329.
13. Klaus Zuberbühler, Ronald Noë, and Robert M. Seyfarth, “Diana Monkey Longdistance Calls: Messages for Conspecifics and Predators,” Animal Behaviour 53, no. 3 (1997): 589–604.
14. Paul Ekman, Wallace V. Friesen, Maureen O’Sullivan, Anthony Chan, Irene Diacoyanni-Tarlatzis, Karl Heider, Rainer Krause, William Ayhan LeCompte, Tom Pitcairn, and Pio E. Ricci-Bitti, “Universals and Cultural Differences in the Judgments of Facial Expressions of Emotion,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53, no. 4 (1987): 712.
15. Dale J. Langford, Andrea L. Bailey, Mona Lisa Chanda, Sarah E. Clarke, Tanya E. Drummond, Stephanie Echols, Sarah Glick, Joelle Ingrao, Tammy Klassen-Ross, and Michael L. LaCroix-Fralish, “Coding of Facial Expressions of Pain in the Laboratory Mouse,” Nature Methods 7, no. 6 (2010): 447–449.
16. Susana G. Sotocinal, Robert E. Sorge, Austin Zaloum, Alexander H. Tuttle, Loren J. Martin, Jeffrey S. Wieskopf, Josiane C. S. Mapplebeck, Peng Wei, Shu Zhan, and Shuren Zhang, “The Rat Grimace Scale: A Partially Automated Method for Quantifying Pain in the Laboratory Rat via Facial Expressions,” Molecular Pain 7, no. 1 (2011): 55.
17. Amanda C. de C. Williams, “Facial Expression of Pain, Empathy, Evolution, and Social Learning,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25, no. 04 (2002): 475–480.
18. Larry Gray, Lisa W. Miller, Barbara L. Philipp, and Elliott M. Blass, “Breastfeeding Is Analgesic in Healthy Newborns,” Pediatrics 109, no. 4 (2002): 590–593.
19. Williams, “Facial Expression of Pain, Empathy, Evolution, and Social Learning,” 475–480; Thomas Hadjistavropoulos, Kenneth D. Craig, Steve Duck, Annmarie Cano, Liesbet Goubert, Philip L. Jackson, Jeffrey S. Mogil, Pierre Rainville, Michael J. L. Sullivan, and Amanda C. de C. Williams, “A Biopsychosocial Formulation of Pain Communication,” Psychological Bulletin 137, no. 6 (2011): 910.
20. Elisabeth H. M. Sterck, and Brigitte M. A. Goossens, “The Meaning of “Macaque” Facial Expressions,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105, no. (2008): E71; Dario Maestripieri, “Gestural Communication in Macaques: Usage and Meaning of Nonvocal Signals,” Evolution of Communication 1, no. 2 (1997): 193–222.
21. Mary L. Phillips, Andy W. Young, Carl Senior, Michael Brammer, Chris Andrew, Andrew J. Calder, Edward T. Bullmore, D. I. Perrett, D. Rowland, and S. C. R. Williams, “A Specific Neural Substrate for Perceiving Facial Expressions of Disgust,” Nature 389, no. 6650 (1997): 495–498.
22. Gisela Kaplan, and Lesley J. Rogers, “Patterns of Gazing in Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus),” International Journal of Primatology 23, no. 3 (2002): 501–526.
23. Marina Davila Ross, Susanne Menzler, and Elke Zimmermann, “Rapid Facial Mimicry in Orangutan Play,” Biology Letters 4, no. 1 (2008): 27–30.
24. Adam Kendon, Thomas A Sebeok, and Jean Umiker-Sebeok, Nonverbal Communication, Interaction, and Gesture: Selections from Semiotica (The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1981).
25. Lisa A. Parr and Bridget M. Waller, “Understanding Chimpanzee Facial Expression: Insights into the Evolution of Communication,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 1, no. 3 (2006): 221–228.
26. Paul Ekman and Erika L. Rosenberg, What the Face Reveals: Basic and Applied Studies of Spontaneous Expression Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
27. Sarah-Jane Vick, Bridget M. Waller, Lisa A. Parr, Marcia C. Smith Pasqualini, and Kim A. Bard, “A Cross-species Comparison of Facial Morphology and Movement in Humans and Chimpanzees Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS),” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 31, no. 1 (2007): 1–20.
28. Satoshi Hirata, Goh Matsuda, Ari Ueno, Hirokata Fukushima, Koki Fuwa, Keiko Sugama, Kiyo Kusunoki, Masaki Tomonaga, Kazuo Hiraki, and Toshikazu Hasegawa, “Brain Response to Affective Pictures in the Chimpanzee,” Scientific Reports 3, no. 1342 (2013).
29. Miho Nagasawa, Kensuke Murai, Kazutaka Mogi, and Takefumi Kikusui, “Dogs Can Discriminate Human Smiling Faces from Blank Expressions,” Animal Cognition 14, no. 4 (2011): 525–533.
30. Tina Bloom and Harris Friedman, “Classifying Dogs’ (Canis familiaris) Facial Expressions from Photographs,” Behavioural Processes 96 (2013): 1–10.
31. John D. Reynolds, Mark A. Colwell, and Fred Cooke, “Sexual Selection and Spring Arrival Times of Red-necked and Wilson’s Phalaropes,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 18, no. 4 (1986): 303–310.
32. K. Yasukawa, J. L. Blank, and C. B. Patterson, “Song Repertoires and Sexual Selection in the Red-winged Blackbird,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 7, no. 3 (1980): 233–238.
33. Myra O. Wiebe and M. Ross Lein, “Use of Song Types by Mountain Chickadees (Poecile gambeli),” Wilson Bulletin 111 no. 3 (1999): 368–375.
34. For a comprehensive review, see Clive K. Catchpole and Peter J. B. Slater, Bird Song: Biological Themes and Variations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
35. Masakazu Konishi, “Development of Auditory Neuronal Responses in Avian Embryos,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 70, no. 6 (1973): 1795–1798.
36. Peter Marler, “The Voice of the Chaffinch and Its Function as a Language,” Ibis 98, no. 2 (1956): 231–261.
37. Ryo Ito and Akira Mori, “Vigilance Against Predators Induced by Eavesdropping on Heterospecific Alarm Calls in a Non-vocal Lizard Oplurus cuvieri cuvieri (Reptilia: Iguania),” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 277, no. 1685 (2010): 1275–1280.
38. Patricia M. Gray, Bernie Krause, Jelle Atema, Roger Payne, Carol Krumhansl, and Luis Baptista, “Biology and Music: The Music of Nature and the Nature of Music,” Science-International Edition-AAAS 291, no. 5501 (2001): 52–53.
39. David A. Helweg, Adam S. Frankel, Joseph R. Mobley Jr., and Louis M. Herman. “Humpback Whale Song: Our Current Understanding,” in Marine Mammal Sensory Systems, ed. Jeanette A. Thomas, Ronald A. Kastelein, and Alexander A Supin (New York: Springer, 1992), 459–483.
40. Mark A. McDonald, Sarah L. Mesnick, and John A. Hildebrand, “Biogeographic Characterization of Blue Whale Song Worldwide: Using Song to Identify Populations,” Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 8, no. 1 (2006): 55–65.
41. Constantine Nicholas Slobodchikoff, Bianca S. Perla, and Jennifer L. Verdolin, Prairie Dogs: Communication and Community in an Animal Society (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009).
42. Constantine Nicholas Slobodchikoff, C. Fischer, and J. Shapiro. “Predator-specific Words in Prairie Dog Alarm Calls,” American Zoologist 26, no.105 (1986): 557.
43. Constantine Nicholas Slobodchikoff, Judith Kiriazis, C. Fischer, and E. Creef, “Semantic Information Distinguishing Individual Predators in the Alarm Calls of Gunnison’s Prairie Dogs,” Animal Behaviour 42, no. 5 (1991): 713–719.
44. Slobodchikoff, Perla, and Verdolin, Prairie Dogs.
45. Constantine Nicholas Slobodchikoff and R. Coast, “Dialects in the Alarm Calls of Prairie Dogs,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 7, no. 1 (1980): 49–53.
46. Constantine Nicholas Slobodchikoff, Chasing Doctor Dolittle: Learning the Language of Animals (New York: Macmillan, 2012).
47. Robert M. Seyfarth, Dorothy L. Cheney, and Peter Marler, “Vervet Monkey Alarm Calls: Semantic Communication in a Free-ranging Primate,” Animal Behaviour 28, no. 4 (1980): 1070–1094.
48. Robert M. Seyfarth, Dorothy L. Cheney, and Peter Marler, “Monkey Responses to Three Different Alarm Calls: Evidence of Predator Classification and Semantic Communication,” Science 210, no. 4471 (1980): 801–803.
49. Robert M. Seyfarth and Dorothy L. Cheney, “Production, Usage, and Comprehension in Animal Vocalizations,” Brain and Language 115, no. 1 (2010): 92–100.
50. Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind (London: Penguin, 1995).
51. Dorothy L. Cheney and Robert M. Seyfarth, “Vocal Recognition in Free-ranging Vervet Monkeys,” Animal Behaviour 28, no. 2 (1980): 362–367.
52. Daniel Y. Takahashi, Darshana Z. Narayanan, and Asif A. Ghazanfar, “Coupled Oscillator Dynamics of Vocal Turn-taking in Monkeys,” Current Biology: CB 23, no. 21 (2013): 2162–2168.
53. Roberta Salmi, Kurt Hammerschmidt, and Diane M. Doran-Sheehy, “Western Gorilla Vocal Repertoire and Contextual Use of Vocalizations,” Ethology 119, no. 10 (2013): 831–847.
54. Christel Schneider, Josep Call, and Katja Liebal, “Do Bonobos Say NO By Shaking Their Head?,” Primates 51, no. 3 (2010): 199–202.
55. Amy S. Pollick and Frans B. M. De Waal, “Ape Gestures and Language Evolution,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, no. 19 (May 8, 2007): 8184–8189.
56. Mark E. Laidre, “Meaningful Gesture in Monkeys? Investigating Whether Mandrills Create Social Culture,” PloS one 6, no. 2 (2011): e14610.
57. Marina Davila Ross, Michael J. Owren, and Elke Zimmermann, “The Evolution of Laughter in Great Apes and Humans,” Communicative & Integrative Biology 3, no. 2 (2010): 191–194.
58. Dean Falk, “Comparative Anatomy of the Larynx in Man and the Chimpanzee: Implications for Language in Neanderthal,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 43, no. 1 (1975): 123–132.
59. Herbert S. Terrace, Laura-Ann Petitto, Richard J. Sanders, and Thomas G. Bever, “Can an Ape Create a Sentence?,” Science 206, no. 4421 (1979): 891–902.
60. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and Roger Lewin, Kanzi: The Ape at the Brink of the Human Mind (New York: Wiley, 1994).
61. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, Kelly McDonald, Rose A. Sevcik, William D. Hopkins, and Elizabeth Rubert, “Spontaneous Symbol Acquisition and Communicative Use by Pygmy Chimpanzees (Pan paniscus),” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 115, no. 3 (1986): 211.
62. Paul Raffaele, “Speaking Bonobo,” Smithsonian Magazine 37 (2006): 74.
63. R. Allen Gardner, Beatrix T. Gardner, and Thomas E. Van Cantfort, Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989).
64. James M. Donovan and H. Edwin Anderson, Anthropology and Law (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2005).
65. Roger S. Fouts, Deborah H. Fouts, and Thomas E. Van Cantfort, “The Infant Loulis Learns Signs from Cross-fostered Chimpanzees,” in Gardner, Gardner, and Van Cantfort, Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees, 280–292.
66. Catherine Hobaiter and Richard W. Byrne, “The Gestural Repertoire of the Wild Chimpanzee,” Animal Cognition 14, no. 5 (2011): 745–767.
67. Jana M. Iverson and Susan Goldin-Meadow, “What’s Communication Got to Do with It? Gesture in Children Blind from Birth,” Developmental Psychology 33, no. 3 (1997): 453.
EPILOGUE
1. Robert W. Mitchell, “Inner Experience as Perception(like) with Attitude,” in Experiencing Animals: Encounters Between Human and Animal Minds, ed. Julie Ann Smith and Robert W. Mitchell (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 154–169.
2. Arii Watanabe, Uri Grodzinski, and Nicola S. Clayton, “Western Scrub-Jays Allocate Longer Observation Time to More Valuable Information,” Animal Cognition 17, no. 4 (2014): 859–867.
3. Allison L. Foote and Jonathon D. Crystal, “Metacognition in the Rat,” Current Biology 17, no. 6 (2007): 551–555.
4. Robert R. Hampton, “Rhesus Monkeys Know When They Remember,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 9 (2001): 5359–5362.
5. Benjamin M. Basile and Robert R. Hampton, “Monkeys Recall and Reproduce Simple Shapes from Memory,” Current Biology 21, no. 9 (2011): 774–778.
6. Philip N. Johnson-Laird, Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness (Harvard University Press, 1983).
7. Steven Pinker, How the Mind Works (New York: Norton, 1997).
8. Robert W. Mitchell, “Mental Models of Mirror-self-recognition: Two Theories,” New Ideas in Psychology 11, no. 3 (1993): 295–325.
9. Marc Bekoff and Paul W. Sherman, “Reflections on Animal Selves,” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19, no. 4 (2004): 176–180.