INDEX

• Aflaq, Michel, 80
• agency. See historical agency; political agency
• ‘Alawis: Arab nationalism and, 80–82, 83–84, 95; Ba‘thism and, 81–82, 95, 96; distinct identity of, 79–80; empires with influence on, 95–96; Iran-Syria alliance and, 83–84; as minority dominating Syrian regime, xviii, 78, 81–82, 85, 86, 95, 173n10; only 15% of Syrian population, 81; possible alternative U.S. policies and, 93–94
• Algeria: protesters achieving removal of dictator, 159–61
• Al Jazeera, 4, 137
• Al Qaeda: foreign volunteers joining, 117–19, 120; Islamic State compared to, 101, 117–18, 120, 124, 125; Jabhat al-Nusra and, 107
• Al Qaeda in Mesopotamia, 103, 106
• Antonius, George, 80
• apocalyptic thought. See millenialism
• Arabic media, 4–5
• Arab independence movements, anticolonial, xii, 39
• Arab nationalism: of ‘Alawis, 80–82, 83–84, 95; assassinations in Tunisia and, 142; call for overthrow of regimes and, 28–29; changed since Arab spring, xi, xiii–xv, xviii; ideological division among Egyptians and, 75–76; non-Sunni advocates of, 80–82; the “people” in protest slogans and, 1–2, 4. See also Ba‘thism
• Arab spring: afterimages in Algeria and Sudan, 159–61; alternative interpretation of, x–xvii; collapse of Arab nation-states as stable entities following, 98; collective meaning-making in, xxi, xxiii–xxiv, 8; consensus view of failure, x; defined by Arab choice and Arab power, xii; distinctively and uniquely Arab, 3–4; mostly seeking peaceful transition, 14–15, 14n; pessimism about Arab politics and, 126–27; sparked by Tunisian protests, 155
• Arab winter: defined by Arab choice and Arab power, xii; lessons of tragedy and, 162; not inevitable, 156–58. See also tragedy
• Arendt, Hannah, xx–xxii, 39
• Aristotle: Arabic commentary on, 161–62; on free political action, 38; on tragedy, x, xxiii, 161–62, 166n18
• Arsuzi, Zaki al-, 80
• Assad, Bashar al-: aftermath of civil war and, 97; ‘Alawi power in Syria and, 78, 81; ‘Alawis not choosing to remove, 87; brutal repression of uprising by, 89; chemical weapons attacks by, 89, 90n, 91; failing to show political responsibility, 157; hard line against Arab spring protesters, 85–86; Obama’s decision not to remove, 89–94; relying on Russian intervention, xiii, 99, 124; Sunnis wondering if U.S. would support him, xii–xiii; U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 and, 83
• Assad, Hafez al-, 20, 81, 82–83, 85, 99
• Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 112
• autonomous collective action: by people of Egypt, 75; by people of Tunisia, xix; persistence of hopeful commitment to, 160; by protagonists of Arab spring and winter, xiii, xxiii–xxiv, 28. See also political action; self-determination, political
• autonomy, normative arguments about, xx
• “Averroes’ Search” (Borges), 161

• Baghdadi, Abu Bakr al-, 106–7, 112
• Bahrain, Shi‘i Arab protests in, 19n, 79
• Bashar. See Assad, Bashar al-
• Bashir, Omar al-, 159
• Ba‘thism: ‘Alawism and, 81–82, 95, 96; of Assad regime, 157; in Iraq, 81, 81n, 103, 146; origin of, 80–81
• Belaid, Chokri, 142–43
• Ben Achour, Yadh, 132–33
• Ben Ali, Zine al-Abidine: assassinations of former critics of, 142–43; civil society institutions and, 146–47; Ennahda politician previously tortured under, 144; Essebsi and, 133, 145; nearing end of his career, 20; neoliberal reform begun by, 178n22; protests against regime of, 129; regime of, 128–29; socioeconomic problems under, 27, 152–53; voluntary withdrawal of, 15, 129, 132, 155
• Ben Jafar, Mustapha, 134
• Bitar, Salah al-din al-, 80
• blame: autonomous political action and, xiii; Bush’s choice of regime change in Iraq and, 92; Obama’s choice not to bring down Assad and, 91–92; for Syrian civil war, 78, 91–97, 173n10; of U.S. for failures in Iraq, 78, 92, 103–6. See also responsibility, political
• Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, 111, 113, 174n10
• Borges, Jorge Luis, 161
• Bouazizi, Mohamed, 129, 152
• Bourguiba, Habib, 128, 133, 142, 146–47
• Bouteflika, Abdelaziz, 159
• Brahmi, Mohammed, 142–43, 144
• British Empire, 39, 40–41, 78, 112. See also United Kingdom
• Bunzel, Cole, 174n8
• Burke, Edmund, 100
• Bush, George H. W., 42–43, 103
• Bush, George W., 43, 89, 104

• caliph, Baghdadi as, 107, 112
• caliphate of Islamic State, xvi–xvii, 102, 107, 111, 112, 119, 123
• Castro, Fidel, 111, 120
• catharsis, x, 161–62
• Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), in Syria, 96n
• Christian advocates of Arab nationalism, 80
• Christian millenarian popular movements, 113
• Christian minority in Syria, xviii, 84, 94
• civil society: not genuine in Iraq, 146; in Tunisia, 129, 130, 145–49, 155
• Clinton, Bill, 43, 103
• collective action. See autonomous collective action; political action; self-determination, political
• colonialism, xii–xiii, 129, 165n3. See also imperialism
• compromise: extremely difficult in ‘Alawi-dominated Syria, 78, 85, 86, 87; Muslim Brotherhood’s refusal of, 52–53, 55, 75, 156; by Tunisian institutions and individuals, 129–30, 131, 133, 141, 144, 154–55
• consensus: not sought by Morsi and his government, 141; Tunisian political culture focused on, 130, 141–42, 146–50, 152, 154–55, 176n3, 177n11
• constitutional court. See Egyptian constitutional court
• constitutional democracy: assumption that peoples would choose, 21–22; countries publicly rejecting, 74; Egyptian liberals and, 71–72; Ghannouchi’s version of Islamism and, 108; global difficulties and failures of, 22; rejected by Egyptian public, 74; Tunisian emergence of, xxiii, 9, 27, 130, 131, 153–54, 155. See also democracy
• constitutional monarchy, 19, 39–40
• Cuban revolution, 111, 120

• Dabiq, in Islamic State thought, 116, 117, 175n21
• Da‘esh, 107
• deep state: Morsi’s government and, 52, 54; typical meaning of, 52
• democracy: Arabs supposedly ill-suited for, x, 126; critique based on fickleness of the people, 66–67; Egyptian Brotherhood’s majoritarian misconception of, 53–54; Egyptian liberals and, 71–72; Egyptian people’s rejection of, 61–62, 65–67, 72, 77, 153; Egyptians attaching socioeconomic meaning to, 168n17; first to function in Arabic-speaking world, 148, 154–56; not a major demand of Arab spring protests, 22–24, 27; rejected by Islamic State, 108, 109; revolutionary moments and, 65, 65n; right of the people to reject, 64–67; right to revolution and, 11–12; tarnished by U.S. failure in Iraq, 23; Tunisian, 148, 151, 154–56; will of the people and, 10–11. See also constitutional democracy; Islamic democracy
• dictatorships, presidential, 18–21, 24–27, 28, 31
• dignity, chants calling for, 22, 24, 26
• dignity revolution in Tunisia, 151–52
• Dworkin, Ronald, 65n

• Egypt: constitutional monarchy following independence, 39–40; political agency of the people in, xvii–xviii, 37–40, 47, 59, 61–63, 67, 68–69; Sunni majority and regime in, 78; tragedy that result was not inevitable, 156; U.S. policy during Arab spring in, 45–46. See also Morsi, Mohamed; Mubarak, Hosni; Muslim Brotherhood
• Egyptian constitution: majoritarian misconception and, 53–54; Muslim Brotherhood’s political Islam and, 108, 141; people’s reversal of process, 72; ratification of, 59, 66, 72; rushed drafting process, 56, 57, 75; shari‘a enshrined in, 108, 141
• Egyptian constitutional court: decree placing Morsi outside control of, 56, 57, 60, 171n19; disbanding of parliament by, 50, 56–57, 59–60; military coup and, 58; military’s influence over, 36, 51, 55, 56, 59–60, 170n9, 171n18
• Egyptian military (SCAF): back in power by popular will, 74; called on by the people to remove Morsi, 62–63, 67; called on by the people to remove Mubarak, 15–17; influence over constitutional court, 36, 51, 55, 56, 59–60, 170n9, 171n18; Morsi’s government as challenge to, 59–60; rejecting possible compromise, 156; role in removal of Mubarak, 34–37, 60; second coup by, 58, 60, 63; struggle with Muslim Brotherhood, 48–51, 170n9; U.S. prepared to work with, 46
• ElBaradei, Mohamed, 171n25
• election law, 65
• empires, 40–46; Arab spring as historical break from, xi, xii, xiii; contributing to causes of Syrian civil war, 95–97; policies toward diverse populations, 100. See also British Empire; French Empire; imperialism
• Ennahda: advising Morsi and Muslim Brotherhood, 53; assassinations with goal of weakening, 143–44; evolution to liberal Islamic politics, xvi, 156; Islamic democracy and, 101, 136, 144; lacking developed economic theory, 178n22; legalized under Essebsi, 133; negotiation with Nidaa Tounes, 145–46, 147–49; still banned after Ben Ali’s flight, 132, 137; Tunisian constitutional process and, 136–41; winning plurality in constituent assembly, 134–35, 136–37, 138, 141, 145
• Essebsi, Beji Caid, 133, 134, 144–45, 148, 178n20

• financial crisis of 2007–8, 41
• France: deciding against removal of Bashar, 89; in push to remove Qaddafi, 88
• freedom, xxi, xxiv, 37–39
• “freedom, dignity, and social justice,” 22, 24, 26
• free will, 158
• French Empire: contributing to causes of Syrian civil war, 95–96, 97; imperial division of Arab world and, 40–41, 78; Tunisia as protectorate of, 128
• Friday of anger, 14n

• Ghannouchi, Mohammed, 132
• Ghannouchi, Rached el-: advising Egyptian Brotherhood, 53, 54; electoral advantages of Ennahda and, 137; lacking developed economic theory, 178n22; as liberal democratic Islamist, 108, 130, 139, 174n6; liberal rejection of religious coercion, 141, 156; negotiation with Essebsi, 178n20; renunciation of shari‘a-based Constitution, 139–41
• greatness, xxi–xxii
• Guevara, Che, 120
• Gulf War of 1991, 42–43, 103

• Hezbollah, 83, 157
• Hibou, Béatrice, 150
• historical agency, 31–34; defined, 32; removal of Morsi and, 59–61; removal of Mubarak and, 34–37
• historical approach to identifying “the people,” 5–8, 9, 11
• Houthis, 79n, 83
• Hussein, Saddam, 20, 23, 42–43, 82, 87, 103, 146

• Ibn Rushd, 161–62
• Ibn Tumart, 112
• imperialism: Arab independence movements and, xii, 39; Arab spring not primarily in relation to, xi–xiii, xviii; divisions in Arabic-speaking countries and, xv; freedom and, xxi; still shaping political choices, xii–xiii; suppression of Islamic State and, 124; survival of Bashar al-Assad and, 98–99; traditional discourses on Arabic-speaking world and, xiii, 165n3; Tunisian experience of, 128, 129; of U.S. actions in Iraq, 23, 104. See also colonialism; empires
• imperial overstretch: Egypt’s Arab spring and, 75; of U.S. in Iraq, 43–46, 101, 104; of U.S. in Middle East, 42
• international law, and “responsibility to protect,” 88
• Inventing the People (Morgan), 5
• Iran: proxy war between Saudi Arabia and, 173n10; Syrian alliance with, 82–84, 96, 157
• Iran-Iraq War, U.S. support for Saddam during, 103
• Iraq: Ba‘th Party in, 81, 81n, 103, 146; civil war in, xii, 83, 87–88, 104; constitutional process in, xii, xxii, 23; modernized Islamic democratic government in, xv; moral responsibility of U.S. for disasters in, 78, 92, 103–6; pseudo-civil society in, 146; U.S. policy before 2003, 103
• Iraq, U.S. invasion in 2003: blame for consequences of, 78, 92, 103–6; breakdown of national identity and, xiv, 98; discrediting the call for democracy, 23; imperial overstretch and, 43–46, 101, 104; Islamic State arising in aftermath of, 101, 102; solidifying the Iran-Syria alliance, 83
• Iraq-Syria border, 40–41, 106–7, 122
• ISIS. See Islamic State
• Islam, reformist movements in, 111–12
• Islamic democracy: ended for foreseeable future, xvi, 75, 125–26; of Ennahda, 101, 136, 144; Islamic State as rejection of, xvi, xix, xxii–xxiii, 101–2; of liberal Tunisian movement, xix, 130; Muslim Brotherhood and, xv, xvi, xix, 101, 108, 126; predicted experiments in, xxii; winning pluralities or majorities from 1991 on, 136–38. See also political Islam (Islamism)
• Islamic State, xvi–xvii, xviii–xix; as caliphate, xvi–xvii, 102, 107, 111, 112, 119, 123; conquest and holding of territory, 101, 105–7, 119, 125; destroying ancient monuments, 115–16, 175n19; as dystopian failure, 125–26; foreign volunteers joining, 113, 117–21; as Iraqi organization, 103; Iraq-Syria border and, 41, 106–7, 122; Islamic law of war applied by, 114; losing its physical territory, 124; Mosul conquered by, 105, 107, 119; murdering and raping thousands, 113–15, 158; Muslim Brotherhood and, 109–10; offshoots in other power vacuums, 125; reverting to international terrorist organization, 124–25; Salafi-jihadism and, xix, 102, 108–11; seeking global attention, 115–16, 117, 124–25; Syrian civil war and, xvi, 77, 92, 93, 106–7, 157; Tunisians going to join, 131; U.S. military action against, 45; U.S. responsibility for emergence of, 103, 104–6; as utopian revolutionary-reformist movement, xix, 101, 102, 111–12, 113–21; women volunteers to, 120–21
• Islamic State in Iraq (ISI), 106–7
• Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL or ISIS), 107, 123
• Islamism. See political Islam (Islamism)
• Israel: proxy war between Syria and, 82; “social justice” protests of 2011, 3n

• Jabhat al-Nusra, 93n, 106–7
• January 25 movement (Tahrir I), 30–31, 55, 56; June 30 protesters different from, 57; participants in, 68–69, 70–73; supported by most Egyptians, 38n
• Jebali, Hamadi, 134, 143–44
• jihadis, defined, 109. See also Salafi-jihadi political Islam
• Jordan, xv, 19, 86
• June 30 movement (Tahrir II), 30–31, 55–63; participants in, 68–69, 70–73; rejecting result of Tahrir I, 73–74

• Kurdish region in Iraq: not strategically sustainable, 97; U.S.-imposed no-fly zone and, 43, 103
• Kurds: abandoned by George H. W. Bush administration, 103; militias in suppression of Islamic State, 124

• Laarayedh, Ali, 144
• “La busca de Averroes” (Borges), 161
• law of democracy, 65, 66
• lawyers’ association, Tunisian, 146, 147
• Lebanon: civil war in, 98; Hezbollah’s emergence in, 83, 157; Israeli invasion of, 82; U.S. marine landing in Beirut in 1958, 42n
• liberal secularists in Egypt, 54–55, 61, 70–72, 171n25
• Libya: breakdown in national identity, 98; civil war in, 44, 126, 135, 158, 173n10; force used by rebels in, 17n; Sunni population and regime of, 78; U.S. intervention in, xiii, 44, 88–89. See also Qaddafi, Muammar al-
• Locke, John, 11–12
• LTDH (Tunisian human rights association), 146, 147

• mahdi tradition, 112
• Marzouki, Moncef, 134
• Marzouki, Nadia, 142, 177n11
• millenialism, 116–17; Dabiq and, 116, 117, 175n21; medieval Christian, 113
• monarchies, Arabic-speaking: all surviving the Arab spring, 86, 166n3; Arab revolutions against, from 1920–73, xii; in Bahrain, Shi‘i protesters calling for overthrow of, 19n; constitutional, 19, 39–40; of Morocco and Jordan, xv, 19, 86; short-lived after national independence movements, 39–40
• Morgan, Edmund, 5
• Morocco, xv, 19, 86
• Morsi, Mohamed: June 30 movement and, 30–31, 55–63; liberal elites supporting overthrow of, 70–72, 171n25; not reaching out to liberal secularists, 54–55; people’s responsibility for removal of, xviii; political agency in removal of, 47; poor job of delivering basic services, 52, 56; presidential elections and, 49–50, 170n11; serious errors by, 52–53, 54–55, 63, 141; supported by many Egyptians, 47; traditional religiosity of, 51; U.S. willingness to work with, 46; weakened by resistance of military and “deep state,” 51–52. See also Muslim Brotherhood
• Mubarak, Hosni: army’s role in removal of, 34–37; coming to power after Sadat’s assassination, 51; historical agency in overthrow of, 33–37; January 25 movement and, 30–31, 56; June 30 protesters and, 57–58, 63, 73; liberal elites supporting overthrow of, 70; nearing end of his career, 20, 35; Obama’s stance toward, 45; people calling for removal without preset plan, 65–66; political agency in overthrow of, xvii–xviii, 37–40, 46, 59, 68–69; positioning his son as successor, 20, 35, 36
• Muhammad Ahmad, 112
• Muslim Brotherhood: absent from both rounds of protests, 69–70; compared to Ennahda in Tunisia, 141; counterprotests to June 30 protests organized by, 61; democratic political Islam of, xv, xvi, xix, 101, 108, 126; Egyptian army’s strategy in relation to, 36–37; Egyptian constitution and, 57, 141; error of refusing to compromise, 52–53, 55, 75, 156; failure in Egypt, xv–xvi, xix, 75; Hama massacre of 1982 in Syria and, 85; Islamic State and, 109–10; military’s need to remove Morsi and, 59–60; pragmatic religion of, 51; struggle with military (SCAF), 48–51, 170n9; Tahrir II protests as protests against, 69–70, 73; U.S. willingness to work with, 46. See also Morsi, Mohamed

• Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 82
• “national dialogue,” Tunisian, 146–49, 178n20
• national identity: collapsed in Arab states, xiv, xv, 98; Tunisian exception to collapse, xix
• nationalism: of anticolonial independence movements, 39; endangered in the region, xiv; failure of Syrian Ba‘thist version of, xviii; Islamic State’s rejection of, 175n19. See also Arab nationalism
• nation-states, diverse populations in, 99–100
• Nidaa Tounes, 144–46, 147–49
• nobility: of aspirations in Arab spring, x, xxii, 77, 158; of aspiration to self-determination, 100, 160; of Tahrir protesters, 37, 124
• normative arguments, xx
• normative political theory, 8–9, 12–13; agency and, 31, 33–34; agency of Egyptian people and, 61. See also political theory

• Obama, Barack: ineffective Iraq strategy of, 105–6; middle ground during Arab spring, 45–46; removal of Qaddafi and, 44, 88–89; Syria policy of, 44–45, 89–95, 99
• oil wealth, 166n3
• Ottoman Empire, 40, 97, 100, 128
• Owen, Roger, 19

• Palmyra, Islamic State’s destruction at, 115–16
• pan-Arab identification. See Arab nationalism
• “the people”: Arab nationalism and, 1–2, 4; historical and sociological approach to, 5–8, 9, 11; identifying, 5–9, 11–13; literary and cultural approach to, 6, 6n, 7–8; normative political theory approach to, 5, 8–9, 11–13. See also political agency; popular will
• “the people want the overthrow of the regime,” ix, xvii, 11, 18
• performance of peoplehood, 6, 6n
• plurality, human condition of, xxi
• political action: Arendt on, xx–xxii, 39; questioning the meaning of, xx–xxi, xxiii–xxiv, 156; Tahrir Square as symbol of, 30. See also autonomous collective action; self-determination, political
• political agency: of Arabic-speaking people for first time in modern era, 39–40; in Arab spring, and decline of empire, 41–46; background structures of power and, xxiv; in deeply divided societies, 67–68; defined, 31; historical agency and, 33–34; normative political theory and, 31, 33–34; of participants in Islamic State, 102, 122, 176n27; political freedom and, 37–39; removal of Morsi and, xvii–xviii, 47, 59, 61–63, 67, 68–69; removal of Mubarak and, xvii–xviii, 37–40, 46, 59, 68–69; responsibility in Tunisia and, 130, 131; used by Egyptian people to renounce agency, 158. See also popular will
• political Islam (Islamism): defined, xv, 108; discredited by failures, 126; Ennahda and, 136–41, 156; Ennahda’s counsel of compromise with, 53; Islamic State’s version of, xvi, xviii–xix, 101, 102, 108–11; long dominant in Arabic-speaking world, xi; not in vanguard of Egyptian protests, 69; Saudi Arabia’s politics not classified as, 110–11; transformed in Arab spring, xv–xvii; Tunisian evolution of, 155–56; Tunisian protests against, 138–39, 143, 144; wide variation in content of, 108; winning pluralities or majorities in many elections, 136–38. See also Ennahda; Islamic democracy; Muslim Brotherhood; Salafi-jihadi political Islam
• political theory: right to revolution in, 11–12; will of the people in, 10–11. See also normative political theory
• popular will, 10–11; Tahrir I and, 69; Tahrir II and, 58–59, 69, 73–74. See also “people”; political agency; will of the people
• Pottery Barn rule, 89
• Powell, Colin, 89
• Power, Samantha, 88
• presidential dictatorships, 18–21, 24–27, 28, 31
• Putin, Vladimir, 74, 97

• Qaddafi, Muammar al-: nearing end of his career, 20; removed by Western powers, xiii, 44, 88–89, 135, 166n3; using violence against protesters, 17n. See also Libya
• quartet, of Tunisian “national dialogue,” 146–49, 178n20

• reformist movements in Islam, 111–12
• refugee crisis, 77, 92, 97
• regime, 18–28; call for overthrow of, 14–18; commonalities in multiple Arab states, 18–19; model of constitutional democracy and, 21–23; presidential dictatorships and, 18–21, 24–27, 28, 31; replacement not specified by protesters, xvii, 27–28; two meanings of, 18
• responsibility, political: for consequences of free action, xxiv; of Egyptian people for removal of Morsi, xviii; of Ennahda in Tunisia, 141; lacking in Libyan and Yemeni civil wars, 158; normative arguments about, xx; of people in Tunisia, xix, 130–31, 136, 153–55; Syrian failures of, 156–57. See also blame
• “responsibility to protect” (R2P), 88
• revolutionary-reformist movements. See utopian revolutionary-reformist movements
• revolutions: difficulty of creating democracy in moment of, 65–66, 65n; often followed by efforts to reverse, 58
• Rice, Susan, 88
• Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 10
• Rumsfeld, Donald, 43–44
• Russia: in suppression of Islamic State, 124; in Syrian civil war, xiii, 41, 90n, 99, 124, 157

• Saadawi, Nawal El-, 171n25
• Sadat, Anwar el-, 51, 82
• Salafi-jihadi political Islam: of Islamic State, xix, 101, 102, 108–11, 125, 126; in Tunisia, 131, 143
• Salafism: caliphate and, 112; defined, 109; democracy and, 109, 109n; destruction of pagan worship sites and, 116; Egyptian constitution and, 141; Tunisian constitutional process and, 139; women’s role in Islamic State and, 120
• Saleh, ‘Ali Abdullah, 20, 79n
• Saudi Arabia: Arab spring manifested in, 3; Iran-Syria alliance and, 82–83; Islamic government of, 110–11; proxy war between Iran and, 173n10; Wahhabism of, 116, 174n8
• SCAF. See Egyptian military (SCAF)
• Second Treatise of Government (Locke), 11–12
• secularists in Egypt, 54–55, 61, 70–72, 171n25
• secular Tunisians, 136–37, 138–39, 142–43, 144
• self-determination, political: agency of the people in Egypt and, xvii–xviii; by Arab peoples inspired by Tunisia, 155; breakdown of national identification due to, xiv–xv; free will and, 158; imperialism and, xii, 28, 41; individual rights in revolutionary moments and, 65n; Islamic democracy and, xxii; lessons of tragedy and, 162; by members of Islamic State, xix, 123–24; in narrative of Arab spring and winter, xiii; in people’s rejection of Morsi, 64, 66; powerful ideal of, 38; right of, 11; risks associated with goal of, 99, 100; Syrian civil war resulting from efforts of, 158. See also autonomous collective action; political action
• September 11 attacks, 43
• sha‘b (people), 1, 10
• Shabbi, Abu al-Qasim al-, 2, 10
• Shafiq, Ahmad, 49
• Shari‘a: Ennahda’s abandonment of, xvi, 140; government of Saudi Arabia and, 110; Muslim Brotherhood version of political Islam and, 108, 141; political Islam and, xv; Tunisian constitutional process and, 138–40, 177n10; women’s role in Islamic State and, 121
• Shater, Khairat el-, 49
• Shi‘i-Kurdish coalition in Baghdad, 105
• Shi‘i militias, in suppression of Islamic State, 124
• Shi‘i Muslims: ‘Alawis as, 79; in Bahrain, 79; of Da‘wa party in Iraq, xv; George H. W. Bush’s abandonment of, 103; of Hezbollah, 83; Iraqi civil war and, 83, 87–88
• Sisi, Abdel Fattah el-, xvi, 46, 50–51, 74
• Slezkine, Yuri, 174n10
• social contract, and presidential dictatorships, 24–27, 168n19
• socialism: of Ba‘th Party, 80, 82; threatened by rise of Islamic politics, 143
• social media, 5, 70
• Soviet Union: Arabic-speaking countries as allies and proxies of, 41, 82; Arab nationalism and, 82; constitutional democratization after collapse of, 21–22; contributing to causes of Syrian civil war, 96, 97; fall of, 82, 84, 96; socialism of Syrian Ba‘th Party and, 82
• Sudan, 159–61
• Suleiman, Omar, 34, 49
• Sunni Muslims: Arab spring beginning among, 78–79; Arab spring in Syria and, 84–88; Ba‘th Party in Iraq and, 81n; of insurgency in Iraq, 44, 83, 105, 106; Iraqi civil war and, 87–88; Islamic State and, 115, 123; millennial speculation among, 116; as minority in Syria, xviii, 78, 81; political Islam among, xv
• Sykes-Picot line, 40–41, 122
• Syria: alliance with Iran, 82–84, 96, 157; Arab spring in, 17–18, 84–88; Ba‘thism in, 81–82, 95, 96; breakdown of national identity in, 98; lack of political responsibility in, xviii, 156–57; power structure in, xviii, xxiv, 78, 86, 87, 95; Sunni-‘Alawi conflict in, xviii, 17, 78, 156–57
• Syria-Iraq border, 40–41, 106–7, 122
• Syrian civil war: blame for, 78, 91–97, 173n10; both sides looking to outsiders for solution, 157; civilians killed and displaced in, 97; consequences of, 77, 92; impossibility of avoiding, 85–88; Islamic State and, xvi, 77, 92, 93, 106–7; logic of, 88–92; pessimism about politics in Arabic-speaking countries and, 126; responsibility for, xviii; Russia in, xiii, 41, 90n, 99, 124, 157; U.S. bombing campaign in, 44–45

• Tahrir I. See January 25 movement (Tahrir I)
• Tahrir II. See June 30 movement (Tahrir II)
• Tahrir Square, as symbol, 30
• Tantawi, Mohamed Hussein, 50
• tragedy, x; Arabic reception of Aristotle’s theory, 161–62; Aristotle on, x, xxiii, 161–62, 166n18; catharsis and, x, 161–62; of Egyptian democracy, 77; inspired hope of Arab spring leading to, xi; Islamic State and, 102, 124; of Obama Syria policy, 93; probability or necessity in, xxiii–xxiv, 166n18; of Syrian civil war, 77, 97, 99; Tunisian example showing avoidability of, 156–57, 158
• troika, Tunisian, 134–35, 143, 145, 148
• Trump, Donald: chemical weapons in Syria and, 90n; claiming Obama founded Islamic State, 105–6; “deep state” and, 52; drawing back from global role, 99; welcoming Russian intervention in Syria, 99
• Tunisia: civil society institutions of, 129, 130, 145–49, 155; coalition government, the troika, 134–35, 143, 145, 148; compromise in, 129–30, 131, 133, 141, 144, 154–55; consensus in political culture of, 130, 141–42, 146–50, 152, 154–55, 176n3, 177n11; constituent assembly in, 133–34, 134n, 135–36, 138, 140, 142, 148; crisis heralded by assassinations in, 142–46; democracy and, xix, xxiii, 9, 27, 130, 131, 140, 141, 148, 151–56; Egyptian example avoided by, 135, 142, 144, 145; as extreme outlier in Arab spring, 128; factors generating protests in, 129; failure of economic reform in, xx, 27, 131–32, 148–53, 155; financial sector in, 150–51; as first functioning democracy in Arabic-speaking world, 148, 154–56; liberalization of Islamist party in, xxiii; Muslim Brotherhood in, xv, xvi; “national dialogue” for negotiation in, 146–49, 178n20; political responsibility in, xix, 130–31, 136, 153–55; protests over economy since revolution, 153; ratification of constitution, 148; regional events influencing political process in, 135, 142, 144, 145; Salafi-jihadism in, 131, 143; Sunnis in population and regime of, 78; terrorist attacks within, 131; transitional period after Ben Ali’s departure, 132–35. See also Ben Ali, Zine al-Abidine; Ennahda; LTDH (Tunisian human rights association); UGTT (Tunisian labor union); UTICA (Tunisian employers’ union)

• UGTT (Tunisian labor union), 145–46, 147, 149, 153, 177n13, 178n16, 178nn22–23
• United Kingdom: deciding against removal of Bashar, 89; in push to remove Qaddafi, 88. See also British Empire
• United States: Arabic-speaking countries as allies and proxies of, 41; bringing down Qaddafi, 88, 166n3; imperial overstretch by, 42, 43–46, 101, 104; protesters wondering about possible actions of, xii–xiii; Syria policy of, 44–45, 78, 89–95, 96, 99. See also Iraq, U.S. invasion in 2003
• UTICA (Tunisian employers’ union), 145–46, 147, 149
• utopian revolutionary-reformist movements: as attraction for some in Tunisia, 131; foreign volunteers joining, 119; Islamic State as, xix, 101, 102, 111–12, 113–21; millennialism in, 116–17; precedents for Islamic State, 111–12, 113, 174n10; seeking global attention, 115–16

• Wafd Party, 39
• Wahhabism, 116, 174n8
• will of the people, 10–11; historical usage of, 167n12; Islamic State not an expression of, 102. See also popular will

• Yazidi community, Islamic State’s attack on, 113–14, 121
• Yemen, early Arab spring protests in, 79n
• Yemeni civil war, 79n, 98, 126, 158, 173n10

• Zarqawi, Abu Musab al-, 106
• Zureyk, Constantin, 80