The phrase “was, is, will be,” taken from prayers used in the Orthodox liturgy, summarizes the belief of this major Christian tradition that it alone has preserved the ancient structures of the early Church and the faith of the apostles. “Orthodox” translates as “right teaching.” In their theology, their decision-making and above all their liturgies, the three main branches that together comprise Eastern Orthodoxy—the Greek, the Russian and the various Balkan strands—regard themselves as unchanging over two millennia.
With around 250 million adherents around the world, Orthodoxy is the largest single group within Christianity after Catholicism. The origins of the split between Western and Eastern Christianity lie in the divisions of the old Roman Empire. While the Western section, based on Rome itself, fell in the fifth century, the Eastern part, with its capital Constantinople, persisted in various forms right up to 1453, when it was overrun by the Ottomans. The Christian Church reflected this political divide with a patriarch based in Constantinople who regarded himself as the equal of the Bishop of Rome and resisted the papacy’s claim to universal authority over Christians. The Eastern Church even tried to trump the claim of Rome to have a direct line back to Jesus through St. Peter by declaring that it had been founded by Andrew, the first-recruited among Christ’s apostles.
Schism of 1054 It was against this backdrop that the various theological disputes that contributed to the East–West Schism of 1054 were played out. Among the issues that divided the two sides were attitudes to the Trinity (see The Holy Spirit), the Eastern Church’s attachment to the use of icons, and disputes over the Eucharist and liturgical arrangements. There had been numerous breaches before 1054 but these had always been repaired, and many hoped that the rift could once again be healed. However, the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 by Crusaders sent by the Pope to fight in the Holy Land, along with attempts to set up a Latin (Roman) patriarchate in the region, scuppered any hopes of a reconciliation. Further efforts were made in 1274 and 1439; the latter, at the Council of Florence, enjoyed some success before external events intervened in 1453, when Constantinople fell to its Ottoman attackers.
Saints Cyril and Methodius
Cyril (c.827–869) and Methodius (c.815–885), known as the Apostles to the Slavs, were Greek-speaking brothers who brought Christianity to the peoples of Eastern Europe, the Balkans and beyond. To make it easier to translate the Bible for their new converts, they devised their own Slavonic language, which remains in use in Orthodox churches to this day. They are venerated by Orthodoxy as the equals of the original apostles. In 868, they are believed to have traveled to Rome, where they were warmly welcomed by the Pope. Catholicism includes them in its calendar of saints and Pope John Paul II declared them patrons of Europe.
Separation from Rome led to a widening of the differences between the Western and Eastern parts of Christianity, especially after 1453, when the Balkan and Greek strands of the Orthodox Church were to embark on 400 years under Islamic overlordship. The Reformation and all the upheavals that followed effectively passed them by. With the fall of Constantinople, the power base of the Eastern Church passed to Moscow, which referred to itself as “the third Rome.”
In the twentieth century, following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Soviet takeover of much of Eastern Europe in the wake of the Second World War, the Orthodox Church was battered into submission by hostile communist authorities (according to some estimates, around six million Russian Orthodox Christians lost their lives because of their faith). It managed to remain in operation only by focusing narrowly on liturgy and worship and absenting itself from any involvement in the affairs of wider society.
“Jesus was made man that we might be made God.”
St. Athanasius of Alexandria, c.293–373
Devolved authority The modern Orthodox Church has no single leader with a status to rival the Pope. The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople presides as the first among equals at gatherings of Orthodox bishops from the three main branches. Orthodoxy’s structure of authority is also much more devolved, in line with the practice of the early Christian communities. Local bishops have authority within their area, and gather with other bishops from the region to take decisions on matters of broader concern.
The Orthodox priesthood is open to married men, but bishops must be celibate and are drawn largely from the powerful monastic tradition within Orthodoxy. Great emphasis is placed on the “Holy Tradition” of the Church in terms of teaching. The prime purpose of each individual in Orthodoxy is theosis—the mystical union of human beings with God at both a collective and an individual level.
“Its members [are] images of God in all respects, clear and spotless mirrors, reflecting the glow of primordial light and indeed of God himself.”
Dionysius the Areopagite, late 5th century
Ancient liturgies The most tangible distinction between Orthodoxy and Western Christianity can be seen in the former’s majestic style of worship. Neither the furnishings nor the rituals in Orthodox churches have changed much in a thousand years. Clouds of incense accompany divine liturgy. Priests are clad in ornate robes, and sport beards and long hair in imitation of the apostles. Icons—or religious paintings—are placed around the church and surrounded by candles. The congregation bows before the icons and kisses them. An elaborate screen, or iconostatis, separates the altar and hence the clergy from the body of the church and the laity. Much of the liturgy is chanted. There is a distinct choreography of movement and gesture to the whole service, which can last for several hours. The few pews available are restricted to the elderly and infirm. Orthodoxy has steadfastly refused to update its liturgical arrangements and forms of words, which it believes continue to mirror those of the early centuries of Christianity and to reflect the timelessness of heaven.
Icons
Orthodoxy has a prescribed artistic convention regarding icons, although it varies between the different traditions within the Church. In general, it is believed that icons should not—as they do in Western religious art—show the human side of Jesus, his mother or the saints, but instead should depict their divine life. Within the Russian, Greek and various Balkan strands of the Church, there are well-established symbolic codes for icons. In the Russian tradition, for instance, the Virgin Mary’s clothing is usually shown as a darkish red to symbolize humanity, earth, blood and sacrifice. She is never shown wearing a crown, even though the Orthodox regard her as Queen of Heaven, because a crown would be too human. Often three stars are added to her robes to denote before, during and after the virgin birth. In the early centuries of Christianity, all icon painters would have been monks, and the tradition lives on that icon-painting is a form of devotion, with the artistic endeavor accompanied by prayer and contemplation. The Orthodox believe that St. Luke, one of the four gospel writers, was the first to paint Jesus’s mother. Though icons largely fell out of use in Western Christianity after the split with the East, some religious artists such as Duccio in the Italian Renaissance and El Greco in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Spain did produce them, albeit with Western ideas diluting the strict Orthodox rules.
the condensed idea
Christian history isn’t only about Rome
| timeline | |
|---|---|
| 381 | Council of Constantinople sets up city’s patriarchate |
| c.540 | Rebuilding of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), mother church of Orthodoxy, now a mosque |
| 1054 | East and West split |
| 1453 | Constantinople falls to Ottomans |