19

The Fall of Napoleon

After handing over control of the wreckage of l’armée du Nord to Soult and taking a brief rest, Napoleon spent the night of the 18th at Laon. He then pressed on to Paris, arriving at the Élysée Palace on 21 June. What subsequently occurred was reported in the Norfolk Chronicle of Saturday, 1 July 1815:

Napoleon returned to Paris from the army on the 21st – on that day there were very tumultuous debates in the two Houses of Representatives on the necessity of Buonaparte’s Abdication. On the 22d he sent in his Abdication in favour of his Son, and a Provisional Executive Government was appointed, consisting of Carnot, Fouche, Caulaincourt, Grenier, and Quinette, (a junta of Jacobins, Regicides, and Buonapartists.) – It was attempted in debate, by the Minister of the Interior (Carnot) to shew that Soult had rallied 60,000 men on the Northern Frontier; but this was denied by Marshal Ney, with great warmth, who asserted that 20,000 men was the utmost number that could be mustered, and that the Allies had passed the frontiers, and could be in Paris in six or seven days.

The document detailing Napoleon’s abdication on 22 June 1815, was entitled ‘Declaration to the French People’:

In the beginning the war to maintain our national independence, I was counting on the union of all our efforts, but since then the circumstances appear to have changed, and I offer to sacrifice myself to the hatred of the enemies of France … My political life is over and I proclaim my son, under the title of Napoleon II, Emperor of France.¹

There was not the slightest chance of Napoleon’s son being declared emperor, and this was immediately rejected. The story continued in the Hampshire Telegraph of Monday, 14 August 1815, under the headline ‘Conduct of Bonaparte After the Battle of Waterloo (Said to be written by himself)’:

The Emperor, though far from being convinced, came to a speedy decision: – ‘The honour and glory of France have been the objects of my life,’ said he; ‘you know it; it shall not be said that my personal interests shall ever stand in the way of their accomplishment; may you succeed without me; I abdicate; may the Allies have been really sincere in their communication.’ The Emperor was then at the Elysée. The acclamations of the public were heard round the Palace; as a simple citizen he wished to avoid them, and departed for Malmaison.

Still they followed him. On the morning even of the same day on which he set out, troops, which were marching upon a high road, made the air resound with their favourite cries, and accompanied him to his retreat, at which he was much affected …

In the mean time the enemy approached rapidly, and arrived at the gates of the city – the cannon were heard.

On the 29th, at the moment of ascending his carriage, Napoleon sent a confidential person to the Provisional Government with this message: – ‘I know the position of the enemy, their advanced corps is not numerous. – There is only occasion to shew the moral force of our army, the hope of the soldiers would revive on seeing their old General. In abdicating the power, I have not renounced the glorious title of every citizen – that of defending his country. If it is required, I answer for beating the enemy, and inspiring the army with dispositions which shall procure you more favourable negociations. This object gained, I engage on my word to re-ascend my carriage, and to pursue the route to the place which I have chosen.’

An answer was returned, that it was too late, and that negociations were already commenced.

Fouché, who was determined to be rid of Napoleon, suggested to the Emperor that, for his safety, he should leave the country. In fact Fouché was quite correct in warning Napoleon that his life was in danger, as Blücher announced that Napoleon was to be seized dead or alive!

Wellington, however, wanted nothing to do with arresting or killing Napoleon, as the Prussians did. Consequently General Gneisenau wrote to Müffling on 27 June:

Bonaparte has been declared under outlawry by the Allied powers. The Duke of Wellington may possibly (from parliamentary considerations) hesitate to fulfil the declaration of the Powers. Therefore Your Excellency will direct negotiations to the effect that Bonaparte may be surrendered to us, with a view to his execution.²

Napoleon needed to get out of France quickly and he seems to have favoured the United States for his place of exile. The Provisional Government asked Wellington for the necessary passport and two French frigates were made available for the voyage from Rochefort-sur-Loire. Napoleon and his party travelled down to that port, arriving there on 3 July.

Meanwhile, Louis XVIII returned to Paris and the Provisional Government was abolished. Nothing now stood in the way of the royalists, or the Allied Powers, from getting their hands on the erstwhile Emperor. In desperation Napoleon contacted the British Royal Navy commander at Rocheford, Captain Maitland of HMS Bellerophon, asking if his passports had arrived. They never would. The Allies had no intention of letting Napoleon live in either the UK or the USA. This was made clear by Lord Liverpool in a letter to Castlereagh on 15 July:

I am desirous of apprising you of our sentiments respecting Bonaparte. If you should succeed in getting possession of his person, and the King of France does not feel sufficiently strong to bring him to justice as a rebel, we are ready to take upon ourselves the custody of his person, on the part of the Allied powers … We incline at present strongly to the opinion that the best place of custody would be at a distance from Europe. And that the Cape of Good Hope or St. Helena would be the proper stations for that purpose.³

Ships of the Royal Navy had blockaded Rochefort and, though Napoleon did try to arrange passage to the United States, there was no real possibility of him escaping. The next moves were reported, in a somewhat disjointed fashion, in the Caledonian Mercury on Monday, 24 July 1815. This account began with the introduction, ‘Letters from Rochefort, dated the 12th, contain the following particulars, on the authenticity of which we have reason to rely’:

Since the beginning of the present month, eleven English ships have blockaded the port of Rochefort with such vigilance, as to render it difficult for the smallest vessel to escape. Napoleon, to satisfy himself as to the disposition of the English fleet, embarked on the 8th on board the Saale, one of the frigates which were to convey him to North America. Next day he sent General Bertrand in a boat to the English Admiral to ask a free passage for his frigates; but the Admiral, so far from granting his request, declared that he would attack the moment they should attempt to leave the port. He added, however, that if Napoleon Bonaparte should be inclined to come on board his ship, he would receive him with every respect; that he would answer for his personal safety; that he would sail with him for England; and that he had no doubt but that the British Government would afterwards convey him (Napoleon) wherever he might intimate his desire to go.

Though this reply did not perfectly square with the projects of the Ex-Emperor, he immediately declared that he, above all things, preferred relying upon English honour; and that, besides, he would not risk the lives of the crews of the two frigates in endeavouring to effect a passage in spite of the vigilance of the cruizing squadron. Soon after, he embarked in a small flag of truce, and went on board the English Admiral. He has not since been seen to return. It is merely known that the ship was to sail on the 12th, and in fact we have lost sight of her since day-break.

The extensive entry in the Caledonian Mercury also contained this snaphot:

SURRENDER OF BONAPARTE. The political career of Bonaparte is at length closed. The following communication, containing the important intelligence of his surrender to Captain Maitland, of the Bellerophon, has been received from Lord Castlereagh, and has been published in an Extraordinary Gazette; to which various other particulars are added from the French papers.

There was also a translation of an extract from a letter written by the Maritime Prefect of Rochefort, a Monsieur Bonnefoux, to the French Minister of the Marine:

In execution of your Excellency’s orders, I embarked in my boat, accompanied by Baron Ricard, Prefect of the Lower Charente. The reports from the Roads for the 14th had not then reached me, but I was informed by Captain Philibert, commanding the Amphitrite frigate, that Bonaparte had embarked on board the Epervier brig, as a flag of truce, determined to proceed to the English cruizing station.

Accordingly, at day-break, we saw him manoeuvring to make the English ship Bellerophon, commanded by Captain Maitland, who, on perceiving that Bonaparte was steering towards him, had hoisted the white flag at the mizzen.

Bonaparte, and the persons in his suite, were received on board the English ship. The officer whom I had left to make observations, communicated to me this important news, and General Becker, who arrived soon after, confirmed it.

Thus at last, under the protection of the white flag, and on board the English ship Bellerophon, has Bonaparte terminated the enterprise which he planned and executed.

Captain Frederick Maitland described the moment when Napoleon arrived on board HMS Bellerophon, an event which had been arranged for 06.00 hours. Maitland chose this early time for a reason:

On coming on board the Bellerophon, he was received without any of the honours generally paid to persons of high rank; the guard was drawn out on the break of the poop, but did not present arms. His Majesty’s Government had merely given directions, in the event of him being captured, for his being removed into any one of His Majesty’s ships that might fall in with him; but no instructions had been given as to the light in which he was to be viewed.

As it is not customary, however, on board a British ship of war, to pay any such honours before the colours are hoisted at eight o’clock in the morning, or after sunset, I made the early hour an excuse for withholding them upon this occasion.⁴

Maitland set sail for Britain on the 16th, as this newspaper report indicates:

Contrary winds or calms made the voyage long and tedious. They made Torbay only on the 25th, where orders were found to have no communication with the land. But all the boats of the country, on the news of Napoleon’s arrival surrounded the ship. On the morrow the whole population of the country were there, without distinction of rank or sex.

Napoleon, who was principally occupied in reading, in conversation at intervals with some of his suite, and taking a walk regularly several times a day upon the poop, looked at all these curious people with the same countenance he would have done from the windows of the Tuileries. One of the ship’s officers inquired if he was not indignant at beholding such a multitude of gazers around him, and, without waiting for an answer added, but, indeed, if he was, he might thank himself for it, since he had made himself so great and celebrated.

He had the English Papers to read to him, which caricatured, in the most ridiculous manner, his coming on board, the reception he had met with, and the conversation he had entered into. Some English Officers, reprobating all these follies as insults to him – ‘The multitude,’ said he, ‘only judge from such Blue Beard tales – grave historians, who write for posterity, characterise men solely by their actions, and I leave my defence to them.’

On the third day they were ordered round to Plymouth – there the ship seemed condemned to a more rigorous captivity.⁵

By the time HMS Bellerophon had reached Plymouth, news of Napoleon’s arrival in the UK had spread and thousands descended upon Devonport amid unprecedented scenes:

On Thursday and Friday last the curiosity of immense numbers of persons in Plymouth Sound was gratified by the most ample view of Buonaparte. On the last-mentioned day there were, at four p.m. upwards of 1000 boats in the Sound. The scene at this time beggared all description. The guard boats, strongly manned, dashed through the water, running against every boat that happened to be too near. The centinels of the Bellerophon, and of the guard frigates, the Eurotas and Liffy, were every moment presenting their pieces to intimidate the curious multitude. At last a movement was observed on board the Bellerophon – the seamen were seen pressing to the forecastle, the booms became covered, and with unsatisfactory curiosity, they pressed so closely on the centinels, that they were obliged to clear the gangways.

The marines were now also noticed on the poop, and the officers and seamen, by a simultaneous movement, uncovered, without orders, so completely had he ingratiated himself with all hearts. A moment after, to gratify the people in the boats, as well as to view the sublime spectacle before him, the object of boundless curiosity advanced to the starboard gangway: the mass of boats endeavoured to precipitate themselves on the ship – the guard boats dashed furiously through the water – some boats were struck, persons overturned into the sea – the centinels presented their pieces, all in vain, the force was overwhelming – screams and curses were alternately heard – the next moment all was calm – ‘the Emperor’ was bowing to the multitude – he stood before them six or seven minutes, and retired for a short time.

In this manner was the time spent during the whole of Friday, till eight in the evening. Buonaparte certainly is endeavouring to gratify the spectators as much as possible, and he will have enough to do, for the country is precipitating itself into Plymouth Dock. – Boats are arriving every moment from the ports in Devonshire, Cornwall, and even from Dorsetshire. The people in the large pleasure-boats, however, have but a small chance of seeing him, as the mass of small boats prevent access to the ship. Saturday was a very unfavourable day as it rained hard. Hitherto none have boarded the ship but Lord Keith and Mr. Penn, the Pilot, of Cawsand. The time when Buonaparte is most seen is from three o’clock until eight P.M. The boats got near enough to view his features distinctly, and even to hear him speak.⁶

The British press was eager to publish any little piece of information they could about Napoleon, as exemplified by this note in the Hull Packet of Tuesday, 22 August 1815:

Some of Buonaparte’s linen, sent ashore to be washed, has been held in such esteem, that many individuals at Plymouth have temporarily put on one of his shirts, waistcoats, or neckcloths, merely for the purpose of saying that they had worn his clothes!

The Parisian newspaper La Quotidienne was clearly behind the restoration of Louis and glad to see the back of Napoleon:

The last remaining subject of disquiet for Europe has just disappeared: Buonaparte is held prisoner. The man who banished peace and tranquillity from the world for so many years has finally been condemned to perpetual rest. That same energy which upset and ravaged the universe is now enchained forever.⁷

It had been indicated to Napoleon that he was to be exiled at St Helena in the South Atlantic, the prospect of which appalled him and he submitted frequent appeals to be allowed to live freely in Britain:

I would rather die than go to St. Helena, or be confined in some fortress. I desire to live in England, a free man, protected by and subject to its laws, and bound by any promises or arrangements which may be desirable …⁸

It was not to be. Napoleon would never be allowed to remain anywhere in or near Europe. This was revealed in the Bury and Norwich Post of 2 August 1815:

On Sunday morning Sir Henry Bunbury, Under Secretary of State for the War Department, set off for Plymouth to communicate to Bonaparte the resolution of the Cabinet, in concurrence with their Allies, as to his future fate. He is accompanied by the son of Earl Bathurst, and Mr. Guy, the King’s Messenger. It is believed that all the property which he may have on board the Bellerophon will be strictly taken an account of, and such things only as may be necessary to his comfort in the Island of St. Helena be put on board the Northumberland. Some servants will only be permitted to accompany him. Sir H. Lowe will succeed Col. Mark Wilks, as Governor of the Island; and it is said that a residence, with a plot of 25 acres, will be allotted near the Governor’s house on the high lands for this extraordinary man, to whom the Empire of the West, as he said himself, was too circumscribed.

It would be on St Helena where the great man would spend his final years. His departure on HMS Northumberland brought to an end the era that will forever bear his name. Watching him transfer to Northumberland was Lady Charlotte Fitzgerald, a daughter of the 1st Earl of Moira:

Napoleon was received on board the Northumberland only as a lieut.-general! He touched his hat to the sentry as he passed the gangway, he desired Lord Keith to introduce the officers of the N. to him, and if he felt his situation concealed it. You will be curious to know if I think he has abandoned hope. Oh no, I never saw a man look less hopeless – so far from it he gave the impression of planning his future vengeance on his enemies – others may suppose his career finished but I am sure he does not – he appears most to resemble a bust of marble or bronze as cold and as fixed, he seems quite inaccessible to human tenderness or human distress – still he is wonderful!