Extreme Productivity

Writing is an essential skill for knowledge-based workers. They must compose documents to inform, lead, and persuade others both inside and outside their organization.

Unfortunately, good writing is hard to find. As a professor, I have often encountered MBA students who are very articulate when they participate in class, but when they hand in exams, their writing is disjointed. In the business world, I have met very smart people who have a great idea for a new product but cannot compose a good memo about that product. And in government agencies, I’ve dealt with officials who can brilliantly defend a position in a debate but whose briefs on the same subject are turgid and wandering.

As emails increasingly take the place of phone calls, writing skills are becoming even more critical to personal productivity, but many professionals have been poorly trained. The Business Roundtable, which represents the largest corporations in the United States, estimates that its members spend $3 billion per year to send their workers to remedial writing classes.¹ Poor writing undermines professional productivity in many ways, frustrating customers with unreadable product manuals, baffling employees with unclear documents, and creating office tension due to miscommunication among employees.

PLANNING THROUGH OUTLINES

George, a friend of mine, is an expert in the field of medieval history. But he takes more than a year to write an article after he has completed his research. Why? Because he keeps getting “stuck” during the writing process. He stops writing when he becomes uncertain where the article is going.

Diane, a clinical psychologist, complains that she can’t figure out what she wants to say until she writes the conclusion of a lengthy paper. Unfortunately, the rest of the paper then doesn’t fit well with the conclusion, so she is forced to revise and rewrite the body of the paper.

Both of those writers would be better off if they started with an outline. George wouldn’t get stuck because he’d know where the article was going, and Diane wouldn’t have to rewrite her paper to fit a conclusion that somehow takes her by surprise.

As these cases illustrate, you should think of writing as having several distinct phases, including an initial phase of mapping the terrain and a second phase of translating that map into actual prose. Remember the principle of focusing quickly on the final product, which I discussed in chapter 2? This is a similar idea: formulate a rough plan for the entire piece before you put pencil to paper. If you try to write without a plan, you will face an enormous challenge.

WHY OUTLINING MATTERS

It is very difficult to plan and write at the same time, because the task of writing is very demanding of what’s called your “working memory.” Working memory is the mental space where information is held and processed in your brain, allowing you to perform higher-order tasks such as reasoning and learning. In the context of writing, it is this process that allows you to manipulate words into sentences and paragraphs. But your working memory has limited resources: it can only hold and process so much information.

Psychology professor Ronald Kellogg demonstrated experimentally that the different components of writing—planning, translating, and revising—all compete for the same resources in your brain.² Thus, if you can do most of your planning by creating an outline first, you can devote more effort to translating your ideas into text when you compose an actual draft.

Professor Kellogg also performed a controlled experiment to explicitly test the hypothesis that outlines improve the writing process.³ He randomly assigned students into two groups: one that was required to spend five to ten minutes outlining their written work and another that was forbidden to outline. He found that those in the “outline” group wrote better papers—because they were able to focus more on the “translation” process while actually writing the paper. In sum, the “outline” group wrote just as quickly as the “no outline” group, even taking into account the extra time they spent outlining. All of this means that writing an outline allowed those individuals to write better papers in the same amount of time.

My approach to creating an outline is completely systematic: first I brainstorm, next I categorize, and then I outline the final product.

• Brainstorm: I take a blank piece of paper and jot down all my thoughts on the relevant subject. My goal is to get down as many ideas as possible, not to put them into any particular order.

• Categorize: Next I put the ideas into various categories and subcategories. This process helps me organize my ideas into groupings, which will become the building blocks of an outline.

• Outline: Then I arrange and rearrange the groupings in various combinations. In the end, I try to find a logical order for the groupings, which can serve as a writing outline.

Now it’s your turn to practice this three-step process. Suppose your boss asks you to write a short memo to persuade your organization’s top executives to undertake a “greening” initiative to become more environmentally friendly.

I’m going to work with this example a few times in this chapter, but feel free to choose one of the two options below if you prefer:

• Imagine that you’re an employee at a theme park. Write a memo to convince the head of Human Resources to hire ten more actors to walk around the park in animal costumes.

• Imagine that you are in the research department of a large food company. Write a memo asking the department’s head to fund your development of an antiobesity cereal or drink.

Start by brainstorming on a sheet of paper.⁴ Jot down all your ideas for this memo, without worrying too much about how they fit together. How broad is your list of ideas? Here is my nonexhaustive list of ideas for what may be relevant to the executive committee:

Next, take your list of factors (plus any of mine) and organize them into relevant categories. Below are the categories that I used to group my list of potentially relevant factors. I have begun to put the categories into a logical order, in preparation for writing an outline. Note that some ideas from my brainstorming list didn’t make it into these categories—indeed, discarding less important ideas is a critical component of the writing process.

Now for the final step: turning your categories into a writing outline. In taking this step, think about your audience: your organization’s top executives. What do they care about most? What will be the most persuasive and logical sequence for this audience?

Here is my writing outline for this memo. Note that I have added an introduction at the top of the outline and a conclusion at the end. I’ve grouped the two categories into two overarching themes— how the organization could become “greener” and why that might be a good idea. Finally, I’ve moved up the section about profits and losses so that it comes before the section about intangible benefits. The organization’s executives probably care most about the concrete financial impact.

HOW TO STRUCTURE YOUR WRITING

With your outline in hand, you are ready to start writing. The three key elements of any essay are the introduction, the conclusion and the body. These are the same three elements we discussed in the prior chapter on effective reading. This is not a coincidence; you should write in a way that makes it easy for others to follow you.

At the start, the reader needs background facts to understand why he or she is spending time on the piece. In the memo discussed above, you could state the context as follows:

Next, the introduction should summarize the main theme of your memo. In other words, tell the reader the core of your argument. Here is one illustration of a thematic summary for such a memo:

The final portion of the introduction should lay out a road map for the rest of the memo, explaining the structure in a way that’s consistent with any headings or subtitles. This will help your readers follow your reasoning.

A good road map should be just one paragraph with a clear sequence. Here is an example of a good road map for our memo:

First, this memo will describe how our organization could become more environmentally friendly, by reducing energy consumption, transportation, and garbage. Second, it will argue that these changes will benefit the organization by generating tax credits and reducing energy costs over the short term, while providing marketing opportunities over the long term.

There is a lot of confusion about what constitutes a summary and what makes for a good conclusion. A summary is simply a condensed repetition of the main points of an article or memo. A conclusion should go beyond a summary in various ways: it may draw out lessons for other subjects, suggest larger implications for public policy, or recommend further research in specific areas.

I’m not disparaging summaries; they’re often essential—especially “executive summaries,” which are so named because executives don’t have time to read long or complex documents. If a memo or article is lengthy or dense, it should have an executive summary before the introduction so readers can grasp the main points in a few minutes. This part of a document is crucial, largely because it has the greatest number of readers! In practice, readers at all levels of an organization often choose to read only the executive summary.

Executive summaries aside, all articles and memos need a conclusion that goes beyond a mere summary. Any intelligent reader who has gotten that far already knows the main points; he or she is looking for something more in the conclusion. I get really irritated when I read a “conclusion” that simply regurgitates the points already made. That is lazy. I’ve already seen those points twice before, once in the executive summary (or introduction) and once in the body of the article or memo.

Here are two paragraphs based on the same article about a certain type of medical research. One is a summary and the other is a conclusion. (Peek at this endnote⁵ to learn which is which.) What does the conclusion add for the reader that is not in the summary?

As discussed above, charities should use a seven-dimensional performance framework to analyze the success of translational medical research (TMR). They should measure the amount and diversity of funding, the level of talent attraction, the progress that has been made on key drug pipelines, the number of publications and citations in peer-reviewed journals, the extent to which they share information with other organizations, the amount of third-party uptake of their ideas, and the willingness to collaborate with other firms. These seven dimensions are key to understanding how well TMR is performing.

As charities and governments increase their funding of translational medical research (TMR), it is critical that they work with researchers to establish an effective system for performance assessment. Officials at funders should collaborate with active participants in TMR to articulate the objectives for their programs and the metrics to gauge progress in the seven dimensions discussed above. In this way, both funders and recipients will better understand their priorities and will generate the information needed to evaluate the extent to which these programs are delivering on their objectives.

Now that we understand the design of the introduction and conclusion, let’s turn to the body of the article or memo. Again, we want our writing to support effective reading. That means doing two things:

1. Dividing the body with headings or subtitles to show the structure of the document.

2. Starting each paragraph with a topic sentence so readers can easily read off the tops of the paragraphs. Readers should be able to follow the progression of your argument by reading only these topic sentences; the rest of each paragraph should provide factual or analytic support for the topic sentence.

Here are two paragraphs about the British television show Downton Abbey. One of the paragraphs is well structured with a strong topic sentence, but the other needs improvement.

Downton Abbey, a TV show about an aristocratic British family, has become a surprising hit among middle-class Americans. The lavish lifestyle of the Crawley family, who live on a sprawling Yorkshire estate during the early twentieth century, fascinates American viewers. The audience also loves to watch the complex relationships within the Crawley family and among their many servants. However, the family faced a crisis because the three Crawley daughters may not inherit the estate under British law. Fortunately, a male cousin inherited the estate and married the eldest Crawley daughter.

The topic sentence describes the main idea of the paragraph—that Downton Abbey is a hit among American viewers. The rest of the paragraph then describes why the audience has been tuning in. This is an example of a very well-structured paragraph: the topic sentence articulates the main idea, which is then clarified by the rest of the paragraph.

The TV show Downton Abbey is about an aristocratic family living in England during the early twentieth century. The Crawley family is encamped in a large Yorkshire estate with lots of servants, who are often at odds with each other. The family is also facing a major crisis since the three daughters may not inherit the estate under British law. Fortunately, a male cousin becomes the heir to the estate and becomes the husband of the eldest Crawley daughter. These dramatic events, together with the family’s lavish lifestyle, have made the show a surprising hit among American middle-class viewers.

This paragraph has a weaker structure. Although its topic sentence introduces Downton Abbey, it does not indicate why the author is writing about it. A reader would have to read the entire paragraph up to the final sentence, which finally expresses the main idea—that Downton Abbey is a surprise hit. This final sentence would be a better topic sentence, and the other sentences could be modified to provide better support for that topic.

After reading these examples, try your hand at writing effective paragraphs. Turn back to your outline from earlier in this chapter describing a possible “greening” initiative for your organization (or whichever other option you chose). Then try to write two body paragraphs in the body of the memo under whichever category you feel most interesting. Use strong topic sentences, supported by the other sentences in the paragraph.

In reviewing your two paragraphs, answer these three questions:

• Do both of your paragraphs begin with a topic sentence that conveys the main point of the paragraph to the reader?

• How, by marshaling facts or otherwise, do the other sentences in each paragraph support the topic sentence?

• Can the reader move easily from the topic sentence of the first paragraph to the topic sentence of the second paragraph without reading anything else?

If you want more practice, try to compose the entire memo on the “greening” initiative, including an effective introduction and a conclusion that does more than summarize the main points.

WRITING GOOD SENTENCES

Now that you understand the role of the introduction, conclusion, and body paragraphs in between, let’s quickly review how to actually write those paragraphs—with effective sentences, concise language, the active voice, accurate words, and flawless spelling and grammar.⁶

When I was in high school, I became enamored of Ernest Hemingway’s style—short, simple sentences. Using short sentences is the best way to express thoughts clearly. By contrast, run-on sentences are hard to follow; they suggest that the author is not sure where he or she is going.

After several hours at the beach, I had not caught any fish so I walked into town and found a bar that served tasty sandwiches and good beer, where I met an attractive woman named Maria who had a conversation with me about how the town was changing.

After several hours at the beach, I had not caught any fish. I walked into the town to find lunch. I ate at a bar that served tasty sandwiches and good beer. At the next table was an attractive woman named Maria. She struck up a conversation with me about how the town was changing.

When you are trying to connect more than one clause, sentence, or paragraph, make sure to express the relationship between them clearly. This means using words such as “since,” “because,” “after,” “before,” “however,” or “nevertheless,” which show the reader why, when, where, or how the new idea relates to the prior one. By contrast, additive words such as “and,” “in addition,” and “besides” fail to show how the ideas are related.

She hurt her knee and went to the hospital. In addition, she had an X-ray of her knee at the hospital.

She went to the hospital because she hurt her knee. Soon after she arrived, the doctors ordered an X-ray of her knee.

By using the active voice, a writer tells the reader exactly who is doing or saying what. When a writer uses the passive voice, it is often unclear who is doing or saying what. The two sentences below illustrate this contrast.

Business writing should favor clarity and accuracy at the expense of creative wordplay. Here is one example: writers frequently try to introduce new words with similar meanings in order to create variety. But clarity is more important than variety in business writing. Consider these two sentences.

Are the “requirements” in the second sentence the same as the “priorities” in the first sentence? That is probably what the writer intended, but the choice of different words for variety’s sake creates confusion.

Though pronouns are useful shorthand, it can be unclear what a particular pronoun is referring to. Consider the two sentences below.

It is simply unacceptable to have spelling errors in your written work. Although your work may still be understandable, spelling errors convey the message that you are lazy and/or sloppy—a really bad message to any current or potential employer. In a 2006 poll, 47 percent of hiring executives said they would toss the résumé of a job applicant into the garbage if it had one spelling error—if it had two spelling errors, 84 percent would toss it.⁷

One common error is an overreliance on spell-check programs. Although spell-checks will catch most errors, they cannot distinguish homophones (“heel” and “heal”) and won’t catch a typo if you accidentally write another word (e.g., “the lad of paper,” instead of “the pad of paper”). The only solution is to take the time to carefully review your written work to look for spelling errors.

The intricacies of language make it even more difficult to create a computer program that accurately checks for grammar usage. This means that grammar-checking software tends to be unreliable: the program will often identify an error even if your grammar is correct, and vice versa. For instance, take a look at the two sentences below, both with egregious grammar errors. Yet both “passed” the grammar check on Microsoft Word.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WRITING PROCESS

Now that you understand the basics of how to outline your ideas, structure your writing, and use effective language, let me answer some questions that I’ve often been asked about the writing process.

Q: I have a hard time writing because I have so much going on around me. How can I clear my mind to get down to writing?

Writing requires a high degree of concentration. You should try to find a place that is a little out of the flow and clear your plate of possible distractions such as computer games and ringing cell phones. Personally, I like to write early in the morning before the buzz of the day begins. I have a friend who can write only in the evening after everyone has left the office and it is very quiet. Both of us like to write on long plane or train rides, where we can get a several-hour block of undisturbed time. You should write regularly at the time of day that works best for you.

Q: I take forever to write. I compose a sentence and then rewrite it over and over and over because I’m not satisfied with how it reads. Can you help me make my sentences better?

If this question applies to you, your problem is not that you write poor sentences—it’s that you are a perfectionist. To put it bluntly, this is not an effective way to write. Just as you cannot plan and write at the same time, you cannot write and revise at the same time. Don’t try to spew forth a final product at your first sitting. Writing is an iterative process, which takes place in multiple steps over time.

You might worry that creating a less-than-perfect first draft would harm the quality of your writing; that couldn’t be further from the truth. Try to write a first draft, go on to another project, and revise the first draft the next day. With a little time for reflection and editing, your revised draft will be much improved.

One way to get a simple draft out is to use speech recognition software, such as Dragon. Though they aren’t perfect (and will produce many errors), they can help you create a first draft, since many people feel that talking is mentally easier than writing.

This is a common question with a short answer. Your article should be as long as necessary to cover the topic well for the relevant audience—and no longer. Don’t equate the length of a paper with the value of its content; conciseness can be hugely valuable.

Q: Since I hate the idea of procrastination, I try to compose my entire article all at once. But after a few hours, I get stuck. Should I try to break it up into smaller pieces?

Yes, you should divide a long document into smaller pieces, writing for several hours each day for several days with regular breaks. Professor Bob Boice of SUNY at Stony Brook came to that conclusion when he studied the way his colleagues wrote lengthy research articles.⁸ Some colleagues were “binge” writers, working many hours at a time in a small number of sessions. He found that binge writers were particularly likely to become frustrated and stuck in the middle of those long sessions. By contrast, colleagues who wrote on a more regular schedule tended to write with fresh ideas in mind and were more able to reflect effectively upon their work. In the end, regular writers composed as much as binge writers during each session—despite spending only one-third as much time.

Taking breaks can help you come up with new ideas. At the end of the day, I often find myself stuck on a conceptual or translational problem in my writing. Sometimes I wake up the next morning with a new approach to yesterday’s problems. The creative process works in fits and starts, not in a straight line.

TAKEAWAYS

1. Before you start writing, create an outline that shows the logical progression of your piece. Start by brainstorming ideas; then put them into relevant categories, and finally organize them into a logical order.

2. Use the introduction of a piece to provide context, establish the theme of the piece, and indicate how it will be organized.

3. Create an executive summary for long or dense documents that describes the big picture so that readers short on time can understand the main points.

4. Start each paragraph with a topic sentence presenting its main idea. You want your reader to be able to read off the tops of the paragraphs if he or she is skimming.

5. Don’t use your conclusion to merely summarize the piece; provide the reader with additional insight, such as broader implications or suggestions for future actions.

6. Use effective language. This means short sentences, clear relationships between clauses, and proper use of antecedents for pronouns.

7. Proofread your paper for grammar and spelling mistakes. When you’ve finished, proofread again. One error is one too many.

8. Accept that your first draft won’t be perfect. Don’t try to write and revise at the same time, or you’ll get hung up on every sentence.

9. Use as many words as you need to cover your topic to your audience’s satisfaction, but don’t add length for length’s sake.

10. Don’t try to write a long piece in one sitting; write regularly every day for an hour or two in an environment that best suits you.