Module 27 REVIEW

• 27-1 What is operant conditioning?

• Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

• 27-2 Who was Skinner, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

• B. F. Skinner was a college English major and aspiring writer who later entered psychology graduate school. He became modern behaviorism’s most influential and controversial figure.
• Expanding on Edward Thorndike’s law of effect, B. F. Skinner and others found that the behavior of rats or pigeons placed in an operant chamber (Skinner box) can be shaped by using reinforcers to guide closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

• 27-3 How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

• Reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens behavior. Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement reduces or removes an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior.
• Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry or having nausea end during an illness) are innately satisfying—no learning is required.
• Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards (such as the food or medicine we buy with them).
• Immediate reinforcers (such as a purchased treat) offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers (such as a paycheck) require the ability to delay gratification.

• 27-4 How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

• A reinforcement schedule defines how often a response will be reinforced.
• In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease.
• In partial (intermittent) reinforcement (reinforcing responses only sometimes), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction.
  • Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number.
  • Fixed-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.

• 27-5 How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

• Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdraws something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy) in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s disobedience).
• Negative reinforcement (taking an aspirin) removes an aversive stimulus (a headache). This desired consequence (freedom from pain) increases the likelihood that the behavior (taking aspirin to end pain) will be repeated.
• Punishment can have undesirable side effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors, encouraging discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present), creating fear, teaching aggression, and fostering depression and low self-esteem.

• 27-6 Why did Skinner’s ideas provoke controversy?

• Critics of Skinner’s principles believed the approach dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that people’s actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforcement is more humane than punishment as a means for controlling behavior.

Multiple-Choice Questions

1. The purpose of reinforcement is to
   1. cause a behavior to stop.
   2. cause a behavior to diminish.
   3. cause a behavior to continue.
   4. strengthen the spontaneous recovery process.
   5. cause a behavior to occur for only a limited amount of time.
2. Which of the following best describes negative reinforcement?
   1. John stops shooting bad free-throws because his coach benches him when he does.
   2. Brian studies hard because it earns him “A” grades in math.
   3. Lillian used to walk to school but does not do so anymore because she was attacked by a dog last month.
   4. Charles smokes because his anxiety is reduced when he does so.
   5. Osel wears his seat belt because his driving teacher cited accident statistics in class.
3. Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely to be repeated is known as what?
   1. Law of effect
   2. Operant conditioning
   3. Shaping
   4. Respondent behavior
   5. Discrimination
4. All of the following are examples of primary reinforcers except a
   1. rat’s food reward in a Skinner box.
   2. cold drink on a hot day.
   3. high score on an exam for which a student studied diligently.
   4. hug from a loved one.
   5. large meal following an extended time without food.
5. Shea bought 10 tickets for the raffle for free homecoming entry, but she did not win. Months later she also buys 10 tickets for the senior prom raffle, hoping this will be the time she wins. Which schedule of reinforcement is best used to explain this scenario?
   1. Fixed-ratio
   2. Variable-ratio
   3. Fixed-interval
   4. Variable-interval
   5. Continuous

Practice FRQs

1. Mom is frustrated because 3-year-old Maya has started to spit frequently. She has decided to temporarily put away one of Maya’s toys every time she spits. Mom is going to continue to do this until Maya has stopped spitting.
   • Explain whether Mom’s plan uses reinforcement or punishment.
   • Explain whether Mom’s plan is a positive or negative form of reinforcement or punishment.

Answer

1 point: The plan uses punishment, because it is designed to reduce the frequency of spitting. (Both the identification of punishment and the explanation are required to earn the point.) Page 289

1 point: This is negative punishment because toys are being taken away from Maya. (Both the identification of negative reinforcement and the explanation are required to earn the point.) Page 289

2. Your calculus teacher wants her students to be more diligent in completing their homework and, since you are taking AP® psychology, she has asked for your help. Give an example of how she could use each of the following to help her increase homework completion.
   • Shaping
   • Negative reinforcement
   • Fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement

(3 points)