Sexual Risk Taking and Teen Pregnancy
Sexual attitudes and behaviors vary dramatically across cultures and eras. “Sex between unmarried adults” is “morally unacceptable,” agree 97 percent of Indonesians and 6 percent of Germans (Pew, 2014). And thanks to decreased sexual activity and increased protection, American teen pregnancy rates are declining (CDC, 2016; Twenge et al., 2016).
Keeping abreast of hypersexuality An analysis of the 60 top-selling video games found 489 characters, 86 percent of whom were males (like most of the game players). The female characters were much more likely than the male characters to be “hypersexualized”—partially nude or revealingly clothed, with large breasts and tiny waists (Downs & Smith, 2010). Such depictions can lead to unrealistic expectations about sexuality and contribute to the early sexualization of girls. The American Psychological Association suggests countering this by teaching girls to “value themselves for who they are rather than how they look” (APA, 2007).
So, what produces variations in teen sexuality? Twin studies show that genes influence teen sexual behavior—by influencing pubertal development and hormone levels. But what environmental factors contribute?
Communication about birth control Many teenagers are uncomfortable discussing contraception with parents, partners, and peers. But teens who talk freely and openly with their parents and with their partner in an exclusive relationship are more likely to use contraceptives (Aspy et al., 2007; Milan & Kilmann, 1987).
Impulsivity Among sexually active 12- to 17-year-old American girls, 72 percent said they regretted having had sex (Reuters, 2000). If passion overwhelms intentions (either to use contraceptives or to delay having sex), unplanned sexual activity may result in pregnancy (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006; MacDonald & Hynie, 2008).
Alcohol use Among late teens and young adults, most sexual hook-ups (casual encounters outside of a relationship) occur after alcohol use, often without knowing consent (Fielder et al., 2013; Garcia et al., 2013; Johnson & Chen, 2015). Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use condoms (Kotchick et al., 2001). By depressing the brain centers that control judgment, inhibition, and self-awareness, alcohol disarms normal restraints—a phenomenon well known to sexually coercive people.
Mass media Perceived peer norms influence teens’ sexual behavior (Lyons et al., 2015; van de Bongardt et al., 2015). Teens pay attention to other teens, who, in turn, are influenced by popular media. Media help write the social scripts that affect our perceptions and actions. The more sexual content adolescents and young adults view or read (even when controlling for other predictors of early sexual activity), the more likely they are to perceive their peers as sexually active, to develop sexually permissive attitudes, and to experience early intercourse (Escobar-Chaves et al., 2005; Kim & Ward, 2012; Parkes et al., 2013). One study asked more than a thousand 12- to 14-year-olds what movies they had seen, and then after age 18 asked them about their sexual experiences (O’Hara et al., 2012). After controlling for various adolescent and family characteristics, the more the adolescents viewed movies with high sexual content, the greater was their sexual risk taking—with earlier first sex, more partners, and inconsistent condom use.
Several factors predict sexual restraint:
- HIGH INTELLIGENCE. Teens with high rather than average intelligence test scores more often delayed sex, partly because they considered possible negative consequences and were more focused on future achievement than on here-and-now pleasures (Harden & Mendle, 2011).
- RELIGIOUS ENGAGEMENT. Actively religious teens more often reserve sexual activity for adulthood or long-term relationships (Hull et al., 2011; Schmitt & Fuller, 2015; Štulhofer et al., 2011).
- FATHER PRESENCE. In studies that followed hundreds of New Zealand and U.S. girls from age 5 to 18, having Dad around has reduced the risk of teen pregnancy and of sexual activity before age 16 (Ellis et al., 2003). These associations held even after adjusting for other influences, such as poverty. Close family attachments—as in families that eat together and where parents know their teens’ activities and friends—also predict later sexual initiation (Coley et al., 2008).
- SERVICE LEARNING PARTICIPATION. Several experiments have found that teens volunteering as tutors or teachers’ aides, or participating in community projects, had lower pregnancy rates than did comparable teens randomly assigned to control conditions (Kirby, 2002; O’Donnell et al., 2002). Researchers are unsure why. Does service learning promote a sense of personal competence, control, and responsibility? Does it encourage more future-oriented thinking? Or does it simply reduce opportunities for unprotected sex? (Later school start times and after-school activities also reduced unplanned pregnancies [Bryan et al., 2016; Steinberg, 2015].)