Defusing Armageddon: Inside NEST, America’s Secret Nuclear Bomb Squad

PREFACE

1. Tony Shaw, British Cinema and the Cold War: The State, Propaganda and Consensus (London: I.B. Taurus, 2001), pp. 117–118; “Seven Days to Noon,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 22, 2007.

2. “Broken Arrow (1996 film),” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 22, 2007; “The Peacemaker (1997 film),” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 22, 2007.

3. Nicolas Freeling, Gadget (New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1977); Wolfgang Saxon, “Nicolas Freeling, 76, Dies; Set Novels in Modern Europe,” New York Times, July 23, 2003, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

4. Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre, The Fifth Horseman (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980).

5. Tom Clancy, The Sum of All Fears (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1991). A number of changes were made for the film version. See “The Sum of All Fears (film),” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 22, 2007.

6. Donald Hamilton, The Removers (Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett, 1961), p. 168.

7. Michael Connelly, The Overlook (Boston: Little, Brown, 2007).

8. Department of Defense Directive 5230.16, Subject: Nuclear Accident and Public Affairs (PA) Guidance, December 20, 1993, pp. 10–11; DOE/NRC Interagency Working Group on Radiological Dispersal Devices, Radiological Dispersal Devices: An Initial Study to Identify Radioactive Materials of Greatest Concern and Approaches to Their Tracking, Tagging, and Disposition, May 2003.

CHAPTER ONE: “BYE-BYE BOSTON”

1. Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York: Knopf, 2005), p. 349.

2. Ibid.

3. Gregg Herken, Counsels of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 179; Spurgeon M. Keeny Jr., “In Memoriam: Wolfgang K.H. Panofsky,” Arms Control Today, November 2007, pp. 51–52.

4. Lindesay Parrott, “Korea Foe Delays Truck Talk Reply: Says Ridgway Lies,” New York Times, August 30, 1951, pp. 1, 3.

5. On the capabilities and significant limitations of the Tu-4, see Stephen Zaloga, Target America: The Soviet Union and the Strategic Arms Race, 1945–1964 (Novato, Calif.: Presidio, 1993), pp. 72–79.

6. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE-31, Soviet Capabilities for Clandestine Attack against the US with Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Vulnerability of the US to Such Attack (mid-1951 to mid-1952), August 30, 1951.

7. Ibid., pp. 1, 4.

8. Ibid., p. 4.

9. Ibid., pp. 4–5. Also see “Customs Hunting Atom Smugglers,” New York Times, February 16, 1954, p. 2.

10. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE-31, Soviet Capabilities for Clandestine Attack against the US with Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Vulnerability of the US to Such Attack (mid-1951 to mid-1952), p. 6.

11. JCSM-3-68, Subject: Clandestine Introduction of Nuclear Weapons to the United States, January 2, 1968; John F. Kennedy, NSAM 161, “U.S. Internal Security Programs,” June 9, 1962.

12. Timothy Naftali, Blind Spot: The Secret History of American Counterterrorism (New York: Basic Books, 2005), p. 17; Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-7-63, The Clandestine Introduction of Weapons of Mass Destruction into the US, March 1963, p. 4.

13. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-7-63, Clandestine Introduction of Weapons of Mass Destruction into the US, p. 2n3; Director of Central Intelligence, SNIE 11-9-55, Clandestine Introduction of Nuclear Weapons under Diplomatic Immunity, June 28, 1955, p. 2. Other estimates on the subject are: Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-7-60, Soviet Capabilities and Intentions with Respect to the Clandestine Introduction of Weapons of Mass Destruction into the US, May 17, 1960; Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 4-68, The Clandestine Introduction of Weapons of Mass Destruction into the US, June 13, 1968; Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 4-70, The Clandestine Introduction of Nuclear Weapons into the US, July 7, 1970.

14. Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-7-60, Soviet Capabilities and Intentions with Respect to the Clandestine Introduction of Weapons of Mass Destruction into the US, p. 4; Joint Chiefs of Staff, Memorandum to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, “Clandestine Introduction of Weapons of Mass Destruction into the US,” June 13, 1968, in U.S. State Department, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968, Volume X: National Security Policy (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002), pp. 653–655; NIE 4-68, Clandestine Introduction of Weapons of Mass Destruction into the US, pp. 2, 5; Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 4-70, Clandestine Introduction of Nuclear Weapons into the US, p.1. For a review of these estimates, see Micah Zenko, “Intelligence Estimates of Nuclear Terrorism,” Annals, AAPSS [American Academy of Political and Social Science], September 2006, pp. 87–102.

15. Clark Rumrill, “Lost: One H-Bomb Call Owner,” Washington Post, April 17, 2005, pp. D1, D6; Air Force Nuclear Weapons and Counterproliferation Agency, Air Force Search & Recovery Assessment of the 1958 Savannah, GA B-47 Accident, April 12, 2001, p. 2; Boeing, “B-47 Stratojet,” www.boeing.com, accessed March 7, 2007.

16. Rumrill, “Lost: One H-Bomb.”

17. Ibid.; “North American F-86L Sabre Cockpit,” www.mapsairmuseum.org/Sabre.htm, accessed March 7, 2007.

18. Rumrill, “Lost: One H-Bomb”; Air Force Nuclear Weapons and Counterproliferation Agency, Air Force Search & Recovery Assessment of the 1958 Savannah, GA B-47 Accident, p. 1. In 2001 the Air Force consulted several other government organizations, including the Navy and Department of Energy, to determine if a search-and-recovery operation should be undertaken, and concluded that “it is in the best interest of the public and the environment to leave the bomb in its resting-place and remain categorized as permanently lost.” A search in 2005 found no trace of the weapon, and the Air Force again concluded that since the bomb could not explode it should be left at sea. See Air Force Nuclear Weapons and Counterproliferation Agency, Air Force Search & Recovery Assessment of the 1958 Savannah, GA B-47 Accident, p. 1; “Search Fails to Yield Missing Nuclear Bomb,” Washington Times, June 18, 2005, p. A3.

19. On U.S. information policy concerning the accident, see David Stiles, “A Fusion Bomb over Andalucia: U.S. Information Policy and the 1966 Palomares Incident,” Journal of Cold War Studies, 8, 1 (Winter 2006), pp. 49–67.

20. U.S. Air Force, “BROKEN ARROW: Palomares, Spain,” Nuclear Safety, 51 (May–June 1966), pp. 4–8, 29–37; Tad Szulc, The Bombs of Palomares (New York: Viking, 1967), pp. 16–20; John W. Finney, “Radiation Found Where B-52 Fell,” New York Times, January 24, 1968, pp. 1, 6; Scott D. Sagan, The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 185; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1967, Part 6 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 40.

21. Szulc, Bombs of Palomares, pp. 20, 23–24.

22. Ibid., pp. 28–29.

23. Ibid., pp. 29–30; Flora Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs Is Missing . . . (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), pp. 5–8, 12–13, 25, 42–43; “B-52 and Tanker Collide over Spain; 5 Dead, 2 Missing,” New York Times, January 18, 1966, p. 16; Systems Analysis Team, Analysis of Ballistics of Four MK 28 FI Weapons Released as a Result of the Collision of a B-52 and KC-135 near Vera, Spain, on 17 January 1966, February 7, 1966, p. 25; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1967, Part 6, p. 40. The Systems Analysis Team was an ad hoc group consisting of representatives from Sandia and the Air Force. The report is available at the Defense Department’s Electronic Reading Room: www.dod.mil/pubs/foi/master_reading_list01.html (135.pdf).

24. Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs Is Missing, pp. 49–52.

25. Ibid., p. 53.

26. Ibid., p. 54.

27. Ibid., p. 58; Szulc, Bombs of Palomares, p. 159; Larry Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism,” New York Times Magazine, December 14, 1980, pp. 36ff; Howard Simons, “U.S. Faces an Unending Cleanup Task,” Washington Post, February 25, 1966, pp. A1, A9.

28. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; “Physical Review Online Archive,” http://prola.aps.org, accessed March 15, 2007; Interview with William Chambers, Los Alamos, N.M., July 10, 2007; William Chambers, e-mail, December 16, 2007.

29. Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs Is Missing, p. 78; U.S. Air Force, “BROKEN ARROW: Palomares, Spain.”

30. Simons, “U.S. Faces an Unending Cleanup Task”; Jeffrey T. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (New York: W.W. Norton, 2006), p. 208.

31. History & Research Division, Strategic Air Command, SAC Historical Study 109, Sixteenth Air Force Operation Recovery, 17 January–7 April 1966, Volume I, April 1968, pp. 22–23; Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs Is Missing, pp. 78–79.

32. Lewis, One of Our H-Bombs Is Missing, pp. 84–85, 88; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1967, Part 6, p. 43.

33. “U.S. Said to Hunt Lost Atom Device,” New York Times, January 20, 1966, pp. 1, 9; History & Research Division, Strategic Air Command, SAC Historical Study 109, Sixteenth Air Force Operation Recovery, 17 January–7 April 1966, Volume I, pp. 106–107.

34. History & Research Division, Strategic Air Command, SAC Historical Study 109, Sixteenth Air Force Operation Recovery, 17 January–7 April 1966, Volume I, p. 108.

35. Ibid.; Systems Analysis Team, Analysis of Ballistics of Four MK 28 FI Weapons Released as a Result of the Collision of a B-52 and KC-135 near Vera, Spain, on 17 January 1966, p. 25.

36. Tad Szulc, “H-Bomb Is Recovered Intact after 80 Days,” New York Times, April 8, 1966, pp. 1, 12; U.S. Air Force, “Broken Arrow Aftermath,” Nuclear Safety, 52 (September–October 1966), pp. 2–7; Telephone interview with Dino Brugioni, March 13, 2007; U.S. Air Force, “BROKEN ARROW: Palomares, Spain”; “Cable-Controlled Underwater Recovery Vehicle,” www.spawar.navy.mil, accessed April 3, 2007; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1967, Part 6, p. 52.

37. History & Research Division, Strategic Air Command, SAC Historical Study 113, Project Crested Ice: The Thule Nuclear Accident, Volume I, April 23, 1969, p. 1; Sagan, Limits of Safety, pp. 65, 157, 170–172.

38. Weapons Systems Division, Directorate of Nuclear Safety, “BROKEN ARROW–THULE,” Nuclear Safety, July–August–September 1968, pp. 2–5; Neil Sheehan, “Pilot Says Fire Forced Crew to Quit B-52 in Arctic,” New York Times, January 28, 1968, p. 3; Neil Sheehan, “Radiation Danger Doubted in Crash,” New York Times, January 27, 1968, pp. 1, 10; Sagan, Limits of Safety, p. 156.

39. Weapons Systems Division, Directorate of Nuclear Safety, “BROKEN ARROW–THULE”; Defense Atomic Support Agency, Project CRESTED ICE: USAF B-52 Accident at Thule, Greenland, 21 January 1968, n.d., Annex B, p. 1; John W. Finney, “B-52 with H-Bombs Plunges into Ice in Greenland Bay,” New York Times, January 23, 1968, pp. 1, 12; Neil Sheehan, “Parts of 4 Bombs Located in Arctic,” New York Times, January 29, 1968, pp. 1, 2.

40. Finney, “B-52 with H-Bombs Plunges into Ice in Greenland Bay”; Sheehan, “Parts of 4 Bombs Located in Arctic”; History & Research Division, Strategic Air Command, SAC Historical Study 113, Project Crested Ice, pp. 3, 38.

41. Defense Atomic Support Agency, Project CRESTED ICE, p. 1; Grant Elliot, MIT Program in Science, Technology, and Society, “US Nuclear Weapon Safety and Control,” December 12, 2005.

42. History & Research Division, Strategic Air Command, SAC Historical Study 113, Project Crested Ice, p. 28; Weapons Systems Division, Directorate of Nuclear Safety, “BROKEN ARROW–THULE”; Defense Atomic Support Agency, Project CRESTED ICE, pp. 35, 91; Leo Heaps, Operation Morning Light: Terror in Our Skies, The True Story of Cosmos 954 (London: Paddington Press, 1978), p. 24.

43. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; Jim Eckles, “The Athena That Got Away,” www.wsmr.army.mil/pao/FactSheets/AthenatoMexico.htm, accessed April 28, 2007.

44. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; Eckles, “Athena That Got Away.”

45. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; Eckles, “Athena That Got Away.”

46. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; Eckles, “Athena That Got Away”; L. Deal, J. Doyle, Z. G. Burson, and P. K. Boyns, “Locating the Lost Athena Missile in Mexico by the Aerial Radiological Measuring System (ARMS),” Health Physics, 23, 1 (July 1972), pp. 95–98.

47. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; Eckles, “Athena That Got Away”; Deal, Doyle, Burson, and Boyns, “Locating the Lost Athena Missile in Mexico by the Aerial Radiological Measuring System (ARMS).”

48. Ralph E. Lapp, “The Ultimate Blackmail,” New York Times Magazine, February 4, 1973, pp. 13ff.

49. Jeffrey T. Richelson, A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 353.

50. Ibid.

51. Ibid., pp. 353–354; Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

52. Dan Stober, “No Experience Necessary,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March/April 2003, pp. 57–63; Michael Levi, On Nuclear Terrorism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), pp. 74–75.

53. Traffic Management Officer, 87th Combat Support Group, Tactical Air Command to Atomic Energy Commission, Subject: Accident Response Group Exercise, December 11, 1973; Mahlon E. Gates, “NV Sands Exercise Report,” January 2, 1974; “History, E&G Division, URS,” www.urscorp.com/EGG_Division/history.php, accessed March 14, 2007.

54. U.S. Army, Biography, “Brigadier General Mahlon E. Gates,” July 1969.

55. “Report: SANDS EXERCISE December 8, 1973,” n.d., p. 7, enclosure to: Gates, “NV SANDS Exercise Report.”

56. “Report: SANDS EXERCISE December 8, 1973,” p. 1; Gates, “NV SANDS Exercise Report.”

57. Henry A. Kissinger, National Security Study Memorandum 120, “United States Policy on Peaceful Applications of Atomic Energy,” February 19, 1971; Henry A. Kissinger, National Security Decision Memorandum 254, “Domestic Safeguards,” April 27, 1974.

58. Thomas O’ Toole, “Fear of Nuclear Theft Stirs Experts, AEC,” Washington Post, May 26, 1974, pp. A1, A16; Thomas O’ Toole, “AEC Seeking to Cut Peril of Atom Theft,” Washington Post, May 27, 1974, pp. A1, A22.

59. Lapp, “Ultimate Blackmail,” pp. 13ff.

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid.; John McPhee, The Curve of Binding Energy (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1980), pp. 118–119.

63. Lapp, “Ultimate Blackmail,” pp. 13ff; McPhee, Curve of Binding Energy, p. 119.

64. McPhee, Curve of Binding Energy, p. 119.

65. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats List,” n.d. The list was provided to the author by a former member of NEST.

66. Kissinger, National Security Decision Memorandum 254, “Domestic Safeguards.”

67. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; Chambers interview; W. H. Chambers, “Summary: A Brief History of NEST,” October 24, 1995.

68. Chambers interview; Chambers, “Summary: A Brief History of NEST.”

69. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

70. Telephone interview with Carl Henry, November 28, 2007.

71. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; Chambers interview; Chambers e-mail.

72. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

73. Chambers interview; Henry interview; Telephone conversation with John F. Doyle, July 23, 2007

74. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

75. Major General Ernest Graves, Assistant General Manager for Military Application, Atomic Energy Commission, to M. E. Gates, Manager, Nevada Operations, “Responsibility for Search and Detection Operations,” November 18, 1974.

76. Ibid.

CHAPTER TWO: NUCLEAR EXTORTION

1. “Personnel Profiles,” NTS News, May 1978, p. 13.

2. Interview with William Chambers, Los Alamos, N.M., July 10, 2007; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996), p. 70.

3. Chambers interview; James K. Ferrell, “History of the Chemical Engineering Department at North Carolina State University,” n.d., ; “NC State University College of Engineering Timeline,” n.d., accessed from www.che.nsu.edu/history/History of the ChEDepartment.pdf and www.engr.ncsu.edu/news/media/pdfs/timeline.pdf.; Larry Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism,” New York Times Magazine, December 14, 1980, pp. 36ff.

4. Chambers interview.

5. Ibid.

6. Michael Levi, On Nuclear Terrorism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), pp. 65–97.

7. James R. Shea, Director of International Programs, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Memorandum for: The Commissioners, Subject: ERDA Unclassified Briefing on Reactor Plutonium and Nuclear Explosives, December 3, 1976; Robert W. Selden, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, “Reactor Plutonium and Nuclear Explosives,” November 1976.

8. David M. Rosenbaum, A Special Safeguards Study, 1974, reprinted in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Operations, Peaceful Nuclear Exports and Weapons Proliferation (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), pp. 469–483; John McPhee, The Curve of Binding Energy (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1980), pp. 123, 126–127, 193; Richard Burt, “Pentagon Game Simulates a Nuclear Blackmail Case,” New York Times, November 15, 1977, p. 10.

9. ERDA, “Hazards of Attempting to Fabricate a Nuclear Explosive,” April 1976. Hoover Institution, Papers of Victor Gilinsky, Box 632, Folder: Weapons, 1976–1983; Interview with Victor Gilinsky, Santa Monica, Calif., March 28, 2007.

10. Merton E. Davies and William R. Harris, RAND’s Role in the Evolution of Balloon and Satellite Observation Systems and Related Space Technology (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1988), p. 6; Paul Bagne, “Interview with Brian Michael Jenkins,” Omni, November 1994, accessed from www.accessmylibrary.com; “RAND Expert Biography: Brian Michael Jenkins,” www.rand.org, accessed March 21, 2007.

11. “RAND Expert Biography: Brian Michael Jenkins”; Bagne, “Interview with Brian Michael Jenkins”; Chambers interview; Greg Kirkorian, “Calmly Taking Terror’s Measure,” Los Angeles Times, January 31, 2008, pp. A1, A23.

12. Brian Jenkins, RAND Paper P-5541, “Will Terrorists Go Nuclear?” November 1975, pp. 3, 7.

13. Ibid., p. 4.

14. Ibid., pp. 4–6.

15. Ibid., p. 6.

16. Office of Technology Assessment, Nuclear Proliferation and Safeguards (Washington, D.C.: Office of Technology Assessment, 1977), p. 121.

17. Ibid., pp. 122, 127.

18. Dan Stober, “Missing Nuclear Data Is Vital to Bomb Sleuths,” San Jose Mercury News, June 15, 2000, p. 1A; McPhee, Curve of Binding Energy, p. 103.

19. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. “Unocal Corporation,” www.answers.com, accessed March 20, 2007; Thomas C. Hayes, “Unocals Chairman Digs In,” New York Times, April 16, 1985, accessed from www.nytimes.com; “Unocal Names Chief Executive,” New York Times, June 7, 1988, accessed from www.nytimes.com; Wolfgang Saxon, “Fred L. Hartley, 73, Built Unocal into Multibillion-Dollar Company,” New York Times, October 21, 1990, accessed from www.nytimes.com; Richard J. Stegemeier, “A Century of Spirit: The History of Unocal,” address to the Newcomen Society of the United States, Los Angeles, October 15, 1990, p. 17.

24. “Union Oil Develops New Shale Process,” New York Times, June 11, 1974, p. 62; “Union Oil is Facing Antitrust Charges in California Suit,” New York Times, December 27, 1974, p. 47.

25. Assistant Director in Charge, Los Angeles to Director, FBI, Subject: UNSUB, aka Fission; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion, November 5, 1975; Letter, Fision to Mr. Fred L. Hartley, November 3, 1975.

26. Letter, Fision to Mr. Fred L. Hartley.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid.

29. Hayes, “Unocals Chairman Digs In”; Saxon, “Fred L. Hartley, 73, Built Unocal into Multibillion-Dollar Company.”

30. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; John R. Emshwiller, “In Atom-Bomb Scare, Federal NEST Team Flies to the Rescue,” Wall Street Journal, October 21, 1980, pp. 1, 22; Judith Valente, “Secretive Federal Program Combats Terrorism,” Washington Post, June 21, 1983, pp. C1, C7; Chris West, “Birds-eye View of NEST,” News & Views, 10, 8 (September 1984), pp. 1, 4–6; Los Angeles to Director, Unsub; aka Fision, Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion 00: LA, November 6, 1975; Untitled FBI document, November 10, 1975.

31. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

32. Los Angeles (9-5766) (P) to Director, Unknown Subject: aka Fision, Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion 00: Los Angeles, November 11, 1975; Untitled FBI statement of SA [Deleted], November 12, 1975.

33. Los Angeles (9-5766) (P) to Director, Unknown Subject: aka Fision, Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion 00: Los Angeles, November 11, 1975.

34. Ibid.; ADIC, Los Angeles to Director, FBI, Subject: UNSUB, aka Fision; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion 00: Los Angeles, November 13, 1975; ADIC, Los Angeles to Director, FBI, Subject: UNSUB, aka Fision; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion 00: Los Angeles, November 12, 1975; Statement by SA [Deleted], November 10, 1975; Identification Division, Latent Fingerprint Section, to: SAC, Los Angeles, Subject: UNSUB, aka Fision; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion, November 28, 1975; Identification Division, Latent Fingerprint Section, to: SAC, Los Angeles, Subject: UNSUB, aka Fision; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion, December 11, 1975.

35. Statement of SAC Elmer F. Linberg, SAs [Deleted], November 11, 1975; Statement of SA [Deleted] and SA [Deleted], November 13, 1975; Untitled, undated FBI document obtained under Freedom of Information Act.

36. FBI, Unknown Subject, aka Fision; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of America—Victim, April 27, 1976; Statement of SAs [Deleted] and [Deleted], March 19, 1976; Statement of SA [Deleted], April 8, 1976.

37. Los Angeles to Director, Frank (NMI) James, aka Fision; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company California—Victim Extortion 00: LA, June 23, 1976.

38. Los Angeles to Director, Frank NMI James AKA Fision; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of California—Victim Extortion 00: Los Angeles, October 8, 1976; SAC, Los Angeles to Director, FBI, Subject: Frank (NMI) James, aka Fision; Fred L. Hartley, Chairman of the Board, Union Oil Company of America—Victim Extortion; AR—Hobbs Act (Extortion) 00: LA, September 21, 1978.

39. “United States Bicentennial,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial, accessed March 20, 2007.

40. Ibid.

41. Central Intelligence Agency, International and Transnational Terrorism: Diagnosis and Prognosis, April 1976, pp. 4–5.

42. West, “Birds-eye View of NEST.”

43. “Subject: Washington, D.C., Nest Operations Plan,” undated NEST document obtained under the Freedom of Information Act.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid.

46. Philip L. Cantelon and Robert C. Williams, Crisis Contained: The Department of Energy at Three Mile Island: A History (Washington, D.C.: Department of Energy, 1980), pp. 32–33; Chambers interview; W. H. Chambers, “Summary: A Brief History of NEST,” October 24, 1995, p. 2.

47. Valente, “Secretive Federal Program Combats Terrorism”; Emshwiller, “In Atom-Bomb Scare, Federal NEST Team Flies to the Rescue”; Stober, “Missing Nuclear Data Is Vital to Bomb Sleuths.”

48. Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

49. Chambers interview.

50. ERDA, Fact Sheet, “Nuclear Emergency Search Team (NEST),” 1977; Gerald R. Ford, Executive Order 11953, “Emergency Preparedness Functions,” January 7, 1977.

51. ERDA, Fact Sheet, “Nuclear Emergency Search Team (NEST).”

52. Ibid.

53. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Nonproliferation, Homeland and International Security, “Radiological and Nuclear Countermeasures,” www.llnl.gov, accessed April 3, 2007; Untitled briefing slides provided by a former NEST member; Interview with Alan V. Mode, Pleasanton, Calif., April 9, 2007.

54. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Nonproliferation, Homeland and International Security, “Radiological and Nuclear Countermeasures”; Eric Pace, “Murray Miron, 62, Psychologist Who Aided F.B.I.,” New York Times, July 28, 1995, accessed via www.nytimes.com; Untitled briefing slides provided by a former NEST member.

55. E. Dowdy, C. N. Henry, and R. D. Hastings, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, LA-7108, Neutron Detector Suitcase for the Nuclear Emergency Search Team, February 1978; Telephone interview with Carl Henry, November 30, 2007.

56. Mode interview.

57. Valente, “Secretive Federal Program Combats Terrorism.”

58. Presidential Briefing Coordinator, Memorandum for: All Office Directors and NIOs, Subject: Presidential Briefing Topics for 27 June and later, June 23, 1978, CIA Records Search Tool (CREST), National Archives and Records Administration.

59. “Wilmington, North Carolina,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed March 27, 2007.

60. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Office of Inspection and Enforcement Circular No. 79-08, “Attempted Extortion—Low Enriched Uranium,” May 18, 1979; Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism”; SAC, Charlotte (117-42) (P), to Director, FBI, Subject: Unknown Subjects; Theft of 66 Kilograms of 2.6% Enriched Uranium from the General Electric Low Enriched Uranium Plant, Wilmington, N.C., 1/29/79, AEA-Extortion, 00: Charlotte, January 30, 1979.

61. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, IE Circular No. 79-08, “Attempted Extortion—Low Enriched Uranium”; Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

62. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, IE Circular No. 79-08, “Attempted Extortion—Low Enriched Uranium”; Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

63. “Sanitized Summary of G.E. Wilmington Incident,” attachment to: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, IE Circular No. 79-08, “Attempted Extortion—Low Enriched Uranium”; From [Deleted] For [Deleted], Federal Bureau of Investigation, Subject: UNSUB, aka Extortion Involving the General Electric Low Enriched Uranium Plant, Wilmington, N.C., 1/29/79—Nuclear Extortion, January 29, 1979.

64. Copy of untitled extortion letter, received in response to Freedom of Information Act request to the FBI.

65. Ibid.

66. “Sanitized Summary of G.E. Wilmington Incident,” attachment to: Nuclear Regulatory Commission, IE Circular No. 79-08, “Attempted Extortion—Low Enriched Uranium”; Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Information Notice No. 79-02, “Attempted Extortion—Low Enriched Uranium,” February 2, 1979; SAC, Charlotte (117-42)(P), to Director, FBI, Subject: Unknown Subjects; Theft of 66 Kilograms of 2.6% Enriched Uranium from the General Electric Low Enriched Uranium Plant, Wilmington, N.C., 1/29/79, AEA-Extortion, 00: Charlotte, January 30, 1979.

67. Charlotte FBI Office, CE 117-42, Judicial Process, n.d.; FBI Director to White House Situation Room, Unknown Subjects; Theft of 66 Kilograms of 2.6% Enriched Uranium from General Electric Low Enriched Uranium Plant, Wilmington, North Carolina, January 29, 1979, Atomic Energy Act—Extortion, January 31, 1979; FBI, “Criminal Investigative Division,” January 30, 1979.

68. FBI Director to White House Situation Room, Unknown Subjects; Theft of 66 Kilograms of 2.6% Enriched Uranium from General Electric Low Enriched Uranium Plant, Wilmington, North Carolina, January 29, 1979; Atomic Energy Act—Extortion, January 30, 1979.

69. Ibid.

70. Ibid.

71. Director EACT, USDOE, to FBI Headquarters, Wilmington Incident, January 30, 1979.

72. F. W. Jessen Livermore/Dir EACT/USDOE, Wash, DC, To: RHEGGTN/DOE HQS EACT, Nuclear Threat No. 46, January 30, 1979. Jessen is transmitting the assessments of F. Kloverstrom, R. Remillard, and George Moore.

73. F. W. Jessen, Univ. of Calif. Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, To: RHEGGTN/Martin Dowd, EACT/HQ, Germantown, Md., Four Hour Response, 30 January 1979. Jessen is transmitting the analysis performed by J. Krofcheck, G. Gass, B. Jenkins, and P. Tropodies.

74. Director, FBI, to: White House Situation Room, Unknown Subjects; Theft of 66 Kilograms of 2.6 Percent Enrichment Uranium from General Electric Low Enriched Uranium Plant, Wilmington, North Carolina, January 29, 1979; Atomic Energy Act—Extortion, February 1, 1979; FBI, “Criminal Investigative Division,” February 2, 1979; Charlotte to Director FBI, Changed: [Deleted]; Theft of 66 Kilograms of 2.6 Percent Enriched Uranium from General Electric (GE) Low-Enriched Uranium Plant, Wilmington, N.C., January 29, 1979, AEA-Extortion, February 1, 1979; FBI, CE 117-42, Judicial Process; Untitled FBI memo, February 8, 1979.

75. Charlotte, CE 117-42, “Administrative,” n.d.

76. Ibid.

77. Ibid.; FBI, CE 117-42, February 6, 1979, p. 82.

78. Charlotte, CE 117-42, “Administrative,” n.d.; Collins, “Nuclear Terrorism.”

79. Cantelon and Williams, Crisis Contained, p. 3; Richard Roberts, “Event Rated Serious,” Patriot, March 29, 1979, www.threemileisland.org/downloads//49.htm.

80. Cantelon and Williams, Crisis Contained, p. 6.

81. Ibid., p. 21; Roberts, “Event Rated Serious.”

82. Cantelon and Williams, Crisis Contained, p. 39.

83. Ibid., pp. 40-41.

84. Ibid., p. 42.

85. Idaho National Laboratory, “History,” www.inl.gov/history/index.shtml, accessed April 2, 2007.

86. Maj. Gen. J. K. Bratton, ERDA, Untitled message, June 12, 1977; F. D. Koopman, “Observer Plan” (Draft), March 24, 1977.

87. Eric L. Haney, Inside Delta Force: The Story of America’s Elite Counterterrorist Unit (New York: Delacorte, 2002), p. 180; Idaho National Laboratory, “History.”

88. Haney, Inside Delta Force, p. 181.

89. “Greenpeace,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenpeace; Sunday Times Insight Team, Rainbow Warrior: The French Attempt to Sink Greenpeace (London: Hutchinson, 1986) p. 11.

90. Steven Sawyer, e-mail, April 3, 2007; FBI, “Criminal Investigative Division,” August 22, 1980, available in FBI Electronic Reading Room, Greenpeace file.

91. FBI, “Criminal Investigative Division”; Washington Field to Director FBI, “Atomic Energy Act—Information Concerning,” August 21, 1980; Washington Field to Director FBI, “Greenpeace Foundation Demonstration, White House, Washington, D.C., August 21, 1980; Atomic Energy Act—Information Concerning,” August 22, 1980.

92. Valente, “Secretive Federal Program Combats Terrorism”; Steven Sawyer, e-mail. The Washington Post published an article on Greenpeace in late 1984: Bob Reiss, “The Greening of Activism,” Washington Post Magazine, December 2, 1984, pp. 20ff.

CHAPTER THREE: MORNING LIGHT

1. “Plesetsk Cosmodrome,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plesetsk_Cosmodrome; Steven J. Zaloga, Target America: The Soviet Union and the Strategic Arms Race, 1945–1964 (Novato, Calif.: Presidio, 1993), pp. 150–151.

2. Nicholas L. Johnson, The Soviet Year in Space 1986 (Colorado Springs, Colo.: Teledyne-Brown Engineering, 1987), p. 41; “Cosmos 954: An Ugly Death,” Time, February 6, 1978, accessed from www.time.com; Leo Heaps, Operation Morning Light: Terror in Our Skies, The True Story of Cosmos 954 (New York: Paddington, 1978), p. 14.

3. Viktor Suvorov, Soviet Military Intelligence (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1984), p. 61; Desmond Ball, Soviet Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) (Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, 1989), pp. 80–123.

4. Asif Siddiqi, “Staring at the Sea: The Soviet RORSAT and EORSAT Programmes,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 52 (1999), pp. 397–416.

5. Ibid.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.; Director of Central Intelligence, Interagency Intelligence Memorandum, Soviet Dependence on Space Systems, November 1975, p. 13; Jeffrey T. Richelson, Sword and Shield: The Soviet Intelligence and Security Apparatus (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1986), p. 104.

8. Siddiqi, “Staring at the Sea.”

9. Ibid.; Director of Central Intelligence, NIE 11-1-80, Soviet Military Capabilities and Intentions in Space, August 6, 1980; “Cosmos 954: An Ugly Death”; Sven Grahn, “The US—A Program (Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satellites—RORSAT) and Radio Observations Thereof,” www.svengrahn.pp.se/trackind/RORSAT/RORSAT.html, pp. 4–5, accessed October 30, 2006.

10. Siddiqi, “Staring at the Sea.”

11. Jeffrey T. Richelson, America’s Space Sentinels: DSP Satellites and National Security (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999), p. 107.

12. Craig Covault, “Maui Optical Station Photographs External Tank Reentry Breakup,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, June 11, 1990, pp. 52–53; Andrew Pickles, “A Brief History of Astronomy in Hawaii since 1940,” www.mkooc.org/css-timeline.html, accessed May 8, 2007; John T. Jefferies, “Astronomy in Hawaii, 1964–1970,” University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy, www.ifa.hawaii.edu/users/jefferies/Preface.htm, accessed May 8, 2007.

13. John Noble Wilford, “Trackers Describe Vigil,” New York Times, January 29, 1978, pp. 1, 8.

14. Wilford, “Trackers Describe Vigil”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light: A Technical Report, March 1981, p. 41.

15. Wilford, “Trackers Describe Vigil.”

16. Gus W. Weiss, “The Life and Death of Cosmos 954,” Studies in Intelligence, 22, 1 (Spring 1978), pp. 1–7.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.; NDHQ to U.S. Department of Energy, Subj: Morning Light, November 20, 1978 (includes handwritten comments); Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 41.

19. Weiss, “Life and Death of Cosmos 954”; Wilford, “Trackers Describe Vigil”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 3.

20. Weiss, “Life and Death of Cosmos 954”; Richard D. Lyons, “Soviet Spy Satellite with Atomic Reactor Breaks Up in Canada,” New York Times, January 25, 1978, pp. A1, A8.

21. Weiss, “Life and Death of Cosmos 954”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 42.

22. Weiss, “Life and Death of Cosmos 954.”

23. Ibid.; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, NV-198, Operational Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978: A Non-Technical Summary of United States Participation, September 1978, p. 2.

24. Lyons, “Soviet Spy Satellite with Atomic Reactor Breaks Up in Canada.”

25. Heaps, Operation Morning Light, p. 40; Gordon Bell, “A Seymour Cray Perspective,” Seymour Cray Lecture Series, University of Minnesota, November 10, 1997, Slides 50, 52.

26. Telephone interview with Robert Kelley, November 20, 2007.

27. Ibid.; Wilford, “Trackers Describe Vigil”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 42.

28. Wilford, “Trackers Describe Vigil.”

29. Ibid.; Major Bill Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” Sentinel, 2 (1978), pp. 4–16.

30. Weiss, “Life and Death of Cosmos 954”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 8.

31. Weiss, “Life and Death of Cosmos 954.”

32. Jeffrey T. Richelson, America’s Secret Eyes in Space: The US KEYHOLE Spy Satellite Program (New York: Harper & Row, 1990), pp. 87–88, 360–361.

33. See Jeffrey T. Richelson, The Wizards of Langley: Inside the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2001), pp. 198–202.

34. Office of the Historian, Strategic Air Command, SAC Historical Study 187, History of SAC Reconnaissance Operations: 1978, 1979, and 1980, June 1, 1982, pp. 208, 210.

35. Ibid., p. 210.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid., pp. 208, 210; Robert S. Hopkins III, Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker (Leicester, England: Aerofax, 1997), pp. 154–157; “WC-135 Constant Phoenix,” www.af.mil/factsheets.

38. Office of the Historian, Strategic Air Command, SAC Historical Study 187, History of SAC Reconnaissance Operations, pp. 209–210.

39. “Cosmos 954: An Ugly Death”; W. K. Gummer, F. R. Campbell, G. B. Knight, and J. L. Ricard, Cosmos 954: The Occurrence and Nature of Recovered Debris (Ottawa: Atomic Energy Control Board, 1980), p.1.

40. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 41.

41. Ibid., pp. 42, 89; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, pp. 5, 7; Robert Gillette, “Cosmos Hunt Puts U.S. Teams to Test,” Los Angeles Times, February 12, 1978, pp. A1, A12–A13.

42. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 5; Gillette, “Cosmos Hunt Puts U.S. Teams to Test”; Quentin Bristow, “Operation Morning Light—A Personal Account,” 1995, http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/gamma/ml_e.php.

43. Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 5; “Northwest Territories,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed May 31, 2007; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 8.

44. “Yellowknife, Northwest Territories,” “Great Slave Lake,” both from http://en.wikipedia.org, both accessed May 31, 2007; Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 5; “Baker Lake,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed June 2, 2007.

45. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 43, 90; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 9; Weiss, “Life and Death of Cosmos 954.”

46. Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” pp. 5–6; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 297.

47. “Personnel Profiles,” NTS News, May 1978, p. 13; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 43; Heaps, Operation Morning Light, p. 27.

48. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 9; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 43, 90; Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 6; “12-Hour Flights in Darkness over Vast Frozen Corridor,” EG&G Focus, March 1978, pp. 3–4, 6; R. L. Grasty, “The Search for Cosmos-954,” in K. Brian Haley and Lawrence D. Stone (eds.), Search Theory and Applications (New York: Plenum, 1980), pp. 211–220 at p. 211.

49. Heaps, Operation Morning Light, pp. 33, 35, 47, 106; Interview with William Chambers, Los Alamos, N.M., July 10, 2007; Interview with William Nelson, Alamo, Calif., June 9, 2007; Richard Roberts, “Event Rated Serious,” Patriot, March 29, 1979, accessed from www.threemileisland.org.

50. Nelson interview.

51. Ibid.

52. “12-Hour Flights in Darkness over Vast Frozen Corridor”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 43, 188; “CC-130 Hercules,” www.airforce.forces.gc.ca, accessed June 3, 2007; H. W. Taylor, E. A. Hutchinson, K. L. McInnes, and J. Svoboda, “Cosmos 954: Search for Airborne Radioactivity on Lichens in the Crash Area, Northwest Territories,” Science, September 29, 1979, pp. 1383–1385; Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 7.

53. Grasty, “Search for Cosmos-954,” p. 211; “12-Hour Flights in Darkness over Vast Frozen Corridor”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 14.

54. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 189.

55. Ibid., pp. 190, 193.

56. Gillette, “Cosmos Hunt Puts U.S. Teams to Test”; Taylor, Hutchinson, McInnes, and Svoboda, “Cosmos 954.

57. “12-Hour Flights in Darkness over Vast Frozen Corridor.”

58. Gillette, “Cosmos Hunt Puts U.S. Teams to Test”; “12-Hour Flights in Darkness over Vast Frozen Corridor”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 199.

59. Bristow, “Operation Morning Light—A Personal Account”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, pp. 15, 25, 61; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 43, 103.

60. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, pp. 15, 25, 61; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 43, 103; “CC-138 Twin Otter,” www.airforce.forces.gc.ca, accessed June 3, 2007.

61. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 25; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 194–195; Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 8; Heaps, Operation Morning Light, p. 74.

62. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 44.

63. Ibid.

64. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 25; “Scenes from Warden’s Grove,” EG&G Focus, March 1978, p. 10; “John Hornby,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hornby, accessed May 14, 2007; “12-Hour Flights in Darkness over Vast Frozen Corridor.”

65. “Scenes from Warden’s Grove”; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 36; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 44; Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 9.

66. Grasty, “Search for Cosmos-954,” p. 213; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 44, 197; Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 13.

67. Grasty, “Search for Cosmos-954,” p. 213; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 44, 197, 198; Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 13; “12-Hour Flights in Darkness over Vast Frozen Corridor.”

68. Aikman, “Operation Morning Light,” p. 12.

69. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 199.

70. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, p. 42.

71. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 45, 52.

72. Ibid., pp. 44, 47, 197; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, pp. 61, 62.

73. Grasty, “Search for Cosmos-954,” p. 213.

74. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 212.

75. Ibid., p. 47.

76. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Operation Morning Light, Canadian Northwest Territories/1978, pp. 30, 61, 62, 197; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, pp. 47, 48; Gillette, “Cosmos Hunt Puts U.S. Teams to Test.”

77. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, U.S. Participation in Operation Morning Light, p. 48.

78. R. L. Landingham and A. W. Casey, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, MORNING LIGHT Cleanup and Recovery Operations: Simulation Studies of Possible Reactor Fuels, August 31, 1978, p. 1.

79. “Canada-USSR,” National Intelligence Daily, January 23, 1979, p. 19.

CHAPTER FOUR: A LOW-PROFILE DECADE

1. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Event List,” n.d. The list was provided to the author by a former member of NEST.

2. “Stateline, Nevada,” “Lake Tahoe Horizon Casino,” “Mont Bleu Casino & Spa,” all in http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 9, 2007; Jim Sloan, “Render Safe,” Reno Gazette-Journal, August 21, 2005, accessed from www.rgj.com.

3. “Stateline, Nevada”; A. O. Scott, “Sometimes Pulp Fiction Emphasizes Pulp over Fiction,” New York Times, January 26, 2007, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

4. Sloan, “Render Safe”; Jim Sloan, “Special Delivery for Harvey Gross,” Reno Gazette-Journal, August 22, 2005, accessed from www.rgj.com.

5. Sloan, “Special Delivery for Harvey Gross.”

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. “Harvey Gross, 78, a Pioneer in Lake Tahoe Gaming Clubs,” New York Times, November 3, 1983, accessed from www.nytimes.com.; Tim Anderson and Jim Sloan, “Where Are They Now?” Reno Gazette-Journal, August 28, 2005, accessed from www.rgj.com.

11. Jim Sloan, “A Stern Warning: ‘It Is full of TNT,’ ” Reno Gazette-Journal, August 22, 2005, accessed from www.rgj.com.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.; Jim Sloan, “The Payoff: There Will Be No Extension or Renegotiation,” Reno Gazette-Journal, August 25, 2005, accessed from www.rgj.com; “Bomb Extortionist’s Letter Said Betrayal Would Bring Repetition,” New York Times, August 31, 1980, p. 18.

14. Jim Sloan, “We Never Expected Them to Get the Bomb inside the Casino,” Reno Gazette-Journal, August 24, 2005, accessed from www.rgj.com; Sloan, “Payoff.”

15. Sloan, “Stern Warning.”

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Interview with Alan V. Mode, April 17, 2007, Pleasanton, Calif.

19. Interview with William Nelson, June 9, 2007, Alamo, Calif.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.; Sloan, “Stern Warning.”

22. Sloan, “Payoff”; Sloan, “We Never Expected Them to Get the Bomb inside the Casino.”

23. Nelson interview; Jim Sloan, “Once the Charge Was Set, There Was No Going Back,” Reno Gazette-Journal, August 28, 2005, accessed from www.rgj.com; Jim Sloan, “In a Deserted Casino, Bomb Experts Flip the Switch,” Reno Gazette-Journal, August 27, 2005, accessed from www.rgj.com.

24. Sloan, “In a Deserted Casino, Bomb Experts Flip the Switch.”

25. Nelson interview; Robert Lindsey, “Bomb Set by Extortionists Goes Off after Nevada Casino Evacuated,” New York Times, August 28, 1980, pp. A1, A12.

26. Lindsey, “Bomb Set by Extortionists Goes Off after Nevada Casino Evacuated”; Nelson interview.

27. Sloan, “Payoff”; “Bomb Extortionist’s Letter Said Betrayal Would Bring Repetition”; “Clues Checked in Nevada Blast, Including Fingerprints on Bomb,” New York Times, August 30, 1980, p. 10; Robert Lindsey, “F.B.I. Says Fingerprints Were Left on Bomb That Wrecked Casino-Hotel,” New York Times, August 29, 1980, p. 12; Sloan, “In a Deserted Casino, Bomb Experts Flip the Switch.”

28. “F.B.I. Releases Sketches of Casino Blast Suspects,” New York Times, September 18, 1980, p. A27; “Around the Nation: Two in Casino Bombing Plead Guilty in Bargain,” New York Times, September 9, 1981, accessed from www.rgj.com; Sloan, “Once the Charge Was Set, There Was No Going Back.”

29. Jane Ann Morrison, “TV Special on 1980 Bombing Puts Focus on Old Memories, New Attitudes,” www.reviewjournal.com, August 27, 2005, accessed October 26, 2006; “John Birges,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Birges.

30. Nelson interview; W. H. Chambers, “Summary: A Brief History of NEST,” October 24, 1995, p. 3.

31. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Event List.”

32. Ronald Reagan, National Security Decision Directive 30, “Managing Terrorist Incidents,” April 10, 1982.

33. Department of State (State), Department of Energy (DOE), and Department of Defense (DOD) Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for Responding to Malevolent Nuclear Incidents Outside U.S. Territory and Possessions, January 28, 1982.

34. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Event List.”

35. Department of State (State), Department of Energy (DOE), and Department of Defense (DOD) Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for Responding to Malevolent Nuclear Incidents Outside U.S. Territory and Possessions.

36. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Event List.”

37. Chambers, “Summary: A Brief History of NEST,” p. 3.

38. Ibid.

39. John Noble Wilford, “Soviet Denies Peril from Satellite; U.S. Differs and Sets Up an Alert,” New York Times, October 16, 2006, accessed from www.nytimes.com; John Noble Wilford, “Russian Satellite Falls Harmlessly over Indian Ocean,” New York Times, January 24, 1983, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

40. Nicholas L. Johnson, Soviet Military Strategy in Space (London: Jane’s, 1987), p. 97; Asif Siddiqi, “Staring at the Sea: The Soviet RORSAT and EORSAT Programmes,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, 52 (1999), pp. 397–416.

41. Wilford, “Soviet Denies Peril from Satellite.”

42. Ibid.; Wilford, “Russian Satellite Falls Harmlessly over Indian Ocean.”

43. Wilford, “Soviet Denies Peril from Satellite.”

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid.; “NEST Team Alert for Cosmos 1402 Descent to Earth,” Weekly Bulletin, January 12, 1983, p. 2.

46. Timothy Aeppel, “Special Team’s Challenge: Cleaning Up Nuclear Incidents,” Christian Science Monitor, January 25, 1983, accessed from www.csmonitor.com.

47. Serge Schmemann, “Soviet Says Satellite Core Will Fall Next Month, but Doubts Danger,” New York Times, January 16, 1983, accessed from www.nytimes.com; Genady Cherepanov, “An Introduction to Two-Dimensional Separated Flows,” in S. M. Belotserkovsky (ed.), Two-Dimensional Separated Flows (Virginia Beach, Va.: Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 1992), p. 4.

48. Schmemann, “Soviet Says Satellite Core”; “State Department’s View,” New York Times, January 16, 1983, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

49. Wilford, “Russian Satellite Falls Harmlessly over Indian Ocean.”

50. Ibid.

51. William J. Broad, “Satellite’s Fuel Core Falls ‘Harmlessly,’ ” New York Times, February 4, 1983, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

52. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Event List”; Christopher Whitcomb, Cold Zero: Inside the FBI Hostage Rescue Team (New York: Warner Books, 2002), p. 198; “Exercise Equus Red,” www.specialoperations.com/Domestic/FBI/Ops.htm, accessed February 10, 2005.

53. “Exercise Equus Red.”

54. Ibid.

55. Chambers, “Summary: A Brief History of NEST,” p. 3.

56. “U.S. Nuclear Events Threat List.”

57. Ibid.; Ronald Reagan, National Security Decision Directive 135, “Counterintelligence and Security Precautions for the Summer Olympic Games,” March 30, 1984.

58. Interview with William Chambers, Los Alamos, N. M., July 10, 2007.

59. “U.S. Nuclear Events Threat List”; “Bernhard Goetz,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Goetz, accessed June 19, 2007.

60. “Bernhard Goetz”; “Bernard Goetz,” www.heroism.org/class/1980/goetz.htm, accessed April 4, 2007.

61. “Bernhard Goetz.”

62. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Event List”; Nonproliferation, Homeland and International Security, “Radiological and Nuclear Countermeasures,” www.llnl.gov, accessed June 19, 2007.

63. Nonproliferation, Homeland and International Security, “Radiological and Nuclear Countermeasures”; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Armed Services, Intelligence Briefing on Smuggling of Nuclear Material and the Role of International Criminal Organizations, and on the Proliferation of Cruise and Ballistic Missiles (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996), p. 26.

64. Nonproliferation, Homeland and International Security, “Radiological and Nuclear Countermeasures”; see U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Armed Services, Intelligence Briefing on Smuggling of Nuclear Material and the Role of International Criminal Organizations, and on the Proliferation of Cruise and Ballistic Missiles, pp. 26–27. In 1995 congressional hearings, the head of the CIA’s Nonproliferation Center, Gordon Oehler, referred to an “early 1980s” threat to contaminate the New York City water supply by “a disgruntled citizen who tried to extort money.” No threat against New York appears on the threats events list, so Oehler may have received a garbled version of the Goetz incident. See U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Armed Services, Intelligence Briefing on Smuggling of Nuclear Material and the Role of International Criminal Organizations, and on the Proliferation of Cruise and Ballistic Missiles, p. 33.

65. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Event List.”

66. Chambers, “Summary: A Brief History of NEST,” p. 4.

67. Ibid.; Letter, Darwin J. Morgan to Jeffrey T. Richelson, Re: Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) Request NV2001-1231-02, March 1, 2002; Chambers interview.

68. “Camp Atterbury/Atterbury Range,” http://www.globalsecurity.org, accessed May 2, 2007; “Camp Atterbury,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Atterbury; Letter, Darwin J. Morgan to Jeffrey T. Richelson; Nelson interview.

69. Nelson interview.

70. Mode interview; Chambers, “Summary: A History of NEST,” p. 4.

71. Chambers, “Summary: A History of NEST,” p. 4; Nelson interview.

72. Nelson interview; Mode interview.

73. Dan Stober, “Missing Nuclear Data Is Vital to Bomb Sleuths,” San Jose Mercury News, June 15, 2000, p. 1A.

74. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Events List.”

CHAPTER FIVE: TARNISHED GOLD

1. “U.S. Nuclear Extortion Threats Event List,” n.d. The list was provided to the author by a former member of NEST.

2. Ibid.

3. Sheila Grissett, “Enjoying Life in the Fest Lane,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, October 16, 1994, pp. B1, B2; “Lafreniere Park,” http//enwikipedia.org, accessed November 26, 2007; “History of Lafreniere Park,” www.jeffparish.net, accessed November 26, 2007.

4. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Exercise Mirage Gold After-Action Report, March 1995, p. 7.

5. Danny O. Coulson and Elaine Shannon, No Heroes: Inside the FBI’s Secret Counter-Terror Force (New York: Pocket Books, 2001), pp. 195, 204–205, 246.

6. Ibid., pp. 195–196, 204.

7. Ibid., pp. 208–209, 313.

8. Douglas Waller, “Nuclear Ninjas,” Time, January 8, 1996, pp. 38–40; Andrew Cockburn and Leslie Cockburn, One Point Safe: A True Story (New York: Anchor Books, 1997), p. 86.

9. [Deleted], Re: Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Emergency Search Team (NEST) Full Field Exercise 1994 Codenamed “Mile Shakedown,” August 3, 1992; Director FBI to SAC, New Orleans, [Subjects:] Mile Shakedown, Nuclear Terrorism Matter, Exercise Series, October 6, 1992, w/enclosure: Airtel to SAC, New Orleans Re: Mile Shakedown, Nuclear Terrorism Matter, Exercises Series, n.d.; [Deleted] to [Deleted], Re: “Mica Dig” TableTop Exercise, “Mile Shakedown” Exercise Series Counterterrorism Matter, November 25, 1992; [Deleted] to [Deleted], Re: “Mild Cover” Communications Exercise, “Mile Shakedown” Exercise Series Counterterrorism Matter, November 25, 1992; [Deleted] to [Deleted], Re: “Mile Shakedown”, “Mica Dig,” Nuclear Tabletop Exercise, December 16, 1993; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, James K. Magruder, Assistant Manager for Operations, Subject: Mile Shakedown After-Action Report, September 1994, w/enclosure: Mile Shakedown After Action Report; From [Deleted], To: Mr. Bayse, Subject: “Mile Shakedown” Exercise Series; Communications Exercise “Mild Cover” Counterterrorism Matter, FBI Academy, Quantico, Virginia 11/17/92, December 24, 1992; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 86.

10. Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 86; “Belle Chasse, Louisiana,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed July 16, 2007.

11. COMJSOC [Commander, JSOC] to RUCJAA/USCINCSOC, Subject: Errant Knight Concept Modification, October 5, 1994.

12. Director FBI to SAC, New Orleans, [Subjects:] Mile Shakedown, Nuclear Terrorism Matter, Exercise Series, October 6, 1992 w/enclosure: Airtel to SAC, New Orleans Re: Mile Shakedown, Nuclear Terrorism Matter, Exercises Series, n.d.; W. Douglas Gow to [Deleted], October 9, 1992.

13. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, The Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises: A Compilation of Comments and Critiques, February 18, 1995, p. 25; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Mirage Gold” Full Field Exercise, New Orleans, Louisiana, 10/16–21/94 FBI After-Action Report, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996), pp. 184–209 at p. 186; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 87; From: SAC, CIRG, To: Director, FBI, Subject: “Mile Shakedown” Crisis Management Matter; Nuclear Exercise Series, July 27, 1994.

14. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, p. 25; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Mirage Gold” Full Field Exercise, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 187; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, pp. 86–87.

15. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, p. 25; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Mirage Gold” Full Field Exercise, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 187; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 87; Fm: FBI Director To: FBI Anchorage . . . , Subject: “Mirage Gold” Nuclear Exercise 10/16–21/94, New Orleans, Louisiana, October 4, 1994; “KBR (company),” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 12, 2007.

16. James K. Magruder, Assistant Manager for Operations, Nevada Operations Office, “Mile Shakedown After-Action Report,” July 5, 1995, w/enclosure: Mile Shakedown After-Action Report; Waller, “Nuclear Ninjas.”

17. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, p. 25; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Mirage Gold” Full Field Exercise, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 187; Maj. Gen. Joseph W. Kineer, Deputy Commanding General, Fifth U.S. Army, Memorandum for: Commanding General, FORSCOM, Subject: Exercise Mirage Gold After Action Report, November 15, 1994, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, pp. 386–429.

18. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, p. 26; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 88. The Department of Energy report gives the location of the airstrip as being off Magazine Road, but there is only a Magazine Drive.

19. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, p. 26.

20. Ibid.

21. Telephone interview with Peter Zimmerman, November 20, 2007.

22. Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 89; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, p. 146; Telephone interview with Robert Kelley, November 20, 2007.

23. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, p. 26; Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Mirage Gold” Full Field Exercise, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 188; Federal Emergency Management Agency, Exercise Mirage Gold After-Action Report, p. 11.

24. Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 90.

25. Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Mirage Gold” Full Field Exercise, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, pp. 184–210.

26. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Exercise Mirage Gold After-Action Report, pp. 13–14.

27. Interview with William Chambers, Los Alamos, N.M., July 10, 2007.

28. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, pp. 37–38, 40.

29. Ibid., p. 41.

30. Ibid., pp. 44–45.

31. Ibid., pp. 53–54; Kineer, Deputy Commanding General, Fifth U.S. Army, Memorandum for: Commanding General, FORSCOM, Subject: Exercise Mirage Gold After Action Report.

32. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, p. 54.

33. Ibid., p. 58.

34. Ibid., p. 96; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 9.

35. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, Mile Shakedown Series of Exercises, pp. 59–60.

36. Ibid., p. 73.

37. “USS Minneapolis-Saint Paul, SSN 708,” www.uss-saint-paul-ca.73.com/SSN708/ssn708.htm, accessed August 5, 2007; John T. Conway, Chairman, Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board, to Rear Adm. Charles J. Beers, August 23, 1995; Telephone interview with Adm. Charles J. Beers Jr., December 4, 2007.

38. Beers interview.

39. Rear Admiral Charles J. Beers, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Military Application and Stockpile Support, Defense Programs, Department of Energy, to Manager, Nevada Operations Office, Subject: Nuclear Emergency Search Team, January 25, 1995.

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

42. Interview with Alan V. Mode, Pleasanton, Calif., April 9, 2007.

43. Chambers interview; Interview with William Nelson, Alamo, Calif., June 9, 2007.

44. Beers interview.

45. Rear Admiral Charles J. Beers, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Military Application and Stockpile Support, Defense Programs, Department of Energy, to Manager, Nevada Operations Office, Subject: Nuclear Emergency Search Team.

46. U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 70.

47. Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team, Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team Report, July 12, 1995, p. 1.

48. Ibid. The specific components of the Department of Energy headquarters, Nevada Operations Office, the FBI, and the Department of Defense from which representatives were interviewed were Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Military Application and Stockpile Support, Office of Emergency Response, Emergency Management Operations, and Intelligence and Threat Assessment from the Department of Energy headquarters; the Office of the Manager, the Office of the Assistant Manager for Operations, Emergency Management and Nonproliferation Division, and Safeguards and Security Division of the Nevada Operations Office; the Counterterrorism Section, Domestic Counterintelligence Unit, and Critical Incident Response Group of the FBI; the Defense Nuclear Agency, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Special Operations, the Joint Chiefs of Staff Special Operations Division, U.S. Navy Special Operations, the Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division, and U.S. Army Forces Command 52 Ordnance Group of the Department of Defense.

49. Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team, Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team Report, p. iv; Mode interview.

50. Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team, Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team Report, p. 9.

51. Ibid., p. 11.

52. Ibid., p. 3; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 31.

53. Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team, Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team Report, p. 14.

54. Ibid., p. 17.

55. Ibid., p. 20.

56. Ibid., p. 25.

57. Ibid., p. 26.

58. Ibid., p. 27.

59. Ibid., p. 39.

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid., p. 43.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid.

64. Ibid., p. 45.

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid, pp. 43–45, 59; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 346.

67. Ibid, p. 7; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 347.

68. Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team, Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team Report, p. 6.

69. Beers interview.

70. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 31; Beers interview.

71. “Statement of Victor H. Reis,” in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part III, p. 109.

72. Ibid.

73. Ibid., pp. 109–110.

74. Ibid., p. 110.

75. Lawrence R. Ackerly, Regional Manager, Western Regional Audit Office, Office of Inspector General, To: Manager, DOE Nevada Operations Office, Subject: Audit of Management of Department of Energy Nevada Operations Office Nuclear Emergency Preparedness Response Teams, January 5, 1996, p. 2.

CHAPTER SIX: PEOPLE, PAPER, AND MACHINES

1. Interview with William Chambers, Los Alamos, N.M., July 10, 1997.

2. “Lisa E. Gordon-Hagerty,” www.sourcewatch.com, accessed August 5, 2007; Janet Pavasko, “An American Guardian Angel,” http://www.kappakappagamma.org, accessed August 5, 2007.

3. “An American Guardian Angel”; Robert Windrem, e-mail, December 18, 2007.

4. Windrem e-mail.

5. Robert Windrem, NBC Nightly News, interview with Lisa Gordon-Hagerty, August 3, 1993.

6. Ibid.

7. Anthony L. Kinery, “Your Life May Depend on the Woman from NEST,” Insight on the News, October 23, 1995.

8. The White House, “Fact Sheet: Combating Terrorism: Presidential Decision Directive 62,” May 22, 1998; “The Role of Nuclear Power Speaker Biographys [sic],” http://npw.wlu.edu/bios.htm, accessed November 19, 2007.

9. Interview with William Nelson, Alamo, Calif., June 9, 2007; Chambers interview.

10. Telephone interview with Robert Kelley, November 20, 2007.

11. Telephone interview with Adm. Charles J. Beers, December 4, 2007.

12. Stephen Ronshaugen, “Standard NEST Briefing,” n.d. (but circa 1995), p. 3; Ronald Reagan, Executive Order 12656, “Assignment of Emergency Preparedness Responsibilities,” November 18, 1988, Part 7.

13. Ronshaugen, “Standard NEST Briefing,” p. 3; Ronald Reagan, National Security Decision Directive 207, “National Program for Combatting Terrorism,” January 20, 1986.

14. Ronald Reagan, National Security Decision Directive 207, “National Program for Combatting Terrorism”; William J. Clinton, Presidential Decision Directive 39, “U.S. Policy on Counterterrorism,” June 21, 1995.

15. Department of Energy, DOE Order 5530.2, Subject: Nuclear Emergency Search Team, September 20, 1991, p. 3.

16. Ibid., p. 6.

17. Department of Defense Directive 3150.5, “DOD Response to Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) Incidents,” March 24, 1987.

18. Ronshaugen, “Standard NEST Briefing”; Nuclear Emergency Search Team, NEST Energy Senior Official’s Reference Manual, October 31, 1993.

19. Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team, Nuclear Emergency Search Team Assessment Team Report, July 12, 1995, p. 3.

20. Ibid.

21. Kelley interview; Department of Energy/Nevada, “Remote Sensing Laboratory,” July 2006; “Nellis Air Force Base,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 28, 2007.

22. Ronshaugen, “Standard NEST Briefing,” p. 2, 5.

23. Ibid.; Raytheon, “Biography: Arthur W. Spooner,” March 2007; “Company News; E&G Contract,” New York Times, September 2, 1987, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

24. Nevada Operations Office, Nuclear Emergency Search Team: Response to Nuclear Terrorism, n.d., n.p.

25. Ronshaugen, “Standard NEST Briefing,” p. 6.

26. Ibid., p. 8.

27. Ibid.; Nevada Operations Office, Nuclear Emergency Search Team.

28. U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet, “C-5 GALAXY,” August 2007, www.af.mil/factsheets; “C-141B,” www.fas.org, accessed November 28, 2007.

29. “C-141B.”

30. Ronshaugen, “Standard NEST Briefing,” p. 11.

31. E.J. Dowdy, C. N. Henry, R. D. Hastings, and S. W. France, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, LA-7108, Neutron Detector Suitcase for Nuclear Emergency Search Team, February 1978, p. 1.

32. Ronshaugen, “Standard NEST Briefing,” pp.3–5.

33. Ibid., p. 11.

34. “PAH-1 BO 105,” http://www.fas.org, accessed October 30, 2006.

35. “Ardmore Helicopters—Hughes H500 ZK-HUM,” www.chopper.co.nz/H500.html, accessed November 28, 2007; E. L. Feimster, Aerial Radiological Survey of Areas 18 and 20 Nevada Test Site. Date of Survey: October–November 1980 (Las Vegas: EG&G Inc., November 1985).

36. “Beechcraft KingAir B200,” www.hawkesbeechcraft.com.

37. “Cessna Citation II (CE-550),” www.aoc.noaa.gov/aircraft_cessna.htm, accessed January 2, 2006.

38. “Convair 580 Specifications,” www.skzdalimit.com/rtw2004/fleet.html, accessed June 15, 2007; C. D. Hardwick, “NAE Convair 580 Aeromagnetics Program,” Quarterly Bulletin of the Division of Mechanical Engineering, 4 (1979), pp. 1–16; “Convair NC-131H ‘Samaritan,’ ” http//aeroweb.brooklyn.cuny.edu/specs/convair/nc-131h.htm, accessed June 16, 2007; “GPS Dropsonde,” www.eol.ucar.edu/rtf/facilities/dropsonde/gpsDropsonde.html, accessed June 16, 2007.

39. Telephone interview with William Chambers, December 12, 2007.

40. Eileen Patterson, “Render Safe: Defusing a Nuclear Emergency,” Los Alamos Research Quarterly, Fall 2002, pp. 22–23.

41. “When Terrorists Go Nuclear,” Popular Mechanics, March 2002, accessed from www.popularmechanics.com.

42. Chambers interview, December 12, 2007.

43. Sandia National Laboratories, “Labs Accomplishments 2007: Nuclear Weapons,” Sandia Lab News, February 2007, pp. 3–5; Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, DoD 3150.8-M, Nuclear Weapon Accident Response Procedures (NARP), December 1999, p. 22; “Environmental Restoration, Protection, and Waste Management,” Newsline, July 14, 2006, pp. 34–39.

44. “Liquid nitrogen,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 29, 2007.

45. “30 mm caliber,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 29, 2007.

46. “.50 Caliber Terror,” www.50caliberterror.com/?page_id=2, accessed December 14, 2007; Violence Policy Center, Sitting Ducks: The Threat to the Chemical and Refinery Industry from 50 Caliber Sniper Rifles, 2002, Section 1, p. 1, available at www.vpc.org/studies/duckone.htm.

47. James H. Aubert, Andrew M. Kraynik, and Peter B. Rand, “Aqueous Foams,” Scientific American, May 1986, pp. 74–82.

48. Sandia National Laboratories, Fact Sheet, “Aqueous Foam Containment,” n.d.

49. Ibid.

50. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, “NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor May Be at Mission’s End,” November 21, 2006, http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov; John Noble Wilford, “Craft Is Launched to Explore Mars,” New York Times, November 8, 1996, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

51. “Mars Pathfinder,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 21, 2007; National Aeronautics and Space Administration, “Mars Pathfinder,” www.nasa.gov, accessed November 29, 2007.

52. “Mars-96, Robotic Spacecraft Mission to Mars: Brief Descritpion,” www.iki.rssiru/mars96/05_mars_e.htm, accessed November 21, 2007; “Russia’s Mission to Mars Fails Hours after Liftoff,” New York Times, November 17, 1996, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

53. James Oberg, “The Probe That Fell to Earth,” New Scientist, March 6, 1999, p. 38.

54. “Russia’s Mission to Mars Fails Hours after Liftoff”; “Mars Probe Expected to Fall within Hours,” November 17, 1996, www.cnn.com/TECH/9611/16/russia.mars.update; Todd S. Pudrum, “Russia’s Mars Craft Fails and Crashes in Southern Pacific,” New York Times, November 18, 1996, accessed from www.nytimes.com; Oberg, “Probe That Fell to Earth.”

55. “Mars Probe Expected to Fall within Hours.”

56. Ibid.

57. Pudrum, “Russia’s Mars Craft Fails and Crashes in Southern Pacific”; Telephone interview with Robert Kelley, November 20, 2007.

58. Kelley interview; Jeffrey T. Richelson, The U.S. Intelligence Community, 5th ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2007), pp. 342–345.

59. Kelley interview.

60. Kelley interview; Pudrum, “Russia’s Mars Craft Fails and Crashes in Southern Pacific.”

61. Oberg, “Probe That Fell to Earth.”

CHAPTER SEVEN: NEW ENEMIES

1. William J. Broad, “Seismic Mystery in Australia: Quake, Meteor, or Nuclear Blast?” New York Times, January 21, 1997, pp. C1, C8; Christel B. Hennet, Gregory E. van der Vink, and Danny Harvey, “IRIS Assists Senate in Investigation of International Terrorist Group,” IRIS Newsletter, Fall 1996, www.iris.edu/news/IRISnewsletter/fallnews/senate.html.

2. Hennet, van der Vink, and Harvey, “IRIS Assists Senate in Investigation of International Terrorist Group”; “Sarin,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin, accessed August 29, 2007; U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2000, April 2001, p. 57; Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, The Defense Science Board 1997 Summer Study Task Force on DoD Responses to Transnational Threats, Volume I, Final Report, October 1997, p. 18.

3. Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, Defense Science Board 1997 Summer Study Task Force on DoD Responses to Transnational Threats, Volume I, Final Report, p. 18.

4. U.S. Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2000, pp. 57–58; “Shoko Asahara,” http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoko_Asahara, accessed August 29, 2007; David E. Kaplan and Andrew Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World: The Terrifying Story of the Aum Doomsday Cult, from the Subways of Tokyo to the Nuclear Arsenals of Russia (New York: Crown, 1996), p. 190; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part I (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996), p. 17; Sara Daly, John Parachini, and William Rosenau, Aum Shinrikyo, Al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa Reactor: Implications of Three Case Studies for Combating Nuclear Terrorism (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2005), p. 10; Gavin Cameron, “Multi-track Microproliferation: Lessons from Aum Shinrikyo and Al Qaida,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 22, 4 (1999), pp. 277–309.

5. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part I, pp. 16–18; Daly, Parachini, and Rosenau, Aum Shinrikyo, Al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa Reactor, p. 6.

6. Broad, “Seismic Mystery in Australia”; Daly, Parachini, and Rosenau, Aum Shinrikyo, Al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa Reactor, p. 18; Cameron, “Multi-track Microproliferation,” p. 285.

7. Jeffrey T. Richelson, The U.S. Intelligence Community, 4th ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999), pp. 228–229.

8. Broad, “Seismic Mystery in Australia.”

9. Ibid.; Hennet, van der Vink, and Harvey, “IRIS Assists Senate in Investigation of International Terrorist Group.”

10. Cameron, “Multi-track Microproliferation,” p. 286.

11. Kaplan and Marshall, Cult at the End of the World, p. 108; U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Part I, p. 54; “AK-74,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AK-74, accessed September 3, 2007; Daly, Parachini, and Rosenau, Aum Shinrikyo, Al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa Reactor, p. 14.

12. Kaplan and Marshall, Cult at the End of the World, p. 112.

13. Ibid., p. 192; Daly, Parachini, and Rosenau, Aum Shinrikyo, Al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa Reactor, p. 16.

14. Kaplan and Marshall, Cult at the End of the World, p. 192; Vasily Golovnin, Itra-Tass News Agency, “Aum Cult Implicated in Nuclear Information Stealing,” March 29, 2000, and Anna Bazhova, Itar-Tass News Agency, “Russian Ministry Denies Aum Shinrikyo Had Access to Data,” March 29, 2000, both at www.fas.org/sgp/news/2000/03/aum.

15. Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror (New York: Random House, 2002), p. 229.

16. Bruce Hoffman, RAND Corporation, “Holy Terror—The Implications of Terrorism Motivated by Religious Imperative,” May 1995, p. 1. Hoffman made a similar point in “Terrorist Targeting: Tactics, Trends, and Potentialities,” Terrorism and Political Violence, 5, 2 (Summer 1993), pp. 12–29.

17. Hoffman, “Holy Terror,” p. 2.

18. Ibid., with Hoffman relying on Amir Taheri, Holy Terror: The Inside Story of Islamic Terrorism (London: Sphere, 1987).

19. Kenneth Katzman, Congressional Research Service, Terrorism: Near Eastern Groups and State Sponsors, 2002, February 13, 2002, pp. 7–8; Gary Ackerman and Laura Snyder, “Would They If They Could?” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, May/June 2002, pp. 41–47.

20. Katzman, Terrorism, pp. 4–6; Ackerman and Snyder, “Would They If They Could?”

21. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), p. 55; Kenneth Katzman, Congressional Research Service, Al-Qaeda: Profile and Threat Assessment, August 17, 2005, p. 1.

22. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 9/11 Commission Report, p. 55; Katzman, Al-Qaeda, p. 2.

23. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 9/11 Commission Report, pp. 55–56.

24. Ibid., p. 56.

25. Ibid., p. 57.

26. Ibid., p. 58.

27. Ibid., p. 59.

28. CIA, “Usama Bin Ladin: Islamic Extremist Financier,” 1996.

29. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 9/11 Commission Report, p. 60.

30. Ibid., p. 70; Benjamin Orbach, “Usama Bin Ladin and Al-Qa’ida: Origins and Doctrines,” Middle East Review of International Affairs, 5, 4 (December 2001), pp. 54–68 at p. 54; Simon Reeve, The New Jackals: Ramsi Youzef, Osama Bin Laden, and the Future of Terrorism (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1999), p. 200.

31. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, 9/11 Commission Report, p. 70.

32. Ibid., p. 190; Reeve, New Jackals, p. 1.

33. Bob Port and Greg B. Smith, “ ‘Suitcase Bomb’ Allegedly Sought,” Seattle Times, October 3, 2001, accessed from http://seattletimes.nwsource.com; Jonathan Spyer, “The Al-Qa’ida Network and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” Middle East Review of International Affairs, 8, 3 (September 2004), pp. 29–45 at p. 38.

34. Mike Boettcher and Ingrid Arnesen, “Al Qaeda Documents Outline Serious Weapons Program,” www.cnn.com, January 25, 2002.

35. Ibid.

36. “ ‘Why We Fight America’: Al-Qa’ida Spokesman Explains September 11 and Declares Intentions to Kill 4 Million Americans with Weapons of Mass Destruction,” MEMRI Special Dispatch Series, 388 (June 12, 2002).

37. Nasir Bin Hamd al-Fahd, “A Treatise on the Legal Status of Using Weapons of Mass Destruction against Infidels,” May 2003, pp. 2,4, http://clarityandresolve.com/wmd_fatwa.php.

38. Ibid., p. 5.

39. Ibid., pp. 9–11.

40. Ibid., pp. 13, 18.

41. “New York Subway Plot and al-Qaeda’s WMD Strategy,” http://jamestown.org/news_details.php?news_id=185, accessed September 11, 2007.

42. Cameron, “Multi-track Microproliferation,” p. 288; John J. Goldman and Ronald J. Ostrow, “U.S. Indicts Terror Suspect Bin Laden,” Los Angeles Times, November 5, 1998, p. A1.

43. Christopher Brown, “WMD Mystery,” www.nationalreview.com, May 10, 2005.

44. Dan Darling, “Al Qaeda’s Mad Scientist: The Significance of Abu Khabab’s Death,” Weekly Standard, www.weeklystandard.com, January 19, 2006; “Midhat Mursi,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midhat_Mursi, accessed September 12, 2007; Josh Meyer, “Al Qaeda Is Said to Focus Again on WMD,” Los Angeles Times, February 3, 2003, pp. A1, A12; Alan Cullison, “Al Qaeda Posting Confirms Death of Weapons Expert,” Wall Street Journal, August 4, 2008, p. A7.

45. Darling, “Al Qaeda’s Mad Scientist.”

46. Douglas Franz with David Rohde, “2 Pakistanis Linked to Papers on Anthrax Weapons,” New York Times, November 28, 2001, pp. B1, B5; David Albright and Holly Higgins, “A Bomb for the Ummah,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March/April 2003, pp. 49–55.

47. Albright and Higgins, “Bomb for the Ummah.”

48. Ibid.

49. Ibid.

50. Ibid.

51. Ibid.

52. Kamran Khan and Molly Moore, “2 Nuclear Experts Briefed Bin Laden, Pakistanis Say,” Washington Post, December 12, 2001, pp. A1, A23.

53. David Rohde, “Germ Weapon Plans Found at a Scientist’s House in Kabul,” New York Times, December 1, 2001, p. B4; Frantz with Rohde, “2 Pakistanis Linked to Papers on Anthrax Weapons”; Albright and Higgins, “Bomb for the Ummah”; “Bin Laden Got Nuclear Data,” www.msnbc.com, December 20, 2001.

54. Albright and Higgins, “Bomb for the Ummah”; Arnaud de Borchgrave, “Al Qaeda’s Nuclear Agenda Verified,” Washington Times, December 10, 2001, p. A14; David Sanger, “Nuclear Experts in Pakistan May Have Links to Al Qaeda,” New York Times, December 9, 2001, pp. A1, B5.

55. Reeve, New Jackals, p. 214.

56. Bill Gertz, “Terrorists Seek the Big Bang,” Air Force Magazine, April 2002, pp. 58–61; Daly, Parachini, and Rosenau, Aum Shinrikyo, Al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa Reactor, p. 32.

57. Reeve, New Jackals, pp. 214–215.

58. Ibid., p. 215.

59. Daly, Parachini, and Rosenau, Aum Shinrikyo, Al Qaeda, and the Kinshasa Reactor, pp. 31, 33.

60. Adam Nathan and David Lappard, “Bin Laden’s Nuclear Plot: Al-Qaeda’s Men Held Secret Meeting to Build ‘Dirty Bomb,’ ” London Sunday Times, October 14, 2001, accessed from www.freerepublic.com; Jeffrey Kluger, “Osama’s Nuclear Quest,” Time, November 12, 2001, accessed from www.time.com.

61. Ibid.

62. Bob Woodward, Robert Kaiser, and David B. Ottaway, “U.S. Fears Bin Laden Made Nuclear Strides,” Washington Post, December 4, 2001, pp. A1, A18; Pavel Felgenhauer, “Do the Terrorists Have Nukes?” www.opinionjournal.com, November 11, 2001; Defense Intelligence Agency, Military Leadership Profile: General Colonel Igor Nikolayevich VALYNKIN, April 2002.

63. Bill Gertz, “Al Qaeda Pursued a ‘Dirty Bomb’,” Washington Times, October 17, 2003, pp. A1, A16; “Wanted the FBI Miami,” www.fbi.gov/wanted/fo/mmwanted.htm, accessed September 15, 2007; Jerry Seper, “Al Qaeda Leader Identified in ‘Dirty Bomb’ Plot,” Washington Times, October 5, 2004, p. A3.

64. Vice Admiral Lowell E. Jacoby, Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, Statement for the Record, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, February 11, 2003, p. 3; George J. Tenet, Director of Central Intelligence, The Worldwide Threat in 2003: Evolving Dangers in a Complex World, February 11, 2003, p. 5.

65. Lieutenant General Michael D. Maples, Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, Statement for the Record, Senate Armed Services Committee, Current and Projected National Security Threats to the United States, February 27, 2007, p. 8; Edward Gistaro, National Intelligence Officer/Transnational Threats, and Michael Leiter, Principal Deputy Director, National Counterterrorism Center, Statement for the Record, U.S. Congress, House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence and House Armed Services Committee, Implications of the NIE “The Terrorism Threat to the US Homeland,” July 25, 2007, p. 2.

66. Hamid Mir, “Osama Claims He Has Nuke: If US Uses N-arms It Will Get Same Response,” Dawn the Internet Edition, November 10, 2001, www.dawn.com/2001/11/10/top1.htm.

67. Walter Pincus, “Al Qaeda Aide: Radiation Bomb in the Works,” Washington Post, April 23, 2002, p. A4; Philip Shenon, “Qaeda Leader Said to Report A-Bomb Plans,” New York Times, April 23, 2004, p. A9; Sammy Salama and Lydia Hansell, “Does Intent Equal Capability: Al-Qaeda and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” Nonproliferation Review 12, 3 (November 2005), pp. 615–653 at p. 620.

68. Steven Gutkin, “Terrorists Pursuing WMDs Capability,” Washington Times, February 9, 2004, p. A14; Bill Gertz, “Reports Reveal Zarqawi Nuclear Threat,” Washington Times, April 20, 2005, p. A3.

69. “Al Qaida Nukes Already in U.S.,” www.worldnetdaily.com, July 11, 2005; Port and Smith, “ ‘Suitcase Bomb’ Allegedly Sought”; “Tancredo to Request al-Qaida Nuke Briefing,” http://worldnetdaily.com, July 13, 2005; Jeffrey Kluger, “Osama’s Nuclear Quest.” The World Net Daily claims were based, at least in part, on Joseph Farah’s G2 Bulletin and (at the time) a forthcoming book by Paul L. Williams, The Al Qaeda Connection: International Terrorism, Organized Crime, and the Coming Apocalypse.

70. David Smigielski, “A Review of the Suitcase Nuclear Bomb Controversy,” RANSAC Policy Update, September 2003, p. 3.

71. Smigielski, “Review of the Suitcase Nuclear Bomb Controversy,” p. 6; Bill Gertz, “Lebed Says Russia May Have Lost 100 Suitcase-sized Atomic Bombs,” Washington Times, September 6, 1997, p. A21; R. Jeffrey Smith and David Hoffman, “No Support Found for Report of Lost Russian Suitcase-Sized Nuclear Weapons,” Washington Post, September 5, 1997, p. A19; Kluger, “Osama’s Nuclear Quest”; Felgenhauer, “Do the Terrorists Have Nukes?”; “Tancredo to Request al-Qaida Nuke Briefing.” The last article cites Williams’s Al Qaeda Connection as giving the weight of the suitcase nukes as between 110 and 176 pounds and capable of producing a two-kiloton blast.

72. Gertz, “Lebed Says Russia May Have Lost 100 Suitcase-sized Atomic Bombs”; Smith and Hoffman, “No Support Found for Report of Lost Russian Suitcase-Sized Nuclear Weapons”; Defense Intelligence Agency, “Biographic Sketch: General-Lieutenant Aleksandr Ivanovich Lebed,” August 1994.

73. Smigielski, “Review of the Suitcase Nuclear Bomb Controversy,” p. 6; Robert Windrem, e-mail, January 8, 2002.

74. Smigielski, “Review of the Suitcase Nuclear Bomb Controversy,” p. 6; Anna Badkhen, “Al Qaeda Bluffing about Having Suitcase Nukes, Experts Say Russian Claim Terrorists Couldn’t Have Bought Them,” San Francisco Chronicle, March 23, 2004, accessed from www.sfgate.com.

75. Smigielski, “Review of the Suitcase Nuclear Bomb Controversy,” p. 2; Windrem e-mail; Nikolai Sokov, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, “ ‘Suitcase Nukes’: Permanently Lost Luggage,” February 13, 2004, http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/week/040213.htm.

76. Christina Chuen, “Don’t Sweat the Suitcase,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, January/February 2005, pp. 69–70; Morten Bremer Maerli, Annette Schaper, and Frank Barnaby, “The Characteristics of Nuclear Terrorist Weapons,” American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 6 (February 2003), pp. 727–744 at pp. 730–731. Also see Joseph C. Anselmo, “Defector Details Plan to Plant Nukes in U.S.,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, August 17, 1998, p. 52.

77. Sokov, “ ‘Suitcase Nukes’ ”; Chuen, “Don’t Sweat the Suitcase.”

78. Bill Gertz, “Terrorists Seek the Big Bang,” Air Force Magazine, April 2002, pp. 58–61; Thom Shanker, “U.S. Analysts Find No Sign Bin Laden Had Nuclear Arms,” New York Times, February 26, 2002, pp. A1, A10.

79. Jack Boureston, “Assessing Al Qaeda’s WMD Capabilities,” Strategic Insight, September 2, 2002; Julian Borger and Ewen MacAskill, “Bin Laden Is Looking for a Nuclear Weapon. How Close Has He Come?” Guardian, November 7, 2001, accessed from www.guardian.co.uk.

CHAPTER EIGHT: DANGER AND RESPONSE

1. Interview with Alan V. Mode, Pleasanton, Calif., April 9, 2007; Telephone interview with Robert Kelley, November 20, 2007; Graham Allison, Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe (New York: Times Books, 2004), pp. 14–15.

2. Government Accountability Office, GAO-07-404, Nuclear Nonproliferation: Progress Made in Improving Security at Russian Nuclear Sites, but the Long-Term Sustainability of U.S.-Funded Security Upgrades Is Uncertain, February 2007, p. 1. Lower estimates for an efficient implosion weapon are ten pounds of plutonium or thirty pounds of HEU. See Matthew Bunn, Anthony Weir, and John P. Holdren, Controlling Nuclear Warheads and Materials: A Report Card and Action Plan (Cambridge, Mass.: Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, 2003), p. 13. For a table specifying different fissile material requirements for both HEU and plutonium for different yields and different levels of technical capability, see Thomas B. Cochran and Christopher E. Paine, Natural Resources Defense Council, “The Amount of Plutonium and Highly-Enriched Uranium Needed for Pure Fission Nuclear Weapons,” April 13, 1995.

3. J. Carson Mark, Theodore Taylor, Eugene Eyster, William Maraman, and Jacob Wechsler, Nuclear Control Institute, “Can Terrorists Build Nuclear Weapons?” n.d., www.nci.org/k-m/makeab.htm, accessed February 26, 2005. Also see Friedrich Steinhausler, “What It Takes to Become a Nuclear Terrorist,” American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 6 (February 2003), pp. 782–795.

4. William Langewiesche, The Atomic Bazaar: The Rise of the Nuclear Poor (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2007), pp. 65–66.

5. Peter D. Zimmerman and Jeffrey G. Lewis, “The Bomb in the Backyard,” Foreign Policy, November/December 2006, pp. 32–39.

6. Charles D. Ferguson and William C. Potter, The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism (Monterey, Calif.: Center for Nonproliferation Studies, 2004), p. 141; U.S. Congress, Senate Armed Services Committee, Intelligence Briefing on Smuggling of Nuclear Material and the Role of International Crime Organizations, and on the Proliferation of Cruise and Ballistic Missiles (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996), p. 16. For a discussion of the alternative views of how easy or difficult it would be for a terrorist group to build its own nuclear weapon, see Robin M. Frost, Adelphi Paper 378, Nuclear Terrorism after 9/11 (London: International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2005), pp. 25–40. Also see Steinhausler, “What It Takes to Become a Nuclear Terrorist.”

7. John Deutch, Director of Central Intelligence, Statement for the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigation, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, The Threat of Nuclear Diversion, March 20, 1996, p. 6.

8. Marvin J. Cetron and Peter S. Probst, Terror 2000: The Future Face of Terrorism (Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, 1994), pp. 1–8.

9. David Albright, “Securing Pakistan’s Nuclear Weapons Complex,” paper commissioned and sponsored by the Stanley Foundation for the 42nd Strategy for Peace Conference, Strategies for Regional Security (South Asia Working Group), Warrenton, Va., October 25–27, 2001.

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.; Ferguson and Potter, Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism, p. 78; David Wood, “Can Pakistan Keep Lid on Nukes?” Seattle Times, April 8, 2006, accessed from http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002918442_paknukes08.html.

13. Wood, “Can Pakistan Keep Lid on Nukes?”; Seymour Hersh, “Watching the Warheads,” New Yorker, November 5, 2001, accessed from www.newyorker.com.

14. Wood, “Can Pakistan Keep Lid on Nukes?”

15. Albright, “Securing Pakistan’s Nuclear Weapons Complex.”

16. Ibid.

17. Frost, Nuclear Terrorism after 9/11, pp. 63–68; Daniel Byman, “Iran, Terrorism, and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31, 3 (2008), pp. 169–181 at p. 178; Kenneth M. Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House, 2004), p. 419.

18. Graham Allison, “Worse Than You Think,” Los Angeles Times, July 9, 2006, p. M5; Richard Clarke et al., Defeating the Jihadists: A Blueprint for Action (New York: Century Foundation Press, 2004), p. 137, cited in Michael Levi, On Nuclear Terrorism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), p. 23; Office of the Director of National Intelligence, “Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January to 31 December 2005,” n.d., p. 6.

19. Judith Miller, “U.S. Experts Find Radioactive Material in Iraq,” New York Times, May 4, 2003, p. 14; Government Accountability Office, GAO-05-672, Radiological Sources: DOD Should Evaluate Its Source Recovery Effort and Apply Lessons Learned to Future Recovery Missions, September 2005, p. 3.

20. Department of Defense, “Background Briefing on IAEA Nuclear Safeguards and the Tuwaitha Facility,” June 5, 2003, pp. 3–4, www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/2003/tr20030605-0250.html.

21. Department of Defense, “Background Briefing on IAEA Nuclear Safeguards and the Tuwaitha Facility,” p. 4; Barton Gellman, “Iraqi Nuclear Site Is Found Looted,” Washington Post, May 4, 2003, pp. A1, A30; Barton Gellman, “Seven Nuclear Sites Looted,” Washington Post, May 10, 2003, pp. A1, A19.

22. Gellman, “Iraqi Nuclear Site Is Found Looted.”

23. Gellman, “Seven Nuclear Sites Looted.”

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid.

26. James Glanz and William J. Broad, “Looting at Weapons Plants Was Systematic, Iraqi Says,” New York Times, March 13, 2005, pp. 1, 12.

27. Geoff Brumfiel, “Iraqi Looters Spark Alert over Radiation Risks,” Nature, May 22, 2003, p. 370.

28. Deutch, Threat of Nuclear Diversion, p. 2.

29. Graham T. Allison, Owen R. Coté Jr., Richard A. Falkenrath, and Steven E. Miller, Avoiding Nuclear Anarchy: Containing the Threat of Loose Russian Nuclear Weapons and Fissile Material (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999), p. 21; Ferguson and Potter, Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism, p. 157; DCI Nonproliferation Center, Kazakstan: A Proliferation Assessment, January 27, 1997, p. 7.

30. Amy F. Woolf, Congressional Research Service, Nuclear Weapons in Russia: Safety, Security, and Control Issues, January 21, 2004, pp. 1–2.

31. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Staff Statement, U.S. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations (Minority Staff), Hearings on Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Illicit Trafficking in Nuclear Materials, March 22, 1996, p. 12; Eugene E. Habiger, “Security of the Russian Nukes,” Air Force, February 1998, pp. 74–76.

32. David Filipov, “Russia’s Scattered Tactical Arms a Temptation for Terrorists,” Boston Globe, June 18, 2002, accessed from www.bostonglobe.com. Woolf, Nuclear Weapons in Russia, p. 4.

33. Allison, Coté, Falkenrath, and Miller, Avoiding Nuclear Anarchy, p. 39.

34. Deutch, Threat of Nuclear Diversion, p. 9; Rensselaer W. Lee III, Smuggling Armageddon: The Nuclear Black Market in the Former Soviet Union and Europe (New York: St. Martin’s, 1999), p. 124.

35. National Intelligence Council, Annual Report to Congress on the Safety and Security of Russian Nuclear Facilities and Military Forces, April 2006, n.p.; Allison, Coté, Falkenrath, and Miller, Avoiding Nuclear Anarchy, pp. 25, 36–39; Lee, Smuggling Armageddon, p. 42; “Leonid Smirnov, A Nuclear Thief,” www.pbs.org/avoiding armageddon, accessed April 4, 2008.

36. Allison, Coté, Falkenrath, and Miller, Avoiding Nuclear Anarchy, pp. 25–27; Senate Armed Services Committee, Intelligence Briefing on Smuggling of Nuclear Material and the Role of International Crime Organizations, and on the Proliferation of Cruise and Ballistic Missiles, pp. 23–24; Lee, Smuggling Armageddon, p. 43.

37. Langewiesche, Atomic Bazaar, p. 25; National Intelligence Council, Annual Report to Congress on the Safety and Security of Russian Nuclear Facilities and Military Forces, n.p.; Government Accountability Office, GAO-07-404, Nuclear Nonproliferation, p. 2; Anna Badkhen and James Strengold, “Nuclear Theft Raises Fears about Russia,” www.sfgate.com, November 23, 2003; Lawrence Scott Sheets and William J. Broad, “Georgia Says It Blocked Smuggling of Arms-Grade Uranium,” New York Times, January 25, 2007, p. A13; David Felipov, “Conviction Underscores Threat of Nuclear Theft: Russian Fleet Official Stored, Tried to Sell Radioactive Material,” Boston Globe, November 26, 2003, accessed from www.ransac.org.

38. National Intelligence Council, Annual Report to Congress on the Safety and Security of Russian Nuclear Facilities and Military Forces, n.p.

39. Joby Warrick, “Dirty Bomb Warheads Disappear,” Washington Post, December 7, 2003, pp. A1, A28.

40. Joby Warrick, “Makings of a ‘Dirty Bomb’: Radioactive Devices Left by Soviets Could Attract Terrorists,” Washington Post, March 18, 2002, pp. A1, A12; Malgorzata K. Sneve, “Remote Control,” IAEA Bulletin, 48, 1 (September 2006), pp. 42–47.

41. Allison, Nuclear Terrorism, p. 83.

42. Danielle Brian, Lynn Eisenmann, and Peter D. H. Stockton, “The Weapons Complex: Who’s Guarding the Store?” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, January–February 2002, pp. 49–55 at pp. 50–51; Nick Schwellenbach and Peter D. H. Stockton, “Nuclear Lockdown,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November–December 2006, pp. 44–50 at p. 46.

43. Adam Zagorin, “Security Flaws Exposed at Nuke Lab,” www.time.com, May 12, 2008; National Nuclear Security Administration, “Security Inspection of Livermore Lab Completed,” May 9, 2008.

44. Schwellenbach and Stockton, “Nuclear Lockdown,” p. 46.

45. Ibid.

46. Joby Warrick, “Smugglers Enticed by Dirty Bomb Components,” Washington Post, November 30, 2003, pp. A1, A28; Stephanie Stoughton, Associated Press, “Nuclear Device Found in Virginia Beach,” www.wtop.com, October 30, 2004; Bunn, Weir, and Holdren, Controlling Nuclear Warheads and Materials, p. 13; Joseph B. Verrengia, “ ‘Dirty Bomb’ Scenario Revives Nuclear Worries,” December 18, 2001, www.msnbc.com/news/674098.asp; Joby Warrick, “NRC Warns of Missing Radioactive Materials,” Washington Post, May 4, 2002, p. A13.

47. Lee, Smuggling Armageddon, pp. 6, 94–95; “Russia Says It Foiled Illegal Sale of Weapons-Grade Uranium,” New York Times, December 7, 2001, p. A8; Karel Janicek, “Radioactive Material Seized in Czech Sting Operation,” Washington Post, November 16, 2003, p. A28.

48. Government Accountability Office, GAO-03-483, Nuclear Nonproliferation: DOE Action Needed to Ensure Continued Recovery of Unwanted Sealed Radioactive Sources, April 2003, pp. 1–2. The NRC classifies low-level radioactive waste (waste not specifically classified as high-level waste, such as used fuel rods from nuclear power plants) as A, B, or C for purposes of disposal. Waste that exceeds NRC criteria for class C, known as “Greater than Class C” waste, generally cannot be disposed of at existing facilities. Class designations are based on the radionuclide (e.g., americium-241) and the concentration of radioactivity (often measured in curies per gram).

49. Ibid., pp. 3, 6.

50. Ibid., p. 15.

51. John A. Tirpak, “Operation Sapphire,” Air Force Magazine, August 1995, pp. 50–53; Andrew Cockburn and Leslie Cockburn, One Point Safe: A True Story (New York: Anchor Books, 1997), pp. 143–144.

52. Tirpak, “Operation Sapphire.”

53. Ibid.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid.

59. Ibid.

60. Ibid.; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, pp. 140–160.

61. Tirpak, “Operation Sapphire”; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 151.

62. Tirpak, “Operation Sapphire”; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 146.

63. Tirpak, “Operation Sapphire.”

64. Tirpak, “Operation Sapphire”; Cockburn and Cockburn, One Point Safe, p. 160.

65. Walter Pincus, “U.S. Removed Radioactive Materials from Iraq Facility,” Washington Post, July 7, 2004, p. A16; Matthew L. Wald, “Radioactive Material Seized from a Nuclear Plant in Iraq,” New York Times, July 7, 2004, p. A11; Government Accountability Office, Radiological Sources in Iraq: DOD Should Evaluate Its Source Recovery Effort and Apply Lessons Learned to Future Recovery Missions, September 2005, p. 4.

66. William J. Broad, “In Georgian Region, Race to Recover Nuclear Fuel,” New York Times, February 1, 2002, p. A6.

67. Ibid.

68. Sneve, “Remote Control.”

69. Joby Warrick, “Hunting a Deadly Soviet Legacy,” Washington Post, November 11, 2002, pp. A1, A20.

70. Ibid.

71. George H. Friedman, Inspector General, Department of Energy, “Recovery of Highly Enriched Uranium Provided to Foreign Countries,” February 9, 2004; Department of Energy, Office of the Inspector General, DOE/IG-O638, Recovery of Highly Enriched Uranium Provided to Foreign Countries, February 2004, p. 1.

72. George E. Friedman, Inspector General, Memorandum for the Secretary, Subject: Information: Audit Report on “Recovery of Highly Enriched Uranium Provided to Foreign Countries,” February 9, 2004; Office of the Inspector General, DOE/IG-O638, Recovery of Highly Enriched Uranium Provided to Foreign Countries, p. 2. The twelve countries were Austria, Belgium, France, Iran, Israel, Jamaica, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, Pakistan, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.

73. Thomas W. Lippman, “Uranium ‘Take-Back’ Operations a Success,” Washington Post, September 24, 1996, p. A4.

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid.

76. Joby Warrick, “Risky Stash of Uranium Secured,” Washington Post, August 23, 2002, pp. A1, A24.

77. Bill Gertz, “Yugoslavia Could Use Nuke-Laced Arms,” Washington Times, April 16, 1999, pp. A1, A11; Warrick, “Risky Stash of Uranium Secured.”

78. Warrick, “Risky Stash of Uranium Secured.”

79. Ibid.

80. Susan B. Glasser, “Russia Takes Back Uranium from Romania,” Washington Post, September 22, 2003, p. A16.

81. Peter Baker, “U.S.-Russia Team Seizes Uranium at Bulgaria Plant,” Washington Post, December 24, 2003, p. A10.

82. C. J. Chivers, “Prague Ships Its Nuclear-Bomb Fuel to Russian Storage,” New York Times, September 28, 2005, p. A3.

83. C. J. Chivers, “Uzbeks Ship Bomb-Grade Waste to Russia,” New York Times, April 20, 2006, p. A8; John J. Fialka, “U.S. Shifts Uranium from Poland to a Secure Facility in Russia,” Wall Street Journal, August 10, 2006, p. A4.

84. Ralph Vartabedian, “A Race with the Terrorists,” Los Angeles Times, September 27, 2007, pp. A1, A10; Ralph Vartabedian, “High Enriched Uranium Removed from Reactor in Deal with Vietnam,” Los Angeles Times, September 16, 2007, p. A7; “Nuke Patrol,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, September 24, 2007, p. 31.

85. Vartabedian, “Race with the Terrorists”; Vartabedian, “High Enriched Uranium Removed from Reactor in Deal with Vietnam.”

86. Government Accountability Office, GAO-07-404, Nuclear Nonproliferation, pp. 2–4.

87. Ibid., pp. 6, 14; C. J. Chivers, “Securing Russia Nuclear Missiles? U.S. Is Set to Say Done,” New York Times, October 31, 2007, p. A12.

88. Government Accountability Office, GAO-07-404, Nuclear Nonproliferation, p. 7.

89. Lee, Smuggling Armageddon, p. 11.

CHAPTER NINE: A NEW URGENCY

1. George Tenet with Bill Harlow, At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), pp. 118–119.

2. “Presidential Decision Directive-62,” www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/pdd-62.htm, accessed October 15, 2007.

3. Shawn Reese, Congressional Research Service, “National Special Security Events,” November 6, 2007, p. 2.

4. Ibid., pp. 4–5; The White House, Fact Sheet, “Combating Terrorism: Presidential Decision Directive 62,” May 22, 1998; General Accounting Office, GAO-01-822, Combating Terrorism: Selected Challenges and Related Recommendations, September 2001, p. 65; Office of the Inspector General, Department of Justice, A Review of the FBI’s Investigative Activities concerning Potential Protesters at the 2004 Democratic and Republican National Political Conventions, April 27, 2006, pp. 5, 6n16; The White House, HSPD 7, Subject: Critical Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and Protection, December 17, 2003; William Mullen, “NGA Expands Customer Base for Special-Security Events,” Pathfinder, July/August 2006, pp. 18–19; Jamie Blietz, AABB Interorganizational Task Force on Domestic Disasters and Acts of Terrorism—Task Force Update for the Advisory Committee on Blood Safety and Availability, August 26, 2004, n.p.; Allen R. Myerson, “As Energy Council Gathers, Oil Industry Seeks Answers,” New York Times, September 16, 1998, p. C23.

5. Catharina Wrede Braden, Center for Policing Terrorism, Lessons Learned: An Analysis of WMD-Scenario Training Exercises, April 30, 2004, p. 10; Jim McDonnell, Exercise JAGGED WIND After Action Report, n.d., n.p.; Lisa Cutler to Fred Kaplan, Subj: NEST info you requested, e-mail, June 8, 2002.

6. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Exercise Package Satyr After-Action Report, November 9, 1998, pp. 1, 3; Department of Energy, Package SATYR, August 4–7, 1998, n.p.

7. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Exercise Errant Foe Ellipse Bravo 98 After-Action Report, November 25, 1998, pp. 1, 3, 5.

8. Bill Belanger, Tom Hughes, and Steve Centore, Vigilant Lion Exercise (VL-99) After Action Report (Washington, D.C., and Harrisburg, Pa.: Environmental Protection Agency and Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency, May 2000), p. 4.

9. Ibid., p. 12.

10. Ibid., pp. 6, 18–19.

11. Ibid., pp. 19–20.

12. Cutler to Kaplan, Subj: NEST info you requested; General Accounting Office, GAO-01-822, Combating Terrorism, p. 74.

13. “Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Incident Response,” Beacon, 1, 6 (May 16, 1999), pp. 1–3; “Statement of John A. Gordon, Under Secretary of Energy and Administrator for Nuclear Security National Nuclear Security Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, before the Committee on Appropriations, United States Senate,” May 8, 2001, p. 3; General Accounting Office, GAO-01-822, Combating Terrorism, p. 146.

14. “Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Incident Response”; “Statement of John A. Gordon,” p. 3; U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration, “Nuclear Emergency Support Team (NEST),” 2002.

15. “Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Incident Response”; “Statement of John A. Gordon,” p. 3.

16. “Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Incident Response”; “Statement of John A. Gordon,” p. 3; Eileen Patterson, “Render Safe: Defusing a Nuclear Emergency,” Los Alamos Research Quarterly, Fall 2002, pp. 22–23.

17. George H. Friedman, Inspector General, Memorandum for the Secretary, Subject: Information: Inspection Report on “National Nuclear Security Administration’s Ability to Meet the Aircraft Requirements of the Joint Technical Operations Team,” June 5, 2003.

18. Patterson, “Render Safe.”

19. “Department of Energy (DOE) Nuclear Incident Response”; General Accounting Office, GAO-01-822, Combating Terrorism, p. 146.

20. Michael R. Anastasio, Director, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Establishment of the Department of Homeland Security, Hearing of the U.S. Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, July 10, 2002, p. 5.

21. Department of Energy, Package SATYR, n.p.; Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Exercise Package Satyr After-Action Report, p. 4; Belanger, Hughes, and Centore, Vigilant Lion Exercise (VL-99) After Action Report, p. 19; Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Exercise Errant Foe Ellipse Bravo 98 After-Action Report, p. 3.

22. Peter Grier, “Got a Nuclear Crisis? Better Call NEST,” Christian Science Monitor, June 22, 2000.

23. “Parks Official Retiring after Los Alamos Blaze,” New York Times, June 11, 2000, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

24. Ibid.

25. Dan Stober and Ian Hoffman, A Convenient Spy: Wen Ho Lee and the Politics of Nuclear Espionage (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), p. 308; Gary Milhollin, “The Real Nuclear Gap,” New York Times, June 16, 2000, p. A33; James Risen, “Staff at Los Alamos Waited for 3 Weeks to Tell of Data Loss,” New York Times, June 14, 2000, accessed from www.nytimes.com; James Risen, “Nuclear Secrets Reported Missing from Los Alamos,” New York Times, June 13, 2000, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

26. Stober and Hoffman, Convenient Spy, p. 308; Risen, “Staff at Los Alamos Waited for 3 Weeks to Tell of Data Loss.”

27. Risen, “Staff at Los Alamos Waited for 3 Weeks to Tell of Data Loss”; Brian Reynolds, “Breach at Los Alamos: Who’ll Take the Blame,” New York Times, June 16, 2000, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

28. Stober and Hoffman, Convenient Spy, p. 308; Milhollin, “Real Nuclear Gap”; “FBI Concludes Investigation of Hard Drive Incident at Los Alamos,” January 18, 2001, www.energy.gov.

29. “FBI Concludes Investigation of Hard Drive Incident at Los Alamos”; Grier, “Got a Nuclear Crisis?”

30. “FBI Concludes Investigation of Hard Drive Incident at Los Alamos.”

31. William M. Arkin, CODE NAMES: Deciphering US Military Plans, Programs, and Operations in the 9/11 World (Hanover, N.H.: Steerforth Press, 2005), p. 404, “RAF Fairford,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Fairford, accessed November 16, 2007; “Base Overview,” www.fairfordbase.org.uk, accessed November 16, 2007.

32. Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, DOE Exercise 03-01 Jackal Cave After-Action Report, n.d., pp. A-1, A-2.

33. Ibid., pp. 8–9.

34. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), p. 32.

35. Ibid., p. 33.

36. George J. Tenet, Director of Central Intelligence, “We Are at War,” September 16, 2001.

37. Keay Davidson, “Nuclear Terror Team on Standby,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 16, 2001, accessed from www.sfgate.com/chronicle; ABC News, Transcript, “Loose Nukes on Main Street,” October 11, 2005.

38. ABC News, Transcript, “Loose Nukes on Main Street.”

39. Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), p. 197; Robert D. McFadden, “A Nation Challenged: Threat; Tip on Nuclear Attack Risk Was Kept from New Yorkers,” New York Times, March 4, 2002, accessed from www.nytimes.com; Massimo Calabresi and Romesh Ratnesar, “Can We Stop the Next Attack?” Time, March 11, 2002, accessed from www.time.com; “Blast Map—10110 Zip Code,” www.nuclearterror.org, accessed December 19, 2007.

40. Woodward, Bush at War, p. 197; McFadden, “Nation Challenge”; Calabresi and Ratnesar, “Can We Stop the Next Attack?”

41. Robert D. McFadden, “Nation Challenged”; Michael Cooper, “A Nation Challenged: Threat: Officials Say U.S. Should Have Shared Tip,” New York Times, March 2, 2002, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

42. Fred Kaplan, “Mobile Teams on Hunt for Atomic Threats,” Boston Globe, June 9, 2002, accessed from www.bostonglobe.com; Douglas Waller, “The Secret Bomb Squad,” Time, March 9, 2002, accessed from www.time.com.

43. Kaplan, “Mobile Teams on Hunt for Atomic Threats.”

44. Waller, “Secret Bomb Squad”; Kaplan, “Mobile Teams on Hunt for Atomic Threats.”

45. David Ruppe, “U.S. Response: Accelerate Nuclear Terrorism Response, Official Says,” Global Security Newswire, July 3, 2002, accessed from www.nti.org; ABC News, Transcript, “Loose Nukes on Main Street.”

46. Barton Gellman, “In U.S. Terrorism’s Peril Undiminished,” Washington Post, December 24, 2002, pp. A1, A6.

47. Ibid.; Barton Gellman, “Fears Prompt U.S. to Beef Up Nuclear Terror Detection,” Washington Post, March 2, 2002, pp. A1, A18.

48. Gellman, “Fears Prompt U.S. to Beef Up Nuclear Terror Detection”; Douglas Waller, “Searching for the Dirty Bomb,” www.time.com, March 12, 2002.

CHAPTER TEN: NEST AFTER 9/11

1. U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration, “Nuclear Emergency Support Team (NEST),” 2002; Siobhan Gorman and Sydney J. Freedberg Jr., “Early Warning,” National Journal, June 11, 2005, pp. 1744–1752.

2. Eric Lichtblau, Bob Drogin, and Josh Meyer, “U.S. Citizen Accused of Planning an Attack Using a ‘Dirty Bomb’,” Los Angeles Times, June 11, 2002, pp. A1, A14; Erich Lichtblau, “In Legal Shift, U.S. Charges Detainee in Terrorism Case,” New York Times, November 23, 2005, pp. A1, A18.

3. Department of Justice, “Summary of Jose Padilla’s Activities with Al-Qaeda,” 2002, pp. 1–2.

4. Ibid., p. 2.

5. Ibid., pp. 2–3.

6. Ibid., p. 3.

7. Ibid., pp. 1, 3; Office of the Director of National Intelligence, “Summary of the High Value Terrorist Detainee Program,” n.d., p. 1; “Abu Zubaydah,” http//en.wikipedia.org, accessed October 26, 2007.

8. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, “Summary of the High Value Terrorist Detainee Program,” p. 1; Office of the Director of National Intelligence, “Biographies of High-Value Detainees,” n.d.; Private information; George Tenet with Bill Harlow, At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), p. 242.

9. Department of Justice, “Summary of Jose Padilla’s Activities with Al-Qaeda,” pp. 3–4; Bob Drogin, Eric Lichtblau, and Josh Meyer, “ ‘Dirty Bomb’ Probe Widens,” Los Angeles Times, June 12, 2002, pp. A1, A24.

10. Department of Justice, “Summary of Jose Padilla’s Activities with Al-Qaeda,” p. 4.

11. Ibid., p. 4–6.

12. Lichtblau, Drogin, and Meyer, “U.S. Citizen Accused of Planning an Attack Using a ‘Dirty Bomb’.”

13. Ibid.

14. Department of Justice, “Summary of Jose Padilla’s Activities with Al-Qaeda,” p. 1.

15. President George W. Bush, The Department of Homeland Security, June 2002.

16. Ibid., p. 2; “Tom Ridge, Homeland Security Secretary 2003–2005,” September 1, 2006, www.dhs.gov/xabout/history/editorial_0586.html.

17. “History: Who Became Part of the Department?” June 19, 2007, www.dhs.gov/xabout/history/editorial_0133.shtm.

18. Keith Bea, William Krouse, Daniel Morgan, Wayne Morrisey, and C. Stephen Redhead, Congressional Research Service, Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate of the Department of Homeland Security, June 25, 2003, p. 5; National Nuclear Security Administration, Department of Energy, “Radiological Assistance Program,” n.d.

19. Bea, Krouse, Morgan, Morrisey, and Redhead, Congressional Research Service, Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate of the Department of Homeland Security, p. 5.

20. William K. Rashbaum, “In Sign of the Times, New York Begins Deploying Radiation Detectors,” New York Times, June 29, 2002, p. A14.

21. Rashbaum, “In Sign of the Times, New York Begins Deploying Radiation Detectors”; Spencer S. Hsu, “Sensors May Track Terror’s Fallout,” Washington Post, June 2, 2003, pp. A1, A8.

22. Hsu, “Sensors May Track Terror’s Fallout.”

23. Ronald Smothers, “Navy Seals Join Federal Search of Cargo Ship,” New York Times, September 13, 2002, p. A13.

24. Department of Homeland Security, The Budget for Fiscal Year 2004 (Washington, D.C.: Department of Homeland Security, 2003), p. 142; Ronald Smothers, “Ship’s Radiation Is Traced to Harmless Tiles,” New York Times, September 14, 2002, accessed from www.nytimes.com; Smothers, “Navy Seals Join Federal Search of Cargo Ship.”

25. Smothers, “Ship’s Radiation Is Traced to Harmless Tiles”; Smothers, “Navy Seals Join Federal Search of Cargo Ship”; David McGlinchey, “Radiological Weapons: NEST Responds to Radiological Scare,” Global Security Newswire, September 23, 2002, accessed from www.nti.org; Office of the Inspector General, Department of Justice, Audit Report 06-26, The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Efforts to Protect the Nation’s Seaports, March 2006, p. 35.

26. Smothers, “Ship’s Radiation Is Traced to Harmless Tiles”; Office of the Inspector General, Department of Justice, Audit Report 06-26, The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Efforts to Protect the Nation’s Seaports, p. 35.

27. Office of the Inspector General, Department of Justice, Audit Report 06-26, The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Efforts to Protect the Nation’s Seaports, pp. 35–36.

28. Edward Walsh and John Mintz, “Huge Homeland Security Drill Planned,” Washington Post, May 5, 2003, p. A9; Sarah Kershaw, “Terror Scenes Follow Script of No More 9/11’s,” New York Times, May 13, 2003, p. A19.

29. Walsh and Mintz, “Huge Homeland Security Drill Planned”; Kershaw, “Terror Scenes Follow Script of No More 9/11’s.”

30. David E. Kaplan, “Nuclear Monitoring of Muslims Done without Search Warrants,” www.usnews.com, December 22, 2005; Matthew L. Wald, “Widespread Radioactivity Monitoring Is Confirmed,” New York Times, December 24, 2005, p. A11.

31. Kaplan, “Nuclear Monitoring of Muslims Done without Search Warrants.”

32. “Mosques and Islamic Centers in the Greater Washington Area,” www.aaagw.org, accessed December 15, 2007; “Chicago,” www.internetmuslim.com/Community_Center/chicago_info.htm; “Los Angeles Area,” www.internetmuslim.com/Community_Center/laarea_info.htm.

33. Kaplan, “Nuclear Monitoring of Muslims Done without Search Warrants.”

34. Ibid.

35. Larry Margasak, Associated Press, “FBI Official Defends Radiation Monitoring,” December 23, 2005, http://apnews.my.com; Kaplan, “Nuclear Monitoring of Muslims Done without Search Warrants.”

36. Kaplan, “Nuclear Monitoring of Muslims Done without Search Warrants”; Richard A. Serrano, “FBI Monitor for Radiation at Some Mosques,” Los Angeles Times, December 24, 2005, p. A16.

37. Supreme Court of the United States, No. 99-8508, 533 U.S. 27 (2001), Opinion of the Court: Danny Lee Kyllo, Petitioner v. United States, On Writ of Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, June 11, 2001, p. 1.

38. Ibid.

39. Ibid., p. 2.

40. Ibid., pp. 4–5.

41. Ibid., pp. 6, 10.

42. Kaplan, “Nuclear Monitoring of Muslims Done without Search Warrants”; Wald, “Widespread Radioactivity Monitoring Is Confirmed.”

43. Supreme Court of the United States, No. 03-923, 543 U.S. 40 (2005), Opinion of the Court: Illinois, Petitioner v. Roy I. Caballes, On Writ of Certiorari to the Supreme Court of Illinois, January 24, 2005, pp. 1, 4.

44. Barton Gellman, “U.S. Reaps New Data on Weapons,” Washington Post, March 20, 2003, pp. A1, A19.

45. Telephone interview with Robert Kelley, November 20, 2007.

46. Interview with William Nelson, Alamo, Calif., June 9, 2007.

47. John Mintz and Susan Schmidt, “ ‘Dirty Bomb’ Was Major New Year’s Worry,” Washington Post, January 7, 2004, pp. A1, A6; Greg Krikorian, “L.A. Checked as Possible ‘Dirty Bomb’ Attack Target,” Los Angeles Times, January 7, 2004, p. A12.

48. Mintz and Schmidt, “ ‘Dirty Bomb’ Was Major New Year’s Worry.”

49. Ibid.; Christopher Lee, “DOE Bomb Squads’ Exacting Mission,” Washington Post, March 9, 2004, p. A21.

50. Mintz and Schmidt, “ ‘Dirty Bomb’ Was Major New Year’s Worry”; “Baltimore Inner Harbor,” www.baltimore.org/baltimore_inner_harbor.htm, accessed October 30, 2007.

51. Mintz and Schmidt, “ ‘Dirty Bomb’ Was Major New Year’s Worry.”

52. Ibid.

53. Ibid.

54. Jonathan Finer, “Reports of ‘Dirty Bomb’ Threat Mean High Anxiety in Boston,” Washington Post, January 21, 2005, p. A8; Jerry Seper, “Terror Tip Sparks FBI Search,” Washington Times, January 21, 2005, p. A3.

55. Finer, “Reports of ‘Dirty Bomb’ Threat Mean High Anxiety in Boston”; Seper, “Terror Tip Sparks FBI Search.”

56. Finer, “Reports of ‘Dirty Bomb’ Threat Mean High Anxiety in Boston”; Seper, “Terror Tip Sparks FBI Search.”

57. Seper, “Terror Tip Sparks FBI Search”; “F.B.I. Calls Boston Terror Plot Tip a False Alarm,” New York Times, January 26, 2005, p. A9.

58. Nicholas Riccardi, “Colorado Springs Has Eye Out for Dirty Bomb,” Los Angeles Times, December 25, 2005, p. A22.

59. Ibid.

60. Ibid.

CHAPTER ELEVEN: FOREIGN TRAVEL

1. Rensselaer W. Lee III, Smuggling Armageddon: The Nuclear Black Market in the Former Soviet Union and Europe (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998), p. 88.

2. Ibid.

3. U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Minority Staff Statement, Hearings on Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Illicit Trafficking in Nuclear Materials, March 22, 1996, Appendix B, p. 3.

4. Lee, Smuggling Armageddon, p. 17; Michael Specter, “Russians Assert Radioactive Box Found in Park Posed No Danger,” New York Times, November 25, 1995, accessed from www.nytimes.com; “Basayev, Shamil,” MIPT Terrorist Knowledge Base, www.tkb.org, accessed November 11, 2007; “Basayev: Russia’s Most Wanted Man,” September 8, 2004, www.cnn.com; “Shamil Basayev,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 11, 2007.

5. Specter, “Russians Assert Radioactive Box Found in Park Posed No Danger”; “Izmailovsky Park,” www.moscow.info, accessed November 11, 2007.

6. Sarah Lyall, “Briton Tried to Buy A-Bomb, Prosecution in Trial Contends,” New York Times, March 23, 2006, p. A14.

7. Melanie Phillips, Londonistan (San Francisco: Encounter, 2007), pp. 198, 213.

8. Steve Coll, “The Unthinkable,” New Yorker, March 12, 2007, pp. 48–57.

9. Government Accountability Office, GAO-O5-547, Olympic Security: U.S. Support to Athens Games Provides Lessons for Future Olympics, May 2005, p. 10.

10. “2004 Summer Olympics,” http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed November 12, 2007; “Athens 2004: Games of the XXVIII Olympiad,” www.olympic.org, accessed November 12, 2007.

11. Department of State, Strategic Plan for Interagency Coordination of U.S. Government Nuclear Detection Assistant Overseas, August 5, 2004.

12. Ibid., p. 1.

13. Ibid., pp. 2–3.

14. Ibid., p. 4.

15. Nevada Operations Office, NEST Energy Senior Official’s Reference Manual, October 31, 1993, pp. 4-1, 10-11–10-12.

16. Vassiliki Kamenopoulou, Panayiotis Dimitriou, Constantine J. Hourdakis, Antonios Maltezos, Theodore Matikas, Constantinos Potriadis, and Leonidas Camarinopoulos, “Nuclear Security and Radiological Preparedness for the Olympic Games, Athens 2004: Lessons Learned for Organizing Major Public Events,” Health Physics, 91, 4 (October 2006), pp. 318–330.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.; Government Accountability Office, Olympic Security, pp. 3, 12.

19. Global Security Newswire, “China Purchases Radiation Sensors for Olympics,” July 17, 2008, www.nti.org; Bill Gertz, “U.S. Nuke Spotters Sent to China,” www.washingtontimes.com, June 20, 2008.

20. National Nuclear Security Administration, “U.S. and Russia Jointly Conduct Field Training for Radiological Emergency Response,” November 5, 2007.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Coll, “Unthinkable.”

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid.

28. Shaun Gregory, Pakistan Security Research Unit, Brief Number 22, The Security of Nuclear Weapons in Pakistan, November 18, 2007, p. 10; Private information.

29. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Military Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction, February 13, 2006, p. 7; Defense Science Board, DSB Summer Study on Special Operations and Joint Forces in Support of Countering Terrorism, Final Outbrief, August 16, 2002 p. 44.

30. Coll, “Unthinkable.”

31. Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict), Nuclear Terrorism Intelligence: A Special Operations Perspective, n.d., pp. 12–13.

32. Bruce G. Blair, “The Ultimate Hatred Is Nuclear,” New York Times, October 22, 2001, p. A21; Peter R. Lavoy, Naval Postgraduate School, Pakistan’s Nuclear Posture: Security and Survivability, n.d., p. 7.

33. “Nuclear Jihad: Can Terrorists Get the Bomb?” Discovery Channel, April 17, 2006; Ron Moreau and Michael Hirsh, “Where the Jihad Lives Now,” Newsweek, October 29, 2007, pp. 27–34.

34. Bill Roggio, “The Second Coup,” www.weeklystandard.com, November 4, 2007.

35. K. Alan Kronstadt, Congressional Research Service, Pakistan’s Political Crises, January 3, 2008, pp. 10–11; “Prime Minister of the Republic of Pakistan,” www.infopak.gov.pk/primeminister.aspx, accessed May 3, 2008.

36. Joby Warrick, “Pakistan Nuclear Security Questioned,” www.washingtonpost.com, November 11, 2007; Greg Miller, “Pakistan’s Nuclear Arsenal a U.S. Worry,” Los Angeles Times, November 8, 2007, p. A10; David E. Sanger and William J. Broad, “U.S. Secretly Aids Pakistan in Guarding Nuclear Arms,” New York Times, November 18, 2007, pp. 1, 12.

37. Warrick, “Pakistan Nuclear Security Questioned”; Sanger and Broad, “U.S. Secretly Aids Pakistan in Guarding Nuclear Arms”; Thomas F. Ricks, “Calculating the Risks in Pakistan,” Washington Post, December 2, 2007, p. A20; Peter Wonacott, “Inside Pakistan’s Drive to Guard Its A-Bombs,” Wall Street Journal, November 29, 2007, pp. A1, A17.

38. Naeem Salik, Strategic Plans Division, Pakistan, Nuclear Security Efforts in Pakistan and Handling Perceptions, June 20, 2007.

39. “Nuclear Jihad: Can Terrorists Get the Bomb?”; David E. Sanger, “So, What about Those Nukes?” New York Times, November 11, 2007, Week in Review, p. 8; Miller, “Pakistan’s Nuclear Arsenal a U.S. Worry.”

40. John M. Glionna, “Pakistan Says Its Nuclear Arsenal Is Secure,” Los Angeles Times, January 27, 2008, p. A9; “Pakistan to Keep Nuclear Control Structure,” Global Security Newswire, April 9, 2008, accessed from www.nti.org.

41. Miller, “Pakistan’s Nuclear Arsenal a U.S. Worry”; “Gen. Khalid Kidwai Retires,” Post, October 7, 2007, accessed from www.thepost.com.pk; Scott Canon, “Nuclear Weapon Raises Stakes for the West; Unrest Could Help Terrorists Acquire The Bomb,” Kansas City Star, September 20, 2001, www.nci.org/01/09/21-2.htm; Peter Wonacott, “Inside Pakistan’s Drive to Guard Its A-Bombs,” Wall Street Journal, November 29, 2007, pp. A1, A17.

42. David E. Sanger and Thom Shanker, “A Nuclear Headache: What If the Radicals Oust Musharraf?” New York Times, December 30, 2003, p. A3; Warrick, “Pakistan Nuclear Security Questioned.”

43. “Pakistan Defends Its Nuclear Security,” Global Security Newswire, November 9, 2007, accessed from www.nti.org; Sanger, “So, What about Those Nukes?”; Warrick, “Pakistan Nuclear Security Questioned”; Sanger and Shanker, “Nuclear Headache”; “Pakistani Military Likely to Secure Nuclear Arsenal if Musharraf Government Collapses, Analysts Say,” Global Security Newswire, November 14, 2007, accessed from www.nti.org.

44. John Fox, “Bush Official Says Pakistan’s Nuclear Weapons Safe,” Global Security Newswire, January 23, 2008, accessed from www.nti.org.

45. Miller, “Pakistan’s Nuclear Arsenal a U.S. Worry.”

46. Warrick, “Pakistan Nuclear Security Questioned.”

47. “Nuclear Jihad: Can Terrorists Get the Bomb?”

48. Ibid.

49. Danny Kemp, Agence France-Presse, “Pakistan Warns of Strong Response to Nukes Grab,” December 11, 2007, http://yahoo.com.

50. “Pakistani Military Likely to Secure Nuclear Arsenal If Musharraf Government Collapses, Analysis Say”; Ricks, “Calculating the Risks in Pakistan.”

51. Frederick W. Kagan and Michael O’Hanlon, “Pakistan’s Collapse, Our Problem,” New York Times, Week in Review, November 18, 2007, p. 16; Michael O’Hanlon, “What If a Nuclear-Armed State Collapses?” Current History, November 2006, pp. 379–384.

52. Robert Windrem, “Pakistan’s Nuclear History Worries Insiders,” www.msnbc.com, November 6, 2007; Sanger and Shanker, “Nuclear Headache.”

53. Bruce G. Blair, “The Ultimate Hatred Is Nuclear,” New York Times, October 22, 2001, accessed from www.nytimes.com.

CHAPTER TWELVE: CHALLENGES AHEAD

1. Lara Jakes Jordan, Associated Press, “Government Doubts Threat on NFL Stadiums,” October 18, 2006, www.comcast.net; Emily Fredrix, Associated Press, “Stadium Hoax Was Prank by Grocery Clerk,” October 21, 2006, www.comcast.net.

2. Jordan, “Government Doubts Threat on NFL Stadiums”; Emily Fredrix, Associated Press, “Football Stadium Threat a Hoax, FBI Says,” October 19, 2006, www.comcast.net.

3. Fredrix, “Stadium Hoax Was Prank by Grocery Clerk”; Associated Press, “Man Pleads Guilty in Hoax to Attack NFL Stadium,” February 28, 2008, www.usatoday.com.; Associated Press, “Local Clerk Sentenced in NFL Threat Case,” June 5, 2008, accessed from www.jsonline.com.

4. John Mueller, “Radioactive Hype,” National Interest, September/October 2007, pp. 59–65; William M. Arkin, “The Continuing Misuses of Fear,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September/October 2006, pp. 42–45; John Mueller, “The Atomic Terrorist: Assessing the Likelihood,” January 1, 2008, Paper prepared for presentation at the Program on International Security Policy, University of Chicago, January 15, 2008, p. 1.

5. Christopher Bodeen, “U.S. Terror Expert Says Nuclear Risk Low,” June 1, 2007, http://sfgate.com; Robin M. Frost, Adelphi Paper 378, Nuclear Terrorism after 9/11 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2005), pp. 7–10. For a critique of several of Frost’s assertions, see Anna M. Pluta and Peter D. Zimmerman, “Nuclear Terrorism: A Disheartening Dissent,” Survival, 48, 2 (Summer 2006), pp. 55–70.

6. Graham Allison, “The Ongoing Failure of Imagination,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September/October 2006, pp. 36–41; Bill Keller, “Nuclear Nightmares,” New York Times Magazine, May 26, 2002, pp. 22ff; John Parachini, “Putting WMD Terrorism into Perspective,” Washington Quarterly, 26, 4 (Autumn 2003), pp. 37–50; Glenn M. Cannon, Statement for the Record before the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, “Not a Matter of ‘If’, But of ‘When’: The Status of U.S. Response Following an RDD Attack,” November 15, 2007; Matthew Bunn, “The Risk of Nuclear Terrorism—And Next Steps to Reduce the Danger,” Testimony for the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, April 2, 2008, p. 1; Kim Murphy, “El Baradei Warns about Extremist Nuclear Threat,” Los Angeles Times, February 10, 2008, p. A4.

7. Charles Meade and Roger C. Molander, Considering the Effects of a Catastrophic Terrorist Attack (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND 2006), pp. xv, 7.

8. Jasen J. Castillo, “Nuclear Terrorism: Why Deterrence Still Matters,” Current History, December 2003, pp. 426–431.

9. Telephone interview with Robert Kelley, November 20, 2007.

10. Lieutenant General Michael D. Maples, Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, Statement for the Record, Senate Armed Services Committee, Current and Projected National Security Threats to the United States, February 27, 2007, p. 8; National Intelligence Council, The Terrorist Threat to the US Homeland, July 2007, Key Judgments; Mark Hosenball and Michael Isikoff, “A Sense of Unease,” Newsweek, July 23, 2007, p. 36; Ronald Kessler, “FBI’s Mueller: Bin Laden Wants to Strike U.S. Cities with Nuclear Weapons,” www.newsmax.com, May 15, 2007; David Ignatius, “Portents of a Nuclear Al-Qaeda,” www.washingtonpost.com, October 18, 2007; Rolf Mowatt-Larsen, “Statement before the Homeland Security and Government Affairs Committee,” April 2, 2008, p. 2.

11. “Russian Warns of Dirty Bomb Attack,” www.newsmax.com, October 5, 2007.

12. David Rising, Associated Press, “Iraq Terrorist Calls Scientists to Jihad,” September 28, 2006, www.comcast.net.

13. “Men Tried for Seeking ‘Dirty Bomb’ Material,” Global Security Newswire, November 8, 2007, accessed from www.nti.org.

14. Office of Public Affairs, “U.S. and Russia Sign Plan for Russian Plutonium Disposition,” November 19, 2007.

15. Department of Energy, Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, Human Capital Strategy and Workforce Plan Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, September 8, 2006, p. 1, http://humancapital.doe.gov/pol/hcmp/pdf/cnhcmp.pdf.

16. National Nuclear Security Administration, “NNSA’s Second Line of Defense Program,” November 2007; National Nuclear Security Administration, “U.S. and Israel to Cooperate on Detecting Illicit Shipments of Nuclear Material,” December 7, 2005; National Nuclear Security Administration, “NNSA Works with Cyprus to Thwart Nuclear Smuggling,” December 12, 2007; National Nuclear Security Administration, “Israel Begins Radiation Detection Efforts at Haifa Port,” January 23, 2008; National Nuclear Security Administration, “U.S. and Malaysia Agree to Secure Seaport Cargo,” February 27, 2008.

17. Government Accountability Office, GAO-05-840T, Statement of Gene Aloise, Combating Nuclear Smuggling: Efforts to Deploy Radiation Detection Equipment in the United States and in Other Countries, June 21, 2005, p. 5; Government Accountability Office, GAO-06-389, Combating Nuclear Smuggling: DHS Has Made Progress Deploying Radiation Detection Equipment at U.S. Ports-of-Entry, but Concerns Remain, March 2006, pp. 12–14; Department of Homeland Security, “Fact Sheet: Select Department of Homeland Security 2007 Achievements,” December 12, 2007.

18. Eric Lipton, “New Detectors Aim to Prevent Nuclear Terror,” New York Times, February 9, 2007, pp. A1, A18.

19. John Fox, “Radiation Detection Project under Way in Chicago,” Global Security Newswire, November 16, 2007, accessed from www.nti.org; National Nuclear Security Administration, “NNSA Provides Aerial Detection Training to Chicago PD,” January 29, 2008.

20. Government Accountability Office, GAO-06-1015, Combating Nuclear Terrorism: Federal Efforts to Respond to Nuclear and Radiological Threats and to Protect Emergency Response Capabilities Could Be Strengthened, September 2006, pp. 24–25; Mimi Hall, “Authorities Want to Survey City Radiation.” USA Today, December 11, 2007.

21. National Academy of Sciences, “Speakers, Post-Cold War U.S. Nuclear Strategy: A Search for Technical and Policy Common Ground,” August 11, 2004; Ralph Vartabedian, “U.S. Seeks to Make Stolen Nukes Useless,” Los Angeles Times, December 5, 2006, pp. A1, A15.

22. “Director of the Domestic Nuclear Detection Office: Vayl Oxford,” www.dhs.gov, accessed November 20, 2006; George W. Bush, National Security Presidential Directive 43 /Homeland Security Presidential Directive 14, Subject: Domestic Nuclear Detection, April 15, 2005, available at www.fas.org; Ralph Vartabedian, “Detecting Radiation an Arduous Job at Ports,” Los Angeles Times, November 25, 2007, pp. A1, A20.

23. Bush, National Security Presidential Directive 43 /Homeland Security Presidential Directive 14, Subject: Domestic Nuclear Detection.

24. Vayl Oxford, Statement before House Homeland Security Committee Subcommittee, Detecting Nuclear Weapons and Radiological Materials: How Effective Is Available Technology? June 21, 2005, pp. 4, 7; Vayl S. Oxford, Domestic Nuclear Detection Office (DNDO), EFCOG 2007 Executive Council Meeting, February 21–22, 2007, pp. 11, 15–17.

25. Anthony Wier and Matthew Bunn, “Bombs That Won’t Go Off,” Washington Post, November 19, 2006, p. B7.

26. Government Accountability Office, GAO-07-404, Nuclear Nonproliferation: Progress Made in Improving Security at Russian Nuclear Sites, but the Long-Term Sustainability of U.S.-Funded Security Upgrades Is Uncertain, February 2007; Government Accountability Office, GAO-07-282, Nuclear Nonproliferation: DOE’s International Radiological Threat Reduction Program Needs to Focus Future Efforts on Securing the Highest Priority Radiological Sources, January 2007, pp. 5–8.

27. Gene Aloise, Director, Natural Resources and Environment, Government Accountability Office, Memo to Congressional Requesters, Subject: Combating Nuclear Smuggling: DNDO Has Not Yet Collected Most of the National Laboratories’ Test Results on Radiation Portal Monitors in Support of DNDO’s Testing and Development Program, March 9, 2007, p. 3; Government Accounting Office, GAO-07-581T, Combating Nuclear Smuggling: DHS’s Decision to Procure and Deploy the Next Generation of Radiation Detection Equipment Is Not Supported by Its Cost-Benefit Analysis, March 14, 2007; Vartabedian, “Detecting Radiation an Arduous Job at Ports”; Robert O’Harrow Jr., “DHS ‘Dry Run’ Support Cited,” Washington Post, September 18, 2007, p. A4; Government Accountability Office, GAO-07-1247T, Combating Nuclear Smuggling: Additional Actions Needed to Ensure Adequate Testing of Next Generation Radiation Detection Equipment, September 18, 2007, n.p.

28. Government Accountability Office, GAO-08-99T, Statement of David C. Maurer, Nuclear Detection: Preliminary Observations on the Domestic Nuclear Detection Office’s Efforts to Develop a Global Detection Architecture, July 16, 2008, p. 2; Dana A. Shea, Congressional Research Service, The Global Nuclear Detection Architecture, July 16, 2008, p. 19.

29. Vartabedian, “Detecting Radiation an Arduous Job at Ports.”

30. Ibid.

31. Ted Bridis, “Security Lapses Found at U.S. Ports,” www.washingtontimes.com, March 12, 2006.

32. Liz Sidoti, Associated Press, “ ‘Dirty Bombs’ Crossed U.S. in Borders Test,” March 27, 2006, www.comcast.net; Gregory D. Kutz, Keith A. Rhodes, and Gene Aloise to Norm Coleman, Government Accountability Office, Subject: Border Security: Investigators Successfully Transported Radioactive Sources across Our Nation’s Borders at Selected Locations, March 28, 2006, p. 5.

33. Mark Hosenball and Christopher Dickey, “A Shadowy Nuclear Saga,” Newsweek, October 30, 2006, p. 48.

34. Matthew M. Aid, “All Glory Is Fleeting: Sigint and the Fight Against International Terrorism,” Intelligence and National Security, 18, 4 (Winter 2003), pp. 72–120 at pp. 88, 92.

35. Ibid., p. 105.

36. Telephone interview with Peter Zimmerman, November 20, 2007.

37. George W. Bush, National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction, December 2002, p. 3; “Domestic Nuclear Detection Office Organization,” www.dhs.gov, accessed December 8, 2007; Statement of John A. Gordon, Under Secretary of Energy and Administrator for Nuclear Security, NNSA, Department of Energy, Before House Armed Services Committee, June 26, 2002, p. 6; “DOD Seeks Rapid Attribution of Domestic Nuclear Attack,” Secrecy News, January 2, 2005.

38. See Jeffrey T. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (New York: W.W. Norton, 2006).

39. Caitlin Talmadge, “Deterring a Nuclear 9/11,” Washington Quarterly, Spring 2007, pp. 21–34.

40. Ibid., p. 26.

41. Ibid.

42. Matthew Phillips, “Uncertain Justice for Nuclear Terror: Deterrence of Anonymous Attacks through Attribution,” Orbis, Summer 2007, pp. 429–446. Also see Joint Working Group of the American Physical Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Nuclear Forensics: Role, State of the Art, Program Needs (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2008).

43. Department of Homeland Security, “TOPOFF 4 Frequently Asked Questions,” www.dhs.gov, accessed October 22, 2007; Northern Command, “Fact Sheet—Exercise VIGILANT SHIELD, 2008,” 2008.

44. Interview with Alan Mode, Pleasanton, Calif., April 12, 2007; Interview with William Nelson, Alamo, Calif., June 9, 2007; Office of Inspector General, Department of Energy, DOE/IG-0605, National Nuclear Security Administration’s Ability to Meet the Aircraft Requirements of the Joint Technical Operations Team, June 2003, pp. 3–7; Walter Pincus, “Nuclear Warhead Cut from Spending Bill,” Washington Post, December 18, 2007, p. A2.

45. Steve Wampler, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, e-mail, December 3, 2007.

46. Office of Inspector General, Department of Energy, DOE/IG-0605, National Nuclear Security Administration’s Ability to Meet the Aircraft Requirements of the Joint Technical Operations Team, pp. 3–7.

47. “When Terrorists Go Nuclear,” Popular Mechanics, March 2002, accessed from www.popularmechanics.com.

48. Argonne National Laboratory, “Tiny Device Can Detect Hidden Nuclear Weapons, Materials,” June 21, 2002, available at http://www.anl.gov.

49. Richard Stenger, “Cryo3 Could Spot ‘Dirty Bombs’,” www.cnn.com, June 10, 2002.

50. “Radiation Detection on the Front Lines,” Science & Technology Review, September 2004, pp. 4–11.

51. Mark Wolverton, “Muons for Peace,” Scientific American, September 2007, pp. 26–28.

52. “Mobile Mapping for Radioactive Materials,” Science & Technology Review, October 2007, pp. 8–9.

53. John Fox, “FBI to Get Nuclear Weapon Neutralizer,” Global Security Newswire, February 15, 2008, accessed from www.nti.org.

54. Telephone interview with Steven Fetter, November 29, 2007.

55. Ibid.; James Glanz, “Despite New Tools, Detecting Nuclear Material Is Doubtful,” New York Times, March 18, 2002, p. A13; Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office, The Mile Shakedown Series of Exercices: A Compilation of Comments and Critiques, February 18, 1995, p. 146.

INDEX

Page numbers in italics refer to maps.

ABC

ABC News

Abraham, Spencer

Abu Annis

Abu Gheith, Suleiman

Abu Zubaydah

Accident Response Group (ARG)

Ackerly, Lawrence R.

Action Warrior exercise

Aden

Ad Hoc Committee on Space Debris

Advanced Spectroscopic Portals (ASP)

independent review team of

Aerial Measurement System (AMS)

Aerial Radiological Monitoring system (ARMS)

Afghanistan

Soviet invasion of

African embassies bombing (1998)

Agnew, Harold

Agononshu

Agriculture Department, U.S.

Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud

Ahsan, Aitzaz

Air Defense Command, U.S.

Air Defense Forces’ Center for Monitoring Cosmic Space (TsKKP), Soviet

Air Force, U.S.

Maui optical system of

Nuclear Safety Directorate of

nuclear weapons accidents and

Palomares incident and

Space Command of

Thule incident and

Air Force One

Air Force Satellite Control Network

Air Force Technical Applications Center (AFTAC)

Alazan rocket

Albright, David

Algeria

al-Jihad

Alkema, Randall

Allison, Charles

Allison, Graham

Al-Qaeda

creation of

dirty bomb interest of

nuclear weapons and materials sought by

9/11 and

Pakistan’s nuclear stability and

suitcase nukes and

Al-Qaeda in Iraq

Alvin

al Zabadi program

American Red Cross

American Revolution

americium-241

Amin, Salahuddin

anthrax

Aoki, Steven

Araji, Sami al-

Argentina

Argonne National Laboratory

Arkin, William

Armed Forces Special Weapons Projects

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency

Army, U.S.

Army Forces Command, U.S.

Asad, Suleiman

Asahara, Shoko

Ash Shaykhili Nuclear Facility

Assembly, California

Associated Press

Atef, Mohammed

Athena missile

Atomflot

Atomic Demolition Munitions

Atomic Energy Act (1954)

Atomic Energy Agency, Pakistan

Atomic Energy Agency (RORSATOM), Russian

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

Nth Country Experiment of

Atomic Energy Commission, Greek

Atomic Energy Detection System (AEDS)

Atomic Energy Ministry (MINATOM), Russian

Atoms for Peace

Aum Shinrikyo

Australia

seismic event in

Automated Tether-Operated Manipulator (ATOM)

Awad, Daoud

Ayres, William

Azzam, Abdullah

Ba’asyir, Abu Bakar

Baghdad Nuclear Research Center

Baker-Nunn cameras

Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS)

Bandolier National Monument

Banshiri, Abu-Ubaydah al-

Barot, Dhiren

Basayev, Shamil

Basov, Nikolai

BBC

BBC China

Beck, A. J.

Beckett, David

Beers, Charles J. Jr.

Belarus

Bell, Milo

Bell, Robert

Belotserkovsky, Oleg M.

Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Plant

Benjamin, Daniel

Bhutto, Benazir

Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali

Bieniawski, Andrew

Binalshibh, Ramzi

bin Laden, Osama

background of

CIA’s characterization of

nuclear weapons search of

biological weapons

Birges, Elizabet

Birges, Jimmy

Birges, John

Birges, John, Jr.

Black September

Blair, Bruce

Bloomberg, Michael

BO-105 helicopter

Bodman, Samuel W.

Bolivia

Bolshinsky, Igor

Bono, Sonny

Bosnia

Bouk reactor

Brahm, Jake J.

Bratislava agreement (2005)

Brazil

Brennan, John

Bright Victory exercise

Brinkley, David

Bristow, Quentin

Broken Arrow (film)

Bronson, Charles

Brown, Willis

Brown and Root

Browne, John C.

Brugioni, Dino

Brzezinski, Zbigniew

Buchanan, Ivens

Buffett, Warren

Bulgaria

Bundeskriminalamt (BKA), German

Bunn, Matthew

Bureau of Customs

Burson, Zolin

Burtyk, Charles

Bush, George W.n

Bush administration

C-5 Galaxy

C-130 Hercules aircraft

C-141 Starlifter

Caballes, Roy

Caban, Simon

cable-controlled underwater recovery vehicle (CURV)

Canada

Morning Light Operation and

Canadian Atomic Energy Control Board

Canty, Troy

Cargo Advanced Automated Radiography System (CAARS)

Carlson, Joel

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace

Carter, Jimmy

Castro, Fidel

CBS Evening News

CC-138 Twin Otter aircraft

Center for Contemporary Conflict

Center for Islamic Research and Studies

Center for Nonproliferation Studies

Central Command, U.S.

Central Committee and Council of Ministers, Soviet

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

Abu Zubaydah interrogated by

Counterterrorism Center of

Libyan nuclear program and

cesium

cesium-137

Cessna Citation II

CH-14 Chinook helicopter

CH-135 Huey helicopter

Chambers, William H.

Chapla, Emil J.

chemical weapons

Cheney, Dick

Chernobyl power plant

Chile

China, People’s Republic of

nuclear weapons program of

Christian Identity Movement

Chyba, Christopher

Cirincione, Joseph

Clamshell Alliance

Clancy, Tom

Clarke, Richard

Clinton, Bill

Clinton administration

Clooney, George

CNN

Coast Guard, U.S.

cobalt

cobalt-57

cobalt-60

Cochran, Thomas

Cold War

Cole, David

Cole, USS

Collins, Larry

Colombia

Commander-1 (George)

command post exercise (CPX)

Commerce Department, U.S.

Commercial Radioactive Source: Surveying the Security Risks (Ferguson)

Committee B (committee on countermeasures)

Communicated Threat Credibility Assessment Program

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

Congress, U.S.

Congressional Research Service

Connelly, Michael

Convair 580 T aircraft

Cook, Joe

Cooperwasser, Yossi

Corona spy satellite

Cosmology and Human Destiny (Mahmood)

Cosmos 102 satellite

Cosmos 952 satellite

Cosmos 954 satellite

Cosmos 1175 satellite

Cosmos 1365 satellite

Cosmos 1402 satellite

Cosmos 1700 satellite

Coulson, Danny

Council on American-Islamic relations (CAIR)

Council on Foreign Relations

“Counterintelligence and Security Precautions for the Summer Olympic Games” (NSDD 35)

Courtney, William H.

Covenant, Sword, and Arm of the Lord

Crested Ice, Project

“Critical Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and Protection” (Homeland Security Presidential Directive 7)

Cronkite, Walter

Cuban missile crisis

CURV (Cable-Controlled Underwater Recovery Vehicle)

Curve of Binding Energy, The (McPhee)

Customs Service, Cyprus

Customs Service, U.S.

cyclotron

Cyprus

Cyro-3 radiation detector

Czech Republic

Czech Technical University

Dailey, Dell

Dale, David Learned

Daniels, Charlie

Death Wish (film)

Declaration of Independence, U.S.

Defense Atomic Support Agency

Defense Department, U.S.

in NEST exercises

Defense HUMINT Service

Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)

Defense Ministry, Russian

12th Main Directorate of

Defense Nuclear Agency

Defense Nuclear Detection Office (DNDO)

Defense Science Board

Defense Special Weapons Agency

Defense Support Program (DSP)

Defense Technical Response Group

Defense Technology Administration

Defense Threat Reduction Agency

de Gaulle, Charles

Delta Force

in Sundog exercise

Delta II rocket

Denisov, Vladimir

Detachment 421 (Project Oak Tree)

Deutch, John

Diego Garcia

Dilbeck, Delbart N.

dirty bomb

Al-Qaeda’s interest in

construction of

hoax attacks and

official designation of

radioactive material in

search patterns for

Dirty War (film)

Disaster Control Team (U.S.A.F.)

Dobrynin, Anatoliy

Dobson, David

Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories

Domestic Emergency Support Team (DEST)

Dominican Republic

Don’t Make a Wave Committee

Doomsday and Life after Death—the Ultimate Fate of the Universe as Seen Through the Holy Quran (Mahmood)

Douglas Aircraft

Doyle, Jack

Dragonfire (intelligence source)

Dubai

Dunbar, Mitchell

Duncan, Ray D.

Dvorkin, Vladimir

Ecuador

Edgerton, Germeshausen and Grier (EG&G)

Energy Measurements unit of

“snap quiz” of

Egypt

Eisenhart, Charles M.

Eisenhower, Dwight D.

Eisenhower administration

ElBaradei, Mohammed

elimination operations

Elliott, William

Ellipse Charlie exercise

Ellipse Foxtrot exercise

Ellis, Jerry

Ellison, Jim

El Shukrijumah, Adman

Emergency Deployment Readiness Evaluation

“Empty Quiver,”

Endtime Overcomer Survival Training School

Energy Department, U.S.

Accident Response Group of

Executive Order 12656 and

Gordon-Hagerty’s tenure at

Mirage Gold exercise and

MPCPA program of

NEST responsibility of

NNSA of

Oak Ridge facility of

Office of Emergency Response of

Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence of

Office of Threat Assessment of

Off-site Source Recovery Project of

personnel shortage of

SLD program of

Spent Fuel Acceptance Program of

training exercises and

Transportation Division of

uranium transfer and

Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA)

Energy Senior Official (ESO)

Environmental Protection Agency

Environmental Protection Department, Pennsylvania

Equus Red exercise

Eritrea

Errant Foe exercise

Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (Allison)

Evans, Douglass

Executive Order 12656

Fadl, Jamal Ahmed al-

Fahd, Nasir Bin Hamd al-

Falklands War

Falvey, Tom

Fast Walker (satellite tracker)

Fatah

FBI Nuclear Emergency Contingency Plan

Federal Agency for Atomic Energy, Russian

Federal Aviation Administration

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Criminal Intelligence Division of

GE uranium theft investigation and

Hostage Rescue Team of

Joint Operations Center of

Kyllo case and

as a lead agency for NEST

Mirage Gold exercise and

missing hard drives episode and

Muslim sites monitoring and

in NEST exercises

New Orleans incident and

Padilla case and

Stateline, Nev., incident and

Union Oil extortion investigation and

in Vigilant Lion exercise

white hate groups and

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

Mirage Gold exercise and

Federal Intelligence Service (BND), German

Federal Nuclear Center, Russian

Federal Radiation Monitoring and Assessment Center (FRMAC)

Federal Security Bureau, Russian

Federal Security Service, Russian

Federation of American Scientists

Ferguson, Charles

Fetter, Steven

Field Instrument for Detection of Low Energy Radiation (FIDLER)

Fifth Horseman, The (Collins and Lapierre)

52nd Ordnance Group, U.S.

1st Special Forces Operational Detachment Delta, see Delta Force

Fingar, Thomas

First Line of Defense Program

Fitzpatrick, Mark

Fleming, Ian

Flemming, Melissa

Ford, Gerald

Foreign Emergency Support Team (FEST)

Foreign Research Reactor Spent Nuclear Fuel Acceptance Program

Foreign Technology Division (Air Force)

Fortune

Foster, Mike

Fourth Amendment

France

Freeling, Nicolas

Frost, Robin

Gabriel, Roman

Gadget (Freeling)

Gadwal Uranium Enrichment Plant

Gambit (satellite program)

Gamma Kolos (Gamma Ears) project

Garland, David F.

Gates, Mahlon E.

Gauged Strength exercise

General Electric (GE)

General Staff, Soviet

Geological Survey of Canada

George, Peter

Georgia

German People’s Liberation Army

Germany

Ghana

Gilinsky, Victor

Gillani, Syed Yousaf Raza

Gistaro, Edward

Giuliani, Rudolph

Glenn, John

Global Positioning System

Global Threat Reduction Initiative

GLODO

Goetz, Bernhard

Golden Chain

Goldfinger (film)

Gonzalez, Abel J.

Gordon, John

Gordon-Hagerty, Lisa E.

Government Accountability Office

Gow, W. Douglas

Grasty, Bob

Graves, Ernest

Gray, William

Great Britain

nuclear terrorism in

Greater than Class C sealed sources

Greece

Green Berets

Greenland

Greenpeace Foundation

Gross, Harvey

Groves, Leslie

GRU

Grumbly, Thomas

Guardia Civil, Spain

Gul, Hamid

Gulf War (1991)

Habiger, Eugene E.

Hahn, Herb

Hall, Terry

Halliburton

Hamas

Handelman, Sid

Haney, Eric L.

Hardison & Stewart Oil

Hartley, Fred L.

Hartman, William F.

Harvey, Danny

Harvey’s Resort Hotel

Haug, John M.

Hayakawa, Kiyohide

HBO

Health and Human Services Department, U.S.

Henry, Carl

Hersh, Seymour

Hexagon (satellite program)

Hezbollah

highly enriched uranium (HEU)

Atoms for Peace program and

transfer and recovery of

Hobbs Act (1951)

Hoffman, Bruce

Homeland Security Act (2002)

Homeland Security Council

Homeland Security Department, U.S.

Customs and Border Protection directorate of

Domestic Nuclear Detection Office of

organization absorbed by

radiation detection searches by

Homeland Security Institute

Homeland Security Presidential Directive (HSPD)

Homeland Security Presidential Directive 7 (“Critical Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and Protection”)

Hooper, Ibrahim

Hornby, John

Hostage Rescue Team (HRT)

Hot Spot Mobile Labs

House of Representatives, U.S.:

Armed Services Committee of

Energy and Commerce Committee of

Howard, John

Howe, Raymond

Hughes, John

Hughes, Patrick M.

Hughes H-500 helicopter

Hussein, Saddam

Hutchinson, Patti

Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory

Immigration and Naturalization Service

Improvised Nuclear Device (IND)

in NEST-77 exercise

Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS)

India

Indonesia

Infinite Reach, Operation

Insight on the News

Intelligence Advisory Committee (IAC)

Intelligence Community, U.S.

Intelligence Support Activity (Gray Fox)

Interdepartmental Committee on Internal Security

Interdepartmental Intelligence Conference

interdiction operations

Interior Department, U.S.

International Athletic Events Security Coordination Group

International Atomic Agency (IAEA)

International Center for Theoretical Physics

International Institute for Strategic Studies

Internet

Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate, Pakistan

“In the Shadow of the Lances” (Abu Gheith)

Iran

as source of nuclear materials

Iraq

looting of nuclear sites in

radioactive material recovered from

WMD search in

Iraq Survey Group

Islamic Army Shura

Islamic Center of Washington, D.C.

Islamic Jihad

Is Paris Burning? (Collins and Lapierre)

Israel

Munich Olympics incident and

Israeli Defense Forces

Italy

Ivanov, Ivan

I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy

Jackal Cave exercise

Jackle, Adolf

Jacoby, Lowell E.

Jagged Wind exercise

James, Frank

Janowski, Mike

Japan

National Space Development Agency of

terrorist attacks in

Jeff Fest ’94

Jemaah Islamiya

Jenkins, Brian

Joeck, Neil

Joint Chiefs of Staff, Pakistan

Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S.

Joint Nuclear Accident Coordinating Center (JNACC)

Joint Radiological Hazard Assessment Cell

Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)

Joint Technical Operations Team (JTOT)

Jordan

Jordan, Michael

Justice Department, U.S.

Kadyrov, Akhmad

Kay, David

Kazakhstan

uranium recovery operation in

Kelley, Robert

Kelly, Henry

Kelly, Raymond W.

Kennan (satellite program)

Kennedy, John F.

Kennedy, Robert F.

Kenya

Kerik, Bernard

KGB

KH-8 satellite

KH-9 satellite

KH-11 satellite

Khan, A. Q.

Khobar Tower bombing

Kidman, Nicole

Kidwai, Khalid

Kimery, Anthony L.

Kim Jong Il

Kineer, Joseph

King Air B-200

Kissinger, Henry

Klann, Raymond

Koch, Edward

Kolko, Richard

Korea, People’s Democratic Republic of (North Korea)

as source of nuclear materials

Korea, Republic of (South Korea)

Korean War

Kotelnikov, Vladimir A.

Kroll Associates

Kupperman, Robert H.

Kuralt, Charles

Kuwait

KV-2 Sparrow reactor

Kyllo, Danny Lee

Laidlaw, W. R.

Lamonds, Harold “Hap,”

Lapierre, Dominique

Lawrence, Ernest

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Assessment Center Coordinating of

attack exercise at

Communicated Threat Credibility Assessment Program

Forensic Science Center of

in Morning Light Operation

National Resource Evaluation Program of

Radiation Detection Equipment of

Special Technologies Program of

threat credibility assessments and

Z Division of

Lease, Russell

Lebanon

Lebed, Alexander

le Carré, John

Legenda, see US (Controlled Satellite) satellite program

Leiter, Michael

Leningrad-300 (missile launch site)

Leonard, Sugar Ray

Levernier, Richard

Lewis, Jeffrey

Libya

Linberg, Elmer F.

Lincoln Gold Augmentation Team (LGAT)

liquid nitrogen

lithium

Longsworth, Paul

Los Alamos Primer, The

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

IND exercise at

missing hard drives episode and

nuclear theft exercise at

X Division of

Los Angeles Times

Luch Scientific Production Association

Lynn, Richard

McLaughlin, John

McPhee, John

McVeigh, Timothy

Mahmood, Bashiruddin

Majeed, Chaudhry Abdul

Majid, Tariq

Malaysia

“Managing Terrorist Incidents” (NSDD 30)

Manhattan Project

Maples, Michael D.

Marine barracks bombing

Maritime Security Act (2002)

Mark, J. Carson

Markey, Daniel

Mars Global Surveyor

Mars 96 probe

Mars Pathfinder

Maslin, Evgeny

Masri, Abu Ayyub al-

Masri, Abu Khabab al-

Materials Protection, Control, and Accounting (MPC&A) program

Meir, Golda

Menino, Thomas M.

Merritt, John C.

Messinger, Larry G.

Mexico

Mica Dig exercise

Mighty Derringer exercise

Mikhailov, Viktor

Mild Cover exercise

Mile Shakedown exercises

Military Airlift Command, U.S.

Miller, John

MINATOM (Atomic Energy Ministry), Russian

Minneapolis–Saint Paul, USS

Mir, Hamid

Mirage Gold exercise

after-action reports on

Beers’s critique of

classification problems in

component exercises of

deployment problems in

FBI in

FEMA in

NEST equipment in

New Orleans scenario in

participating organizations in

Senate hearings on

small-scale exercises in

technical problems in

Miron, Murray

Mirrored Image exercise

Mobile and Human Portable Detection Systems

Mobley, Mike

Mode, Alan V.

Mohammad, Khalid Sheikh

Moldova

Mondale, Walter

Monterey Institute of International Studies

Mordhorst, John

Morgan, Darwin

Morning Light Operation

debris location and recovery in

destabilization and crash of Cosmos 954 in

NEST in

reimbursement for

search missions in, 62

Soviet’s US satellite program and

U.S. assistance in

Morocco

Morrison, Ira

Morya-1, see US (Controlled Satellite) satellite program

Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology

Mossad

Mowatt-Larssen, Rolf

MS-13 (street gang)

Mueller, John

Mueller, Robert

Muhajir, Abu Hamza al-

Mujahir, Abdullah al, see Padilla, Jose

Mukhtar, Mohammed Ali

Mullen, Mike

Mundaring Seismic Observatory

Munroe effect

muon radiography

Murai, Hideo

Musharrah, Pervez

Muslim Brotherhood

Myre, Bill

Nader, Ralph

narcotics

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

National Command Authority, Pakistan

National Commission on Terrorism

National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States

National Counterterrorism Center

National Disaster Medical System

National Environmental Research Park

National Football League (NFL)

National Guard, Indiana

National Intelligence Council

National Military Command Center

National Military Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction (2006)

National Nuclear Security Administration

National Photographic Interpretation Center

“National Program for Combatting Terrorism, The,”

National Reactor Test Station

National Reconnaissance Office

National Resource Evaluation Program

National Resources Defense Council

National Science Foundation

National Security Agency (NSA)

National Security Council (NSC)

National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) 30 (“Managing Terrorist Incidents”)

National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) 35 (“Counterintelligence and Security Precautions for the Summer Olympic Games”)

National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) 135

National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD) 17 (“National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction”)

National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD) 28 (“Nuclear Weapons Command, Control, Safety, and Security”)

National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD) 48

National Security Study Memorandum (NSSM) 120

National Special Security Event (NSSE)

National Technical Nuclear Forensics Center

Naval Special Warfare Development Group

Naval Aviation, Soviet

Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division

Naval Special Warfare Development Group

Navy, Soviet

Navy, U.S.

Explosive Ordnance Detachment Technical Division of

Office of Intelligence of

Seal Team 6 of

Soviet’s US satellite program and

Navy Seal

Navy Space Surveillance System (NAVSPUR)

NBC

NBC News

NBC Nightly News

Neilson, Glen

Nelson, William

NEST-East

NEST Energy Senior Official’s Reference Manual

Never Say Never Again (film)

Newby, Lewis

New Labs

New York, N.Y.

radiation hot spots in

Securing the Cities experiment and

New York Police Department

New York Post

New York Times

New Zealand

Nguyen Minh Triet

Nigeria

9/11, see September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks of

9th Airlift Squadron, U.S.

Nixon, Richard M.

North American Aerospace Defense command (NORAD)

North American Aviation (NAA)

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

North Carolina State University

Northern Command, U.S.

NRBC Threat National Emergency Plan

Nth Country Experiment

NTV Network

Nuclear Accident Support Team (NAST)

Nuclear Assessment Program (NAP)

Command and Control Center of

“Nuclear Bomb of Islam, The” (bin Laden)

Nuclear Emergency Search/Support Team (NEST):

agencies responsible for

aircraft of

Camp Atterbury base of

Containment and Effects Team of

Delta Force and

deployment capacity of

Device Assessment Team of

equipment transportation capacity of

executive planning board of

extended capacity of

field exercise capacity of

in films

foreign deployments of

formation of

future challenges and

headquarters of

interagency cooperation and

internationalization of

JTOT of, see Joint Technical Operations Team

missing hard drives episode and

mission of

name change of

1976 deployments of

1978 deployments of

1980 deployments of

nuclear power industry and

overseas role of

personnel of

post-9/11 deployment of

public disclosure of

radiation detection equipment of

reorganization of

research and development limitation of

Scenario Working Group of

search operations of

Senate hearings on

Sewell report on

technological limitations of

in training exercises

nuclear extortion

attribution determination and

defensive measures against

in foreign nations

Harvey’s resort incident and

intelligence and

interagency working relations and

international sporting events and

Los Angeles incident and

non-nuclear

nuclear forensics and

Orlando incident and

Sewell report and

threat of

training exercises and

Union Oil episode and