Académie Royale des Sciences, 42
Acadia, 138, 140, 154
diaspora from, 152
Acapulco, 62, 282
Admiralty, 43, 44, 45
Afonso V (king of Portugal, 1438–1481), 87
Africa
agency in, 225–29
agricultural developments in, 234
Atlantic integration, impact of, 232–35
and the Atlantic Ocean, 21, 223–24, 240
British America, integration into history of, 121–22
coasts of, metaphorical, 347
cultural diversity of, 229
diaspora of, 235–40
economy, changes to, 232–33
ethnicity in, 236–38
and the Indian Ocean, 39, 347
maritime history of, 223–25
migration from, 224
place names, origin of, 237–38
population of, 223, 234–35
regions in, 229–31
slavery in, 224, 227–29, 235
social organization, 236
and subordinate symbiosis, 238
West, 129, 138, 149, 151
West-Central, 224, 227, 230, 231, 238
Africanization, lack of, 122
agency, of subalterns, 17
alcohol. See wines and spirits
Alexander VI, Pope, 251
American Philosophical Society, Transactions of the, 46
American Revolution, 15–16, 21, 46, 113, 320
and Asian trade, 344
Atlantic dimensions of, 120
British military strategy during, 124
French and Spanish support of, 256
Amerindians. See Native Americans
Angola, 89, 90–91, 94, 225, 231
failure of evangelization in, 93
management of, 94–95
origin of description, 237
Portuguese military expeditions in, 93
Anjou, Duke of. See Philip V (king of Spain)
Annaliste school, 300, 302 (see also Braudel, Fernand)
Argentina, 197, 203
Armada, Spanish, 252–53
Armitage, David, 115, 317, 349
Asia, trade compared to Europe in early modern period, 345–46
asiento, 66, 265
Atlantic history
appeal of, 337
approaches to, 23–24
as concept, 82–83, 191–92
critiques of, 5–7, 321–23
Eurocentrism of, 191
European states, basis for comparison of, 317–18
limitations of, 338–51
Portugal in, 102–104
and race, 126
stages of, 18–21
synthesis, failure to achieve, 310–11
temporal boundaries of, 18, 21, 153, 250, 320–21, 329–30
usefulness for Dutch case, 163–64
early exploration of, 251–52
and Europe, 249–71
historical concepts of, 8, 35–49, 164–65
and Portuguese Empire, 96–98
as self-contained space, 328–32, 339–42
Atlantic perspective, 3–4, 10, 22, 24n4, 299–301
British case, advantages for, 121–27
British world, dominance of scholarship on, 149
critiques of, 339
Dutch case, lack of attention to, 172, 180–82
empires and nations, use in comparing, 105
France, influence on scholars of, 146–53
future of, 280
and interactions among empires, 17–18
interdisciplinarity, source of, 148–49
Native American life, masks the diversity of, 212
and Portuguese Atlantic, 82
study of Europe, influence on, 249–50
and study of revolutions, 151
Atlantic Revolutions, 19, 166, 250, 320
Atlantic World
as circuit in a world system, 346
complexities of, 280
concept of, 338
contemporary meanings, 35–49
historians of, 317
interconnections and interdependence in, 327–28
nation, divided by, 22
trade circuits, as conjunction of, 349
Atlas
as compendium of maps, 40
Titan, 37
Azores, 83–84, 251
products of, 84
Aztec Empire, 55, 58, 195–96, 260
Bacon, Francis, and Great Instauration, 38
Bacon’s Rebellion, 127, 204
Bahia, 198, 231
Bailyn, Bernard, 4, 9, 114, 337–38
Atlantic history, schematic model of, 18–21
Harvard Atlantic history seminar, establishment of, 26n8
Bayly, C.A., 9, 321–23, 325–27
Benguela, 93, 224–25
Dutch conquest of, 94, 95
Benin, Bight of, 224, 229
Bering, Vitus, 199, 287–88
Bermuda, 13, 117
Biafra, Bight of, 224, 229, 230, 232, 238 (see also Slave Coast)
Bolivia, 62, 197, 207, 312
Bolton, Herbert Eugene, 57, 280, 286, 288, 300, 308
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 256
brother placed on Spanish throne, 70
and reconstruction of French empire, 144
and sale of Louisiana to United States, 145
borderlands, 13–14, 307
historians of, 286
Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, 36
expedition to Pacific, 47–48
Boyle, Robert, 15, 43
Braudel, Fernand, 258, 338
and Mediterranean as model for Atlantic history, 5–6, 71, 250, 319
Brazil, 89–90, 202–203, 238–39
diversity of, 92
Dutch control of, 95, 173–75, 266
economic trends of, 263
evangelization limited in, 90
French exploration of, 253
historians of, 103
imagery of, 179
independence (1822), 81
land use, 92–93
migration to, 91–92, 231, 268
and need for labor, 95, 203
royal government, establishment of, 90, 100
Slave Coast, diaspora to, 239
slaves, population density of, 96
trade in cheap goods, 265
Britain
alliance with Portugal, 70
as an Atlantic nation, 111–13
connections to Europe, 114–15
Euro-skepticism, 113–15
exceptionalism, 113–15
France, rivalry with, 256
greater British history, 115
historians of, 128, 319
Parliament, 44
Union of 1707, 111
wars of empire, 119
British Atlantic, 55–73
Britain, extension to studies of, 319
British America, colonial, 301–305
chronology, importance of, 116–18, 128–29
consolidation of, 118–19
integration of, 123
Latin America, contrasts with, 302–304
limits of, 112, 127–30
literature on, weaknesses of, 116
British Empire, 10–11, 17
authority, breakdown of, 117
colonial bureaucracy, limits of, 119
colonies compared and contrasted, 116
creole elites, authority of, 119–20
French Empire, compared to, 124–25
and fur trade, 199–200
ideology of colonists, 19
and India, 329
naval power of, 42–43
population and natural increase, 270
profits from transatlantic trade, 268
Spanish Empire, compared to, 112, 124–25, 309–10, 330
Buenos Aires, 65, 69
made capital of viceroyalty, 210
bullion
as cause of economic growth, 262, 269
export of, 261
and silver, decline in value of, 264
Cádiz, 61, 66, 70
California, 300
Alta, missions in, 206–207, 289
Baja, 205, 282
population of, 285
Spanish exploration of, 288–89
California School, 345–47
Canada, 138, 139
French loss of, 153, 269–70
and fur trade, 199
Norse settlement in, 37
settlement in, 140
Canary Islands, 251
conquest of, 55
as source of labor for Madeira, 84
Cape Verde Islands, 83, 84–85, 223, 251
Caribbean Sea
economic development of, 328
native groups of, 143
cartography, 45, 46, 167–68, 177–78 (see also maps)
practices of, 39
as symbol of national prestige, 42
Castile. See Spain
Catholic Church, Roman, 56, 304 (see also Society of Jesus)
and Counter-Reformation, 148, 304
ecclesiastical taxes, collection of, 261
and extirpation of indigenous religious practices, 65
forced sale of property in Spain, 69
Native Americans, conversion of, 61, 65
and regular clergy, 68–69
religious orders, 61, 67, 92, 201, 204–206
Spain, struggle for power with, 68–69
Catholicism, 82, 125
spread of, 350
Cayenne. See Guyana, French
Champlain, Samuel de, 195, 199
Charles I (king of England), 254
Charles I (king of Spain), 59–60, 195, 252, 262
Charles II (king of England), 341
Charles II (king of Spain, 1665–1700), 63, 255
Charles III (king of Spain, 1759–1788), 66–68, 78n35, 78–79n44, 255
Charles IV (king of Spain), 70
Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor). See Charles I of Spain
Chaunu, Pierre and Huguette, 5, 57
Chesapeake, 130
Chichimeca War (1550–1590), 197
Chile, 62, 196, 304, 310
and economic growth, 65
as frontier necessary for defense, 197
and maritime missions, 202
China, 63
and American silver, 346
Atlantic power, attempt to redefine as, 344
chocolate, 283
coca, 197
Code Noir, impact in French Caribbean of, 151–52
coffee, production and sale of, 143–44
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 42, 143
Colombia, 65, 196
colonial heterogeneity, 124, 126
colonial homogeneity, 126, 128
colonizing process, 7, 306–307, 318
Columbian exchange, 11, 35, 208–209, 259
food products, 71–72
in Portuguese Atlantic, 99
Columbus, Christopher, 38
and 1492 as start of Atlantic history, 35, 39, 48, 55–56, 192, 250, 279
and “enterprise of the Indies,” 163, 258
evangelization as part of mission, 251
first to encounter tobacco in Americas, 266
“Indians,” use of the term, 195
plan for westward route to Asia, 251
commerce, 21, 77n29, 164–65
American goods marketed in Europe, 167
comercio libre, 68–69
Dutch Atlantic, expansion in, 171–75, 177
literature on, 191
commodities, 208, 226–27, 253, 265, 326
discovery of, 255
extraction of, 198–201
in Pacific trade, 283
production of, 197, 251
studies of, 11
trade, increase in Africa, 232–33
trade in, quantified for Spain, 259–61
comparative history, 149–50, 280–81, 330–31
Conquista, 167–68
conquistadors, 55, 58–59
continental approach, 6, 280–81, 300, 308
antecedents, eighteenth-century, 290
continental defined, 291n4
Cook, Captain James, 36, 45, 287, 290
expeditions to Pacific, 47–48
impact on Hawaii, 287, 289
Copley, John Singleton, and “Watson and the Shark,” 41
Cornwallis, Charles, 345
Cortés, Hernan, 58, 184, 195–96
Coutinho, Sousa, as governor of Angola, 94–95
cowries, 8, 229
creoles, 63–64, 67–68
creolization, 235, 323–24
elites, 70
languages, 84–85
Crosby, Alfred, 11, 35, 279
Cuba, 41, 145, 195, 266
cultural exchange, 12, 318
cultural convergence, 119–20
literature on, 149
multicultural perspective, 300–301
Curaçao, 177
Curtin, Philip, 4, 57, 345
Defoe, Daniel, and Robinson Crusoe, 40
demography, 123
in early American history, 283–86
de Vries, Jan, 319, 325
disease. See also smallpox
Black Death, 342
and Caribbean, population turnover in, 270
danger to Europeans in Africa, 225
and decline of Native American populations, 62, 64, 192, 195, 201, 205, 206, 210, 285
ungulate irruption among livestock, 206
Drake, Francis, 252, 287
Dutch Atlantic, 163–82
concept of, 163, 180–82, 182n1
expansion of commerce, 171–75
and fur trade, 199
Native Americans, alliances with, 170
neglected in literature, 174
reconfiguration in mid-seventeenth century, 176–77
representations of, 178–79
Dutch Republic. See Netherlands, the
dyes, trade of, 198, 226, 259, 326
East India Company, United, 173, 343–44
Eighty Years’ War, 171
Eliot, Hugh, 251–52
Eliot, John, 200, 207
Elizabeth I of England, 252–53
Elliott, John H., 3, 6–7, 301
Atlantic history, schematic model of, 18–21
Empires of the Atlantic World, 10–11, 57–58, 124, 309–10, 330
encomienda, 59–60, 63, 195
England
Africa Trade Act (1698), 284
Atlantic exploration, influence of, 251–52
Catholic Church, break with, 252
Civil War, 117, 127, 254–55
colonies, population of (1700), 284
early colonial settlements, 117, 125
Native Americans, relations with, 118
settler rights, 118
Spain, rivalry with, 252–53
trade in Americas, 263–64, 267
weakness of marine cartography, 42
Enlightenment, 67, 318
Equiano, Olaudah, 47
Esguerra, Jorge Cañizares, 6, 15, 58
Esquilache, Marqués de, 67–68
ethnicity
in Africa, 236–38
in the Americas, 238–40, 255–56
solidarity based on, 324–25
ethnohistory, 279–80, 286
Europe
Africa and Asia, early exploration of, 250–51
and the Atlantic Ocean, 249–71
economy and Atlantic interactions, 257–71
politics and international rivalries, 250–57
Western, rise of, 340
evangelization, 249–50, 324
of Africans and Native Americans, 73
and Columbus, mission of, 251
limitations in Angola, 93
by Portuguese in Kongo, 88
role of regular clergy in, 61
exclusionary colonies, 305
“facing east,” 281–83
Ferdinand (king of Spain), 59, 73n1, 195
Ferdinand VI (king of Spain, 1746–1759), 66, 255
Ferdinand VII (king of Spain), return to throne, 70
firearms. See guns
fishing, 39, 84, 251, 265, 326
off Newfoundland, 12, 37–38, 198
Florida, 72, 202, 204, 300, 310
and American Revolution, 256
French presence in, 253
population of, 285
United States, ceded to, 257
France
absolutism in, 125
Brazil, exploration of, 253
Britain, rivalry with, 256
civil war in, 252
colonies, population of (1700), 284
and imperial system, 147–48
navigation, improvements in, 42
political history, influence of Atlantic on, 252–53
Portugal, trade with, 266
Haitian independence recognized (1825), 137
religious persecution in, 140
trade in Americas, 263–64
Francis I of France, 252
Frank, André Gunder, 267, 270
Franklin, Benjamin, 45–46, 283
as advocate of British imperialism, 114
estimates of population growth, 113
free people of color, 144, 145
in Saint-Domingue, 152
French and Indian War. See Seven Years’ War
French Atlantic, 137–54
colonies as spaces of “libertinage,” 152
colonies, relative importance of, 139
complexities of, 138, 304–305
demographics of, 140–41
economic opportunity in, 139–40
emancipation of slaves in, 145
geographic diversity of, 138–39
and Republican racism in Caribbean, 154
settlement patterns, 139
French Empire, 17
compared to British empire, 146
colonial bureaucracy of, 141–42, 148
demographics of, 269
and fur trade, 198–200
loss of territory after Seven Years’ War, 47
French Revolution, 16, 21, 143, 150, 211
Atlantic impact, 256–57
frontier, as edge of empire, 193 (see also borderlands)
fur trade, 173, 198–200, 207–208, 326
significance for Native American communities, 142–43
Gálvez, José de, 67, 206
Games, Alison, 18, 123, 329
geography. See also cartography; navigation
Arab, 36–37
cultural, 163–66
Dutch skill in, 177
Greek, 36–37, 39
Native American knowledge of, 39–40
Georgia, 343
global history, and place for Atlantic history, 321
gold, 61–62, 195, 226, 251, 326
as basis for exchange, 226–27, 269
discovered in Brazil, 92, 208, 255
production and export of, 260
Gold Coast, 224, 229, 230, 237, 238
Good Hope, Cape of, 46, 90
Greene, Jack P., 9, 18, 280, 337
Greenland, 38, 81
groot desseyn (“grand design”), 163–64, 167, 175
Guadeloupe, 138–139, 143, 150, 151, 153–54
and sugar production, 144
Guaraní, Republic of the, 202–203, 208
Guatemala, 62, 196
Guinea, Upper and Lower, 90, 228, 238
Dutch capture of, 95
integration into Atlantic economy, lack of, 231
Portuguese presence in, 89, 269
trade in, 230–31
Gulf Stream, 45–46
gum arabic, 226–27
guns, 208–10, 233, 250
as trading tool, 207, 226
Guyana, French, 16, 138, 143, 150, 153–54, 179
Habsburg dynasty, 203, 252, 255
“tyranny” of, 165, 168–70, 175, 178, 180–81
Haiti, 151
French loss of, 153
independence (1804), 137, 152
population of, 140
relationship with French Atlantic after independence, 150
trans-Atlantic influence of, 153
United States occupation of, 153
Haitian Revolution, 140–41, 144–45, 150–52, 211, 320
Hancock, David, 13, 123
Harvard University, International Seminar on the History of the Atlantic World, 5, 26n8, 337
Havana, 41, 66–67, 239
Hawaii, 282–83
hemispheric perspective, 212, 301, 307–12
approaches to, 308–10
research, possible areas for, 311
Henry, Prince, “The Navigator,” 81, 89
Hercules, Pillars of, 36–37, 38
Hobsbawm, Eric, 267, 270
Hoerder, Dirk, 321–22, 326–27
Hudson’s Bay Company, 199, 283
Hudson, Henry, 283, 289
Huguenots, diaspora of, 140
Humanities Research Institute, University of California, 314n24
Hydrography, Office of, in France, 42
identity
in British Atlantic, 126–27
impact of slavery on, 236–38
Native American, as inferior and backward, 211
Portuguese empire, at issue in, 93, 101
imperial history, 6, 9, 16–18, 81
imperialism, 16–17, 21, 41–49
European rivalries, colonies enmeshed in, 256
Dutch view of, 169–70
study of, 129
Inca Empire, 260
conquest of, 55, 58, 195–96
labor systems of, 196
inclusionary colonies, 304–305
independence, wars of, generally, 194, 210, 320
Indes Orientales, Compagnie des, 343
Indians. See Native Americans
Indian Ocean, 37, 39, 81
as coast of Africa, 347
emporia of, 345–46
European interest in, 46
slave trade in, 227, 240
trade of, 319, 349
industrialization
linked to Atlantic trade, 319
proto-, 342
industrious revolution, 319, 325
Inquisition, 56, 90, 92
Institute for the History of European Expansion, Leiden University, 337–38
integration and endogenous growth, theory of, 350–51
Ireland, 111, 127
iron, 232
Iroquois, League of the, 199, 200, 201, 205, 209
Isabella, Queen of Spain, 73n1, 195, 251
Islam, 228, 231, 350
Jamaica, 311, 328, 329
English capture of, 254
James VI and I of Scotland and England, 111, 117
James, C.L.R.: The Black Jacobins, 147, 153
Jefferson, Thomas, 285, 290
Jesuit Relations, 142, 204–205, 286
Jesuits. See Society of Jesus
João II (king of Portugal), 89
João III (king of Portugal, 1521–1557), 88, 90
John, Prester, 87
Johns Hopkins University, Program in Atlantic History and Culture, 3–4, 25n5, 212n3, 315n27, 337
King Philip’s War, 119, 127, 204, 205
knowledge
acquired from Native Americans, 40
circulation of, 14, 152–53
cooperation between sailors and men of science, 43–44
lack of, 329
production of, 14–15, 126–27, 178–79, 181, 340
scientific, 43–45
Kongo, 86, 87–89, 90, 94, 238
and slave trade, 88, 224, 231
labor, 7
systems based on commodity, 198
use of indigenous, 64
language, as measure of strength, 225
Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 59–60
published in Dutch, 165
Latin America, colonial, 300–303
historians of, 72–73
legal structures and traditions, 17–18, 305
Lima, 56, 65
as capital of viceroyalty, 62, 73, 195
merchants in, 61, 125
Lisbon, 97, 263, 267
as emporium of world trade, 269
Lockhart, James, 62, 301–303, 314n24
Louis XIV (king of France), 42, 143, 255
Louisiana, 138, 141, 154, 283, 300
Africans in, 149
effect of French Caribbean on, 145–46, 151
French loss of, 153
impact of imperial efforts, 148–49
petites nations of, 200
as Spanish colony, 72
Spanish loss of, 257
Mackenzie, Alexander, 289
Madeira, 13, 83–84, 251
Magellan, Ferdinand, 287
maize, 234
Mancke, Elizabeth, 17–18, 312
Manila Galleon, 344, 349
manillas, 229, 232
manioc (cassava), 234
maps, 38, 39, 44 (see also cartography)
Martinique, 138, 139, 150, 151, 153
French control of, 143, 154
and sugar production, 144
Marxist approach, 347–48
Maryland, 254, 285, 311
Massachusetts, 13, 198, 210, 312
Mato Grosso, 92, 208
Maurits, Johan, 174–75, 176, 178, 181
Mayan Empire, 55, 196
Mazumdar, Sucheta, 289–90
McNeil, John Robert, 18, 57
Mediterranean Sea, 36, 37, 99, 240 (see also Braudel, Fernand)
as boundary of French Atlantic, 138
as circuit in a world system, 347
as comparison for Atlantic, 71, 250, 258, 319
and Ottoman expansion, fears of, 253
trade in and around, 342
Meining, D.W., 4–6, 8
merchants, 62, 123, 125, 126
Dutch and the transit trade, 177
metals and gems, 255, 261
Mexico, 55, 58, 282 (see also New Spain)
independence of, 70
Native Americans in, 60, 192, 303
United States, division of land with, 211
Mexico City, 56, 73, 200, 210
commerce of, 61–62, 65
creation of viceroyalty at, 195
Middle Ground, 14, 122–23, 143, 200
Middle Passage, 231, 237 (see also slave trade)
migration, 249, 268, 321 (see also slave trade)
to Africa, 239–40
Africans, large numbers of, 224
age and sex composition of, 230, 263
from Americas to Europe, 270
comparative study of, 318
forced, 234–35, 318
to French colonies, 139–41
and mentalité of participants, 341
mortality in, 230
Native American, 209–10
relative size of, 341
to Spanish America, patterns of, 262–63
Minas Gerais, 92, 101, 268, 311
miscegenation, 55, 85
missions, 201–207 (see also Catholic Church, Roman)
in Canada, 14, 149–50
as means to Europeanize Native Americans, 142, 201–202
Protestant, 207
and proximity to water, 202
in Saint Domingue, 149
in Spanish America, 304
Mississippi River Valley, 46, 125, 141, 283
modern, concept of, 323
monarchy, universal decline of, 324
moral community, concept of, 226
Morocco, 81, 86–88, 329
mourning wars, 201, 205
Naçao, La, 11–12
Napoleonic Wars, 21, 42
Native Americans, 6, 191–212
autonomy within imperial structures, 143, 200–201, 207–10, 304
as “beasts” or “barbarians,” 59–60
competition between Europeans for loyalties of, 95, 125, 200
decimated in Brazil, 90
in French empire, 141–42, 198–200
geography and navigation, knowledge of, 39–40
history of, 192, 279–80
horses, importance of, 208–209
integration into history of British America, 121–23
and Jesuit Relations, 142
as mercenaries for European empires, 200
mutual protection arrangements with Europeans, 204
Pan-Indian movements, 210–11
and papal prohibition of slavery, 204
population decline of, 60, 141–42, 192, 209, 284–85
debates on reasons for, 206–207
linked to labor, 326–27
roles played in Americas, 192–93
social structure and organization, 192–96, 203–204
struggles over labor of, 206
suspicion of religious practices of, 196
tribute, payment of, 201
navigation, 39 (see also cartography; maps)
Dutch access to Spanish knowledge, 167
guides to, 38, 40, 42–46
knowledge as part of state formation, 42
Native American knowledge of, 39–40
Ndongo. See Angola
neo-Europeans, 192–94, 200
Neo-Marxist approach, 347–48
Netherlands, the
anti-Spanish propaganda, 125, 168–70, 172, 184n10
Brazil, used as a strategic base, 266
colonialism in, 173, 181
commercial initiatives with Spanish Empire, 168
England, war with, 166
France, conquered by, 166
imperial expansion, 172
publication of navigational guides, 42
as a republic, 163
Spain, revolt against, 165, 166–71, 253
Spanish news and publications, availability of, 167
success in East Indies, 172
trade of, 264
networks, 128
of commerce, 123, 126–27, 318–19, 325, 343–44
and European expansion, 322
of Portuguese trade, 97–98
of religion, 14
of science, 14–15
New England, 116–17, 118, 124, 130, 310
encounters with Native Americas, 122, 205
missionary activity in, 207
overemphasized in literature, 123
population of, 285
and religious dissidents, 254
trade with China, 289–90
Newfoundland, 38
cod fishing in, 12, 198
New France, 138, 202
Jesuits in, 204–205
Onontio, concept of, 200
New Granada, 68–69, 304, 310
New Holland, 173
New Mexico, 14, 72, 209, 210, 300
Jesuits in, 205
New Netherland, 173, 175, 176 (see also New York)
New Orleans, 73, 145
New Philology approach, 303
New Spain, 61–62, 202 (see also Mexico)
borderlands of, 196, 210, 310
economic vitality of, 258
and financing of wars, 257
mineral wealth of, 65, 197, 304
sheep pastoralism, emphasis over agriculture, 207–208
New Sweden, 207
New World Studies, Center for, John Carter Brown Library, 315n28
New York, 118, 285 (see also New Netherland)
North America, population of, 283–286, 290–91n1
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 57
North Carolina, 200–201, 341
Northwest Passage, 46–47, 252, 289
Nova Scotia, 210, 254, 312
Oaxaca, 62, 201
Ohio Valley, 125, 256
O’Rourke, Kevin H., 341, 347
Ottoman Empire, 88, 250, 252, 345
Pacific Ocean, 81
absent from early maps, 37
Atlantic as pathway to, 46–49
European exploration of, 287
knowledge about, lack of, 329
and Lewis and Clark expedition, 281
as site for research, 289
as a trading zone, 62
Pagden, Anthony, 16–17, 57
palm oil, 227
Paraguay, 72, 196, 203, 304
pays d’en haut, 199 (see also Middle Ground)
pearls, 198, 260
Pennsylvania, 118, 254, 285
Pernambuco, 101, 202–203
Peru, Viceroyalty of, 58, 60–62, 196, 212n1, 303, 310
Great Rebellion (1780–1783) in, 211
mineral wealth of, 261, 304
Peter the Great (tsar of Russia), 282, 287
Philip II (king of Spain, 1556–1598), 63, 167–68, 200, 252, 262
claim to Portuguese throne, 253
Philip III (king of Spain, 1598–1621), 63, 203, 254
Philip IV (king of Spain, 1621–1665), 63, 254
Philip V (king of Spain, 1700–1746), 63, 66, 74n1, 255
Philippine Islands, the, 46, 63, 202, 344
Pietschmann, Horst, 58, 164
Pizarro, Francisco, and conquest of Inca Empire, 55, 58, 195–96
Plakkaat van verlantinge (Dutch declaration of independence), 169
plantation culture, 120, 193
economy of, 268
slaves, used in, 263
Pontiac’s War (1763–1764), 211
Portugal
Africa, early exploration of, 258
Brazil, government transferred to, 100
Castile, rivalry with, 250
colonial bureaucracy of, 90–93, 99–101
colonial expansion, 94
commodity prices, decline of, 267
distinctiveness, 98–102
early conquests, 83
improvements in navigation, 42
and Jewish diaspora, 98–99
Native Americans, alliances with, 304
place of Atlantic in literature on, 102–104
Spain, revolt against (1640), 63, 254, 266–67
seaborne empire, concept of, 104
and slave trade, 267
Spain, union with, 77n34, 94, 203, 253–54, 265
Portuguese Atlantic, 81–104
ties between Africa and Brazil, 102
trade in Africa, 87–88, 90
Portuguese Empire
Angola, resistance by, 91
in Asia, 99
and the Atlantic Ocean, 96–98
revolts against, 101
in the South Atlantic, 89–96
Potosí, Villa Imperial de, 62, 65, 197
discovery of silver in, 60, 261
Price Revolution, 262
production modes, articulation of, 348–49
Protestantism
Calvinism, 169, 171, 198
militant, 112
Moravians, 207
Reformation, 304, 324
publishing, 37, 39, 43, 67
fictional works, 40–41
travel literature, 177–79
Pueblo Revolt (1680), 205, 283
Quebec, 140, 199, 205, 210
and French identity, 137, 153–54
Queen Anne’s War. See Spanish Succession, War of the
Quito, 62, 69
Raleigh, Walter, 117, 179, 184, 195
Recife, 90, 174
religious institutions, 148–49
republicanism, 126, 154
resistance (see also violence)
and fears of corruption, 69–70
through slave revolts, 230–31, 238
to slave trade, exceptionalism of, 228–29
resources, competition for, 207–10
rice trade, 343
Richter, Daniel, 281–82, 339
Rio de Janeiro, 90, 95, 97
as political and commercial center of Brazil, 102
Río de la Plata, 69, 97, 304, 310
creation of viceroyalty of, 68
Rivera-Batiz, Luis, 350–51
Romer, Paul M., 350–51
Royal African Company, 119, 284
Royal Navy, 43, 45
Royal Society of London, 43, 47
Russia, 282, 345
Alaska held by, 210, 287–88
eastward expansion, 286–87
and North American fur trade, 199
as rival to Spain on Pacific coast, 206
Sahara Desert
as coast of Africa, 347
slave trade across, 227, 230, 240
sailors, 36, 39
African, 41
cooperation with men of science, 43–44
scientific interest among, 43
Saint Domingue, 138, 151, 211 (see also Haiti)
as economic powerhouse, 125, 139, 143–45, 269, 311
emancipation of slaves (1793), 145
understudied pre-Revolution, 152
Salvador, 90, 97, 239
São Jorge da Mina, 86, 89, 95, 238
São Luis do Maranhão, 92, 101
São Paulo, 90, 92
São Paulo de Luanda, 91, 94, 95
São Tomé and Principé, 83, 223
city occupied by Dutch, 89, 95
miscegenation and creole mestiço population, 85
slave revolt in, 101
and the slave trade, 86
sugar cultivated in, 86
Savelle, Max, 300, 309
Schwartz, Stuart, 11, 301–302, 314n24
science, 15, 126–27
Scotland, 111, 127
overseas expeditions, 112
Poland, migration to, 342
Sebastião (king of Portugal), 88, 253
Senegambia
French outposts in, 149
Portuguese presence in, 89
slavery in, 229, 230
trade in, 224, 227
settlers, religious dissidents as, 254
Seven Years’ War, 151
and Atlantic integration, 119
importance for British Atlantic, 45–46, 114, 125
and India, 344
Paris, Peace of, 256, 344
and reconsideration of French colonial interests, 47, 143
settlement of, 256, 344
Seville, 61, 66, 77n29, 258, 263, 267
shatter zone, 200, 204
silk, 342
Silk Road, 349, 351
silver, 61–62, 260–61, 326
and China, 342, 346
discovery in Spanish America, 196–97
importance for Spanish empire, 42, 56
mined in Spanish America, 63, 65, 78n39, 205, 283
price of, 267
Slave Coast, 224, 229, 238 (see also Biafra, Bight of)
slavery
abolition of, 15–16
and Africa gun trade, 233
in British America, 118, 120–22, 130
and diversity of Spanish Empire, 71
experience of slaves in France, 157
in French Caribbean, 139, 151
and infrastructure for transporting people, 224
narratives of, 47
of Native Americans, 89–90, 193, 195, 200
and slave conception of American society, 236–37
in Spanish America, 64
slave trade, 21, 128, 322 (see also asiento)
abolition of, 15–16, 35, 48, 120–21
in Africa, 93–94, 231, 235, 238
African reasons for involvement in, 227–29
Atlantic importance of, 8–9
to Brazil, 95–96
British to Africa, 118–19
and commodities, 326–27
Dutch, 176
expansion of, 41, 62–63, 268
Portuguese historiography of, 103–104
Spanish involvement in, 42
textiles, importance of, 342
and trade goods, African preference for, 229–30
value quantified, 224
Sloane, Sir Hans, 328, 335n26
smallpox, 192, 210
Smith, Captain John: 179, 195, 302
Smollett, Tobias, and The Adventures of Roderick Random, 40–41
Society of Jesus, 14, 61, 197 (see also Catholic Church, Roman; Jesuit Relations)
agricultural experimentation in Brazil, 99
arrival in Brazil, 198, 202–203
expelled from European Atlantic empires, 206
expulsion from Spain, 69
in Florida, 204
in French colonies, 142, 200, 204–205
granted control of Native American affairs by Portugal, 204
influence in Brazil, 92
settlement of São Paulo, 90
in Spanish colonies, 205–206
South America
Dutch presence in, 173
population density of, 197
“Tierra Firme,” 258, 261
South Carolina, 118, 238, 341, 343
and deerskin trade, 199
Spain
Bourbon dynasty, ruled by, 255
Catalonia, revolt by, 63
colonial bureaucracy of, 55–56, 61–64, 66–71, 201, 304
colonies, population of (1700), 284
Constitution of 1812, 70
Dutch Revolt, 165, 166, 167–71
economic collapse in early nineteenth century, 70–71
England, rivalry with, 252–53
Indies, Council of the, 60, 78n44
Marina e Indias, Secretaría de (Ministry of Marine and the Indies), 78–79n44
navigation, improvements in, 42, 44
Portugal, rivalry with, 88, 250–51
Portugal, union with, 77n34, 94, 203, 253–54, 265
relations with Native Americans, 14, 193
Trade, Board of, 60
Spanish Atlantic, 55–73
literature on, 71–73
as self-sufficient entity, 327–28
Spanish Empire, 10–11, 17, 19
activity in the Pacific Ocean, 46
Bourbon reforms of, 255
British Empire, compared to, 309–10, 330
convoys and escorts, used in trade, 258–59
diversity of, 56, 71
early organization of, 58–62
Habsburg hegemony, basis for, 252
literature on, 56–58
Native American empires, conquest of, 195–96
profits from transatlantic trade, 268
social hierarchies within, 55–56, 64
sources on, 286
economic order, structure of, 63, 65
taxation, evasion of, 261, 269
trade value, estimated, 259–60
wars of independence from, 21, 70, 257, 320
Spanish Succession, War of the
Atlantic influence on, 255
and decline of Spain, 63, 66, 78n35, 204
spheres of influence, 328–29
spice trade, 342
state formation, 42–45, 233–34
Atlantic exploration, influence on, 251–54
stateless societies, 236
state power, 41–45, 172–73
in Africa, 226, 228, 234
States General, 169, 172
St. Augustine, 204, 238
Stein, Stanley and Barbara, and dependency paradigm, 56–58
sugar, 259, 326
in fiction, 41
in French Caribbean, 143–44
in Portuguese Atlantic, 84, 86, 92, 96, 266
and price speculation, 265–67
production of, 173, 198, 251
trade of, 42, 173
technology, uses of, 207–209
Texas, 14, 205–206, 210, 300
and dyestuffs, demand for, 260
African trade, importance to, 229, 232–33, 342
Thirty Years’ War, 66, 254
timber, 326
as crop in Brazil, 90
trade of, 198, 265
tobacco, 326
African market for, 95, 226, 229, 232–33
cultivation of, 266
price of, 267
Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 83, 198, 251
trade
Africa, conventions in, 225–30
Africa, routes in, 224, 231
Africa, value in, 233
in Atlantic basin, 8, 83–84, 325–26
Atlantic exploration, importance for, 257–58
circuits of, 346, 350
clandestine, 97, 173, 261–62, 267, 328
contraband, 66, 69, 95, 143–44
Dutch Atlantic, minimal state control in, 175
intra-European, 318–19, 342
and migration, 318
re-export, 325–26
regions favored by geography for, 97–98
regulation of, 56, 61–62
by Spain in Pacific, 283
value of, 258, 264–65
Tropical History Program, University of Wisconsin, 315n27
trust, 225–26
Túpac Amaru II, 69, 211
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 281–82
Turner, Joseph Mallord William, and “Slave Ship,” 48
Twelve Years’ Truce, 166, 168, 171
UNESCO, funding for histories, 309
United Provinces. See Netherlands, the
United States, 113, 121 (see also American Revolution)
colonial history, paradox of, 279–80
exceptionalism of, 320
historians of, 128
Louisiana, purchase of, 145
Mexico, division of North America with, 211
prenational history of, 300–301, 312
Usselincx, Willem, 170–71, 172
Utrecht, Treaty of, 66, 166, 344
Vancouver, George, 289
venal officeholding
abolition of, 67–68
and corruption, 64
Venezuela, 65, 198, 304, 310
Vickers, Daniel, 12–13, 40
violence, 69–70, 127, 194 (see also resistance)
as means of resistance for Native Americans, 89–90, 119, 197–205, 211
by slaves, 238
Virginia, 179, 210, 285, 310
interactions with Native Americans, 122, 200–201
Native American massacre (1622), 127
settlement of, 117, 125, 254
Vizcaíno, Sebastián, 282, 288
V.O.C. See United East India Company
Wallerstein, Immanuel, 267, 270, 347–48
Western Design, of Oliver Cromwell, 254–55
West India Company, Dutch, 95, 164–65, 166, 171–75, 203
collapse because of mismanagement and debt, 176
re-creation and resurgence, 176–77
revolt by Portuguese planters in Brazil, 176
West Indies, British, 117, 123–24
Westphalia, Treaty of (1648), 66, 166
whaling, 39, 84, 289
White, Richard, 122, 143 (see also Middle Ground)
William of Orange (r. 1544–1584), 169, 170, 174
Windward Coast, 229
wines and spirits, 265
in Africa, 226, 232–33
from Brazil, 95
trade of, 13
world history, Atlantic as subsection of, 130
world systems, 346–48
yerba maté, 197, 203
Yucatán Peninsula, 62, 196