NOTES
Introduction
1
.
As a result of this dual focus on uses, there is an intentional duality in the book’s use of the term “culture,” which is further explained later in the introduction.
2
.
Frans Mäyrä, “Getting into the Game: Doing Multidisciplinary Game Studies,” in
The Video Game Theory Reader 2
, ed. Bernard Perron and Mark J. P. Wolf (New York: Routledge, 2009), 319.
3
.
Larissa Hjorth and Dean Chan, “Locating the Game: Gaming Cultures in/and the Asia-Pacific,” in
Gaming Cultures and Place in Asia-Pacific
, ed. Larissa Hjorth and Dean Chan (New York: Routledge, 2009), 2–5.
4
.
Gonzalo Frasca, “Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology,” in
The Video Game Theory Reader
, ed. Wolf and Perron, 222.
5
.
Steven E. Jones,
The Meaning of Video Games: Gaming and Textual Strategies
(New York: Routledge, 2008), 5.
6
.
Tara McPherson, “Self, Other and Electronic Media,” in
The New Media Book
, ed. Dan Harries (London: British Film Institute, 2002), 183–194.
8
.
Johan Huizinga,
Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1955 [1944]), 8.
10
.
Roger Caillois,
Man, Play and Games
, trans. M. Barash (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001 [1958]), 7.
12
.
Edward Castronova,
Synthetic Worlds: The Business and Culture of Online Games
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 147–148.
13
.
Jones,
The Meaning of Video Games
, 69.
14
.
Celia Pearce,
Communities of Play: Emergent Cultures in Multiplayer Games and Virtual Worlds
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 178.
15
.
For a discussion of the term “gamespace,” see, among others, McKenzie Wark,
Gamer Theory
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), sect. 66. With regard to space in games, Wark concludes: “What topology yields is not a cyberspace but a gamespace. The idea of cyberspace is still too linked to images from the world of radio and television, of flow and ‘seamless’ movement, of access and excess, of lines running anywhere and everywhere. Topology is experienced more as a gamespace than a cyberspace: full of restrictions and hierarchies, firewalls and passwords. It is more like a bounded game than a free space of play. Once again: If it is free, it is valueless. Those odd lines within topology where anything goes are the ones of no consequence.”
17
.
Espen J. Aarseth, “Genre Trouble: Narrativism and the Art of Simulation,” in
First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game
, ed. Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Pat Harrigan (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), 47.
19
.
Frans Mäyrä,
An Introduction to Game Studies: Games in Culture
(London: Sage, 2008), 14.
20
.
Jesper Juul,
Half-Real: Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 6–7, 36. Juul offers the following definition: “A game is a rule-based system with a variable and quantifiable outcome, where different outcomes are assigned different values, the player exerts effort in order to influence the outcome, the player feels emotionally attached to the outcome, and the consequences of the activity are negotiable” (36).
21
.
Aarseth, “Genre Trouble,” 47–48.
22
.
Alexander R. Galloway,
Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic Culture
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 1.
23
.
Unless otherwise noted, all emphasis in textual citations is from the original text. Jane McGonigal,
Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World
(New York: Penguin, 2011), 21.
24
.
Néstor García Canclini,
Consumers and Citizens
, trans. G. Yúdice (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001 [1995]), 15.
25
.
Unless otherwise noted, all translations from Spanish and Portuguese to English in this book are my own. Néstor García Canclini,
Cultura y comunicación: Entre lo global y lo local
(La Plata, Argentina: Periodismo y Comunicación, 1997), 37.
26
.
George Yúdice, “New Social and Business Models in Latin American Musics,” in
Consumer Culture in Latin America
, ed. John Sinclair and Anna Cristina Pertierra (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 17.
27
.
Theodor W. Adorno, “Culture Industry Reconsidered,” in
The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture
(New York: Routledge, 1991 [1963]), 103.
28
.
Walter Benjamin,
Illuminations
, trans. H. Zohn (New York: Schocken Books, 2007 [1955]), 221.
29
.
Fredric Jameson,
The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern, 1983–1998
(London: Verso, 1998), 144.
30
.
Fredric Jameson,
The Geopolitical Aesthetic: Cinema and Space in the World System
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 212–213.
31
.
Anthony Giddens,
The Consequences of Modernity
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), 22.
32
.
Pierre Lévy,
Becoming Virtual: Reality in the Digital Age
(New York: Plenum, 1998), 162.
33
.
Arjun Appadurai,
Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization
(New York: Routledge, 1996), 48.
34
.
Manuel Castells,
The Rise of the Network Society
(Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1996), 375.
35
.
Lev Manovich,
The Language of New Media
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 46.
36
.
Mäyrä,
Introduction to Game Studies
, 13–14.
37
.
James Paul Gee,
What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy
, 2nd ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 17.
38
.
Mäyrä,
Introduction to Game Studies
, 21.
39
.
Popol Vuh
, English version by Delia Goetz and Sylvanus G. Morley, from the Spanish translation by Adrián Recinos (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950 [1701]), 79–84.
40
.
Jesper Juul,
A Casual Revolution: Reinventing Video Games and Their Players
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), 5.
43
.
Bernardino de Sahagún,
General History of the Things of New Spain
, trans. A. Anderson and C. Dibble, part 9, book 8, chapter 10 (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research, 1954 [1577]), 29–30.
45
.
Sahagún,
General History
, 29.
49
.
Jorge Luis Borges,
Ficciones
(Buenos Aires: Emecé, 1996 [1944]).
50
.
Janet H. Murray,
Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), 30.
51
.
Janet H. Murray, “Inventing the Medium,” in
The New Media Reader
, ed. Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Monfort (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), 3.
52
.
Manovich,
The Language of New Media
, 225.
53
.
Espen J. Aarseth,
Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 8.
54
.
Gordon Calleja,
In-Game: From Immersion to Incorporation
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011).
55
.
Nick Montfort, “Introduction: The Garden of Forking Paths,” in
The New Media Reader
, ed. Wardrip-Fruin and Monfort, 29.
56
.
Julio Cortázar,
Hopscotch
, trans. G. Rabassa (New York: Pantheon, 1966 [1963]).
57
.
Montfort, “Introduction,” 29.
58
.
Nick Montfort,
Twisty Little Passages
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), 71.
59
.
David Alfaro Siqueiros, Antonio Berni, Lino Eneas Spilimbergo, Juan C. Castagnino, and Enrique Lázaro, “Ejercicio plástico” (1933), in Mari Carmen Ramírez and Héctor Olea,
Heterotopías: Medio siglo sin lugar, 1918/1968
(Madrid: Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, 2000), 477.
60
.
Augusto Boal,
Theater of the Oppressed
(London: Pluto, 2000 [1979]), xx–xxi.
61
.
Jay David Bolter, “Digital Media and the Future of Filmic Narrative,” in
The Oxford Handbook of Film and Media Studies
, ed. Robert Kolker (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 25.
62
.
Juul,
Half-Real
, 72–73.
64
.
Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin,
Remediation
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999), 15.
67
.
Tom Boellstorff, “A Ludicrous Discipline? Ethnography and Game Studies,”
Games and Culture
1, no. 1 (2006): 31–32.
68
.
McPherson, “Self, Other and Electronic Media,” 192.
69
.
David Golumbia, “Computers and Cultural Studies,” in
The Oxford Handbook of Film and Media Studies
, ed. Kolker, 509.
70
.
Larissa Hjorth,
Games and Gaming: An Introduction to New Media
(New York: Berg, 2011), 6.
71
.
Mäyrä,
Introduction to Game Studies
, 24.
72
.
Stuart Hall, “Cultural Identity and Cinematic Representation,” in
Film and Theory: An Anthology
, ed. Robert Stam and Toby Miller (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 714.
73
.
See, for example, Tom Boellstorf, Bonnie Nardi, Celia Pearce, and T. L. Taylor, eds.,
Ethnography and Virtual Worlds: A Handbook of Method
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012).
74
.
See, for example, Henry Jenkins,
Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers: Exploring Participatory Culture
(New York: New York University Press, 2006); and Pearce,
Communities of Play
.
75
.
See, for example, Jesús Martín-Barbero,
Communication, Culture and Hegemony: From the Media to Mediations
, trans. E. Fox and R. A. White (London: Sage, 1993 [1987]); García Canclini,
Consumers and Citizens
; Beatriz Sarlo,
Scenes from Postmodern Life
, trans. J. Beasley-Murray (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001 [1994]); George Yúdice,
The Expediency of Culture: Uses of Culture in the Global Era
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2003); Rubén Gallo,
Mexican Modernity: The Avant-Garde and the Technological Revolution
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005).
76
.
See, for example, Beth E. Kolko, Lisa Nakamura, and Gilbert B. Rodman, eds.,
Race in Cyberspace
(New York: Routledge, 2000); Lisa Nakamura,
Cybertypes: Race, Ethnicity, and Identity on the Internet
(New York: Routledge, 2002); Christopher McGahan,
Racing Cyberculture: Minoritarian Art and Cultural Politics on the Internet
(New York: Routledge, 2008).
77
.
Anthony Sze-Fai Shiu, “What Yellowface Hides: Video Games, Whiteness, and the American Racial Order,”
Journal of Popular Culture
39, no. 1 (2006): 109.
78
.
Nakamura,
Cybertypes
, 40.
81
.
McGahan,
Racing Cyberculture
, 83–84.
82
.
Dean Chan, “Playing with Race: The Ethics of Racialized Representations in E-Games,”
International Review of Information Ethics
4 (2005): 25.
83
.
Vit Sisler, “Digital Arabs: Representation in Video Games,”
European Journal of Cultural Studies
11, no. 2 (2008): 205.
84
.
Manovich,
The Language of New Media
, 333.
85
.
Jon Dovey and Helen W. Kennedy,
Game Cultures: Computer Games as New Media
(Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press, 2006), 147.
86
.
Yuri Takhteyev,
Coding Places: Software Practice in a South American City
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 2.
87
.
McGahan,
Racing Cyberculture
, 76.
88
.
Sarlo,
Scenes from Postmodern Life
, 40.
90
.
Beatriz Sarlo,
La ciudad vista: Mercancías y cultura urbana
(Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 2009), 90.
91
.
García Canclini,
Consumers and Citizens
, 95–96.
92
.
Néstor García Canclini,
Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity
, trans. R. Rosaldo (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995 [1990]), 65.
93
.
Martín Hopenhayn, “Globalization and Culture: Five Approaches to a Single Text,” in
Cultural Politics in Latin America
, ed. Anny Brooksbank Jones and Ronaldo Munck (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 154.
94
.
Jesús Martín-Barbero, “Pensar nuestra globalizada modernidad. Desencantos de la sociedad y reencantamientos de la identidad,”
Iberoamericana
8, no. 30 (2008): 149.
95
.
Gareth Williams,
The Other Side of the Popular: Neoliberalism and Subalternity in Latin America
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 131.
96
.
Shirin Shenassa, “The Lack of Materiality in Latin American Media Theory,” in
Latin American Literature and Mass Media
, ed. Edmundo Paz-Soldán and Debra A. Castillo (New York: Garland, 2001), 265.
97
.
Diana Taylor,
The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 277.
98
.
Heidi Tinsman and Sandhya Shukla, eds.,
Imagining Our Americas: Toward a Transnational Frame
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2007).
99
.
José David Saldívar,
Trans-Americanity: Subaltern Modernities, Global Coloniality, and the Cultures of Greater Mexico
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2012).
100
.
Néstor García Canclini,
Latinoamericanos buscando lugar en este siglo
(Buenos Aires: Paidós, 2002), 61.
102
.
John Beverley,
Latinamericanism after 9/11
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2011), 71.
Chapter 1
1
.
Johan Huizinga,
Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1955 [1944]), 173.
3
.
Roger Caillois,
Man, Play and Games
, trans. M. Barash (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001 [1958]), 59.
4
.
Roland Barthes,
Image, Music, Text
, trans. S. Heath (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), 162.
5
.
Miguel Sicart, “Against Procedurality,”
Game Studies
11, no. 3 (2011).
6
.
Janet H. Murray,
Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), 153.
7
.
Néstor Garcia Canclini,
Lectores, espectadores e internautas
(Barcelona: Gedisa, 2007), 32.
8
.
Lev Manovich,
The Language of New Media
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 210.
9
.
Alexander R. Galloway,
Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic Culture
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 2.
10
.
Gordon Calleja,
In-Game: From Immersion to Incorporation
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 55.
11
.
Martti Lahti, “As We Become Machines: Corporealized Pleasures in Video Games,” in
The Video Game Theory Reader
, ed. Mark J. P. Wolf and Bernard Perron (New York: Routledge, 2003), 158.
13
.
Galloway,
Gaming
, 4.
15
.
J. L. Austin, “How to Do Things with Words (Lecture II),” in
The Performance Studies Reader
, 2nd ed., ed. Henry Bial (New York: Routledge, 2007), 177.
16
.
J. R. Searle, “What Is a Speech Act?,” in
The Philosophy of Language
, ed. J. R. Searle (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 39.
17
.
Judith Butler, “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory,” in
The Performance Studies Reader
, ed. Bial, 197.
19
.
Mia Consalvo,
Cheating: Gaining Advantage in Video Games
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007), 95.
20
.
James Paul Gee,
What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 83.
21
.
Richard Schechner,
Performance Studies: An Introduction
, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2013), 89.
22
.
Diana Taylor, “Translating Performance,” in
The Performance Studies Reader
, ed. Bial, 382.
23
.
Murray,
Hamlet on the Holodeck,
143.
24
.
Jane McGonigal,
Reality Is Broken
:
Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World
(New York: Penguin, 2011), 4.
25
.
Schechner,
Performance Studies
, 290.
26
.
Calleja,
In-Game
, 1.
28
.
Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Jonas Heide Smith, and Susana Pajares Tosca, eds.,
Understanding Video Games: The Essential Introduction
, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2013), 140.
30
.
Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska,
Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders: Videogame Forms and Contexts
(New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006), 76.
32
.
Gee,
What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy
, 142.
34
.
Calleja,
In-Game
, 181. For further discussion of cognitive mapping in video games, see
chapter 5
.
35
.
Mark Prensky, “Computer Games and Learning: Digital Game-Based Learning,” in
Handbook of Computer Game Studies
, ed. Joost Raessens and Jeffrey Goldstein (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 107.
41
.
See
chapters 3
and
4
for discussions of
Papo & Yo
as an example of independent Latin American game design abroad and the use of the favela as a gamespace, respectively.
42
.
Mark Griffiths, “The Therapeutic Value of Video Games,” in
Handbook of Computer Game Studies
, ed. Raessens and Goldstein, 165.
44
.
Larissa Hjorth,
Games and Gaming: An Introduction to New Media
(New York: Berg, 2011), 103.
45
.
Héctor Óscar González Seguí, “Veinticinco años de videojuegos en México. Las mercancías tecnoculturales y la globalización económica,”
Comunicación y Sociedad
38 (2000): 105–106. See also Daniel Madrid and Jonathan Valenzuela,
Chile Game
, YouTube video, 00:02:51. Posted 2 March 2013,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vKESbojym5k
.
46
.
González Seguí, “Veinticinco años,” 105–106.
48
.
Eduardo Marisca, “Buscando un
gamer
: Reconstruyendo la historia del videojuego peruano,”
Pozo de letras
11, no. 11 (2013): 20–21.
50
.
“A história dos video games no Brasil–ACIGAMES.”
51
.
Gonzalo Frasca, “Latin America,” in
Encyclopedia of Video Games: The Culture, Technology, and Art of Gaming
, ed. Mark J. P. Wolf (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2012), 355–356.
53
.
Madrid and Valenzuela,
Chile Game
, 00:03:04.
55
.
Ibid., 00:05:01; piracy is further discussed later in this chapter.
56
.
Néstor García Canclini,
Consumers and Citizens
, trans. G. Yúdice (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001 [1995]), 100.
57
.
Jesús Martín-Barbero,
Communication, Culture and Hegemony: From the Media to Mediations
, trans. E. Fox and R. A. White (London: Sage, 1993 [1987]), 183.
58
.
Madrid and Valenzuela,
Chile Game
, 00:12:27.
59
.
González Seguí, “Veinticinco años,” 117.
65
.
Luis Wong, “Feeling Blue,”
Killscreendaily.com
, 5 August 2011, accessed 6 July 2015, http://killscreendaily.com/articles/feeling-blue/.
67
.
Frasca, “Latin America,” 356. Game production in Latin America, rather than consumption, is discussed in
chapter 3
.
68
.
Madrid and Valenzuela,
Chile Game
, 00:04:37.
70
.
Wong, “Feeling Blue.”
75
.
Viviana Celso, “El lenguaje de los videojuegos: Sus pliegues y recortes en las prácticas sociales,”
Novedades Educativas
185 (2006): 75.
77
.
Eduardo Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds: Gaming, Technology and Innovation in Peru,” master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, June 2014, 62–63, accessed 16 July 2014,
http://marisca.pe/files/EM-DGW-Final.pdf
.
79
.
Guillermo Gómez-Peña, “Culturas-in-Extremis: Performing Against the Cultural Backdrop of the Mainstream Bizarre,” in
The Performance Studies Reader
, ed. Bial, 348.
80
.
Miguel Sicart,
The Ethics of Computer Games
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 62.
82
.
King and Krzywinska,
Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders
, 172.
83
.
Néstor García Canclini,
Diferentes, desiguales y desconectados. Mapas de la interculturalidad
(Barcelona: Gedisa, 2004), 161.
85
.
Javier Jerjes Loayza, “Los videojuegos on-line en Latinoamérica: impacto en las redes sociales y de consumo,”
Icono 14
8, no. 11 (2009): 170.
91
.
Arturo Peña, “El mercado de los videojuegos está mirando hacia América Latina,”
La Nación
(Buenos Aires, Argentina), 11 July 2012, accessed 16 July 2014, http://www.lanacion.com.py/articulo/80406-el-mercado-de-los-videojuegos-esta-mirando-hacia-america-latina.html.
92
.
“Los
gamers
, cosa de adultos.”
94
.
New Zoo, “Infographic: The Brazilian Games Market.”
95
.
Helena Lozano Galarza, “La industria de los videojuegos en América Latina,”
Newsweek en Español
, 4 October 2012, accessed 25 April 2013, http://www.newsweek.mx/index.php/articulo/615#.UXlibit34t0. See also Peña, “El mercado de los videojuegos.”
96
.
Global Collect, “The Changing Payment Landscape in LATAM.”
101
.
New Zoo, “Infographic: The Brazilian Games Market.”
105
.
Alison Cathles, Gustavo Crespi, and Matteo Grazzi, “The Region’s Place in the Digital World: A Tale of Three Divides,” in
Development Connections: Unveiling the Impact of New Information Technologies
, ed. Alberto Chong (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 31.
106
.
Judith Mariscal, Carla Bonina, and Julio Luna, “New Market Scenarios in Latin America,” in
Digital Poverty: Latin American and Caribbean Perspectives
, ed. Hernan Galperin and Judith Mariscal (Ottawa: International Development Research Center, 2007), 76.
108
.
Cathles, Crespi, and Grazzi, “The Region’s Place,” 48.
110
.
Samuel Berlinski, Matías Busso, Julian Cristiá, and Eugenio Severín, “Computers in Schools: Why Governments Should Do Their Homework,” in
Development Connections
, ed. Chong, 183.
113
.
Kelly Samara Silva et al., “Changes in Television Viewing and Computers/Videogames Use Among High School Students in Southern Brazil between 2001 and 2011,”
International Journal of Public Health
59, no. 1 (2014): 79–85.
115
.
Manuel Castells,
Communication Power
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 63.
116
.
Lozano Galarza, “La industria.”
119
.
Global Collect, “The Changing Payment Landscape in LATAM.”
125
.
Castells,
Communication Power
, 414.
126
.
McGonigal,
Reality Is Broken
, 226.
128
.
Róger Almanza G., “Juegos que controlan,”
La Prensa
(Managua, Nicaragua), 16 September 2012, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.laprensa.com.ni/busqueda.php?cx=005977259475418635108%3Arwlxrw1v5gm&ie=UTF-8&cof=FORID%3A10&q=juegos+que+controlan&sa.x=0&sa.y=0&sa=Buscar.
133
.
Huizinga,
Homo Ludens
, 173.
Chapter 2
1
.
Jesper Juul,
A Casual Revolution: Reinventing Video Games and Their Players
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), 151.
2
.
Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin,
Remediation
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999), 99–100.
3
.
Christopher A. Paul,
Wordplay and the Discourse of Video Games: Analyzing Words, Design, and Play
(New York: Routledge, 2012), 98–99.
4
.
Theodor W. Adorno, “Culture Industry Reconsidered,” in
The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture
(New York: Routledge, 1991 [1963]), 85.
5
.
Alexander R. Galloway,
Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic Culture
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 71.
6
.
Judd Ethan Ruggill and Ken S. McAllister,
Gaming Matters: Art, Science, Magic, and the Computer Game Medium
(Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2011), 63.
7
.
Matthew Thomas Payne, “Marketing Military Realism in Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare,”
Games and Culture
7, no. 4 (2012): 310.
8
.
Daniel Borunda, “Juárez Mayor Calls New Video Game ‘Despicable,’”
El Paso Times
(El Paso, Texas), 9 March 2007, accessed 27 May 2013, http://www.elpasotimes.com/news/ci_5390403.
10
.
Claire F. Fox,
The Fence and the River: Culture and Politics at the U.S.-Mexico Border
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 92.
11
.
Fernando Romero/Lar,
Hyperborder: The Contemporary U.S.-Mexico Border and Its Future
(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2008), 143.
14
.
“Game Set on Mexican Border.”
16
.
Unless otherwise noted, estimates of specific games’ sales numbers are cited from the website VGChartz, accessed 7 July 2015,
http://www.vgchartz.com/
.
18
.
Hugo Chávez,“Aló, Presidente No. 348,” Transcripciones del Aló Presidente, 17 January 2008, accessed 7 July 2011, http://www.alopresidente.gob.ve/materia_alo/25/8507/?desc=348_alopresidentefilas_de_ma.pdf.
19
.
See for example, coverage by the Honduran newspaper
El Heraldo
, which inaccurately reports: “The controversy arises when the player must kill Hugo Chávez, the leader of that nation absorbed in violence, according to Pandemic Studios, creator of the game.” “PlayStation es un ‘veneno’: Hugo Chávez,”
El Heraldo
(Tegucigalpa, Honduras), 18 January 2010, accessed 7 July 2011,
http://blogs.elheraldo.hn/bloqueinteractivo/2010/01/18/playstation-es-un-veneno-hugo-chavez/
.
21
.
Asamblea Nacional de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela, “Ley para la prohibición de videojuegos bélicos y juguetes bélicos,” 3 December 2009, accessed 6 July 2011, http://www.asambleanacional.gov.ve/uploads/leyes/2009-10-29/doc_2ee23380d32975c898c352c12106fd34548142ba.pdf.
22
.
Secretaría General de la Asamblea Nacional de Panamá, “Ley que prohíbe los videojuegos bélicos o de violencia y los juegos bélicos y se dictan otras disposiciones,” 12 January 2011, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.asamblea.gob.pa/actualidad/anteproyectos/2010_2111/2011_A_111.pdf; see also Luis Miranda, “Ahora Panamá busca regular la venta de videojuegos,”
Niubie.com
, 28 January 2011, accessed 7 July 2015,
https://www.niubie.com/2011/01/ahora-panama-busca-regular-la-venta-de-videojuegos/
.
24
.
Alejandra Di Brino, “La cosa de los videojuegos venezolanos,”
Tendencia.com
, 23 April 2014, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.tendencia.com/2014/la-cosa-de-los-videojuegos-venezolanos/.
30
.
In video games, the concept of “skinning” refers to changing the aesthetic or presentational image of a game, while maintaining its essential underlying code and functions intact. See Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost,
Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 104–105. Skinning is further discussed in
chapter 5
.
32
.
For further discussion of the portrayal of Cuban culture in
Ghost Recon: Island Thunder
, see Rafael Miguel Montes, “
Ghost Recon: Island Thunder
: Cuba in the Virtual Battlescape,” in
The Players’ Realm: Studies on the Culture of Video Games and Gaming
, ed. J. Patrick Williams and Jonas Heide Smith (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2007), 154–170.
35
.
Miguel Sicart,
The Ethics of Computer Games
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 198–199.
39
.
Ian Bogost,
Unit Operations: An Approach to Videogame Criticism
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 120.
40
.
Néstor García Canclini,
Consumers and Citizens
, trans. G. Yúdice (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001 [1995]), 15.
41
.
Miguel Sicart, “Values between Systems: Designing Ethical Gameplay,” in
Ethics and Game Design: Teaching Values through Play
, ed. Karen Schrier and David Gibson (New York: Information Science Reference, 2010), 7.
43
.
Ian Bogost,
Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Videogames
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 3.
44
.
Gonzalo Frasca, “Videogames of the Oppressed: Critical Thinking, Education, Tolerance, and Other Trivial Issues,” in
First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game
, ed. Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Pat Harrigan (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 88.
46
.
Sicart,
The Ethics of Computer Games
, 43.
47
.
Bogost,
Unit Operations
, 119.
48
.
Bogost,
Persuasive Games
, 88.
49
.
Patrick Crogan,
Gameplay Mode: War, Simulation, and Technoculture
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011), 152.
53
.
Nick Montfort,
Twisty Little Passages
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003), viii–xi.
54
.
Espen J. Aarseth,
Cybertext
:
Perspectives on Ergodic Literature
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 1–5.
56
.
Henry Jenkins,
Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers: Exploring Participatory Culture
(New York: New York University Press, 2006), 220.
58
.
Osvaldo Cleger, “Procedural Rhetoric and Undocumented Migrants: Playing the Debate over Immigration Reform,”
Digital Cultures and Education
7, no. 1 (2015): 21–22.
60
.
Claire Taylor, “Monopolies and Maquiladoras: The Resistant Re-encoding of Gaming in Coco Fusco and Ricardo Domínguez’s
Turista Fronterizo
,”
Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research
18, no. 2 (2012): 163.
61
.
Rita Raley, “Border Hacks: The Risks of Tactical Media,” in
Risk and the War on Terror
, ed. Louise Amoore and Marieke de Goede (New York: Routledge, 2008), 212.
62
.
Bogost,
Persuasive Games
, 340.
Chapter 3
1
.
José Donoso,
Historia personal del Boom
(Barcelona: Anagrama, 1972), 11–15.
2
.
Raymond Leslie Williams,
The Twentieth-Century Spanish American Novel
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003), 126.
3
.
Jean Franco,
The Decline and Fall of the Lettered City: Latin America in the Cold War
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 159.
4
.
Espen J. Aarseth, “The Game and Its Name: What Is a Game Auteur?,” in
Visual Authorship: Creativity and Intentionality in Media
, ed. Torben Grodal, Bente Larsen, and Iben Thorving Laursen (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2004), 268–269.
5
.
See, for example, “Los videojuegos argentinos conquistan el mundo con goles y héroes virtuales,”
Clarín
(Buenos Aires, Argentina), 18 September 2011, accessed 10 April 2013,
http://www.clarin.com/sociedad/titulo_0_556744441.html
; or “NicaBird te invita a volar,”
Radionicaragua.com
, 10 May 2014, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.radionicaragua.com.ni/noticias/ver/titulo:8423-nicabird-te-invita-a-volar-.
6
.
“La industria de videojuegos en Argentina: Un análisis en base a la Segunda Encuesta Nacional a empresas desarrolladoras de videojuegos,” Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Económico Metropolitano (2010), accessed 11 July 2015, http://comex.mdebuenosaires.gov.ar/contenido/objetos/inforvj.pdf, 7.
7
.
In a 2007 study based on data gathered in 2003, Roxana Barrantes found that nearly three-quarters of Peruvian households were “Extremely Digitally Poor” (as opposed to 18.1 percent economically categorized as “Extremely Poor”). See Roxana Barrantes, “Analysis of ICT Demand: What Is Digital Poverty and How to Measure It?,” in
Digital Poverty: Latin American and Caribbean Perspectives
, ed. Hernan Galperin and Judith Mariscal (Ottawa: International Development Research Center, 2007).
9
.
Eduardo Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds: Gaming, Technology and Innovation in Peru,” master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, June 2014, accessed 16 July 2014,
http://marisca.pe/files/EM-DGW-Final.pdf
, 213.
10
.
Jesús Martín Barbero, “Between Technology and Culture: Communication and Modernity in Latin America,” in
Cultural Agency in the Americas
, ed. Doris Sommer (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), 43.
11
.
Yuri Takhteyev,
Coding Places: Software Practice in a South American City
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 42–43.
14
.
Larissa Hjorth,
Games and Gaming: An Introduction to New Media
(New York: Berg, 2011), 6, 103.
15
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 167.
16
.
“Videojuego argentino ganó el premio de la innovación en el Festival de Videojuegos Independientes,” Ecetia, 8 March 2012, accessed 16 July 2014,
http://ecetia.com/2012/03/videojuego-argentino-gana-premio-a-la-innovacion-en-el-festival-de-videojuegos-independientes
. For further analysis of Benmergui’s games, see Phillip Penix-Tadsen, “Latin American Game Design and the Narrative Tradition,” in
Technology, Literature, and Digital Culture in Latin America: Mediatized Sensibilities in a Globalized Era
, ed. Matthew Bush and Tania Gentic (New York: Routledge, 2015).
18
.
Jorge Luis Borges, “The Argentine Writer and Tradition,” in
Jorge Luis Borges: Selected Nonfictions
, trans. and ed. Eliot Weinberger (New York: Viking, 1999 [1951]), 427.
21
.
Cited in Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 134.
23
.
Fabiola Chambi, “‘Hooligan Alone,’ un videojuego boliviano de exportación,”
Los Tiempos
(Cochabamba, Bolivia), 18 June 2014, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.lostiempos.com/diario/actualidad/vida-y-futuro/20140618/hooligan-alone-un-videojuego-boliviano-de_263179_576062.html.
24
.
Jairo Lugo, Tony Sampson, and Merlyn Lossada, “Latin America’s New Cultural Industries Still Play Old Games: From the Banana Republic to Donkey Kong,”
Game Studies
2, no. 2 (2002), accessed 9 July 2015,
http://www.gamestudies.org/0202/lugo/
.
27
.
“Industry Profile: Creative Industries in Mexico,” PROMÉXICO Trade and Investment, 2013, accessed 10 April 2013, http://mim.promexico.gob.mx/wb/mim/ind_perfil_del_sector.
28
.
Jairo Lugo-Ocando, ed.,
The Media in Latin America
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 1.
30
.
“Top 100 Countries.”
32
.
“La industria de videojuegos en Argentina” (2010), 31.
34
.
“La industria de videojuegos en Argentina” (2010), 6, 11.
37
.
“La industria de videojuegos en la Argentina” (2012), 5, 14.
38
.
“La industria de videojuegos en Argentina” (2010), 8, 25, 36.
39
.
“La industria de videojuegos en la Argentina” (2012), 22.
40
.
“La industria de videojuegos en Argentina” (2010), 6.
43
.
Ariel and Enrique Arbiser, email message to the author, 25 February 2015.
45
.
Ricardo Vinicius Ferraz de Souza, “Video Game Localization: The Case of Brazil,”
TradTerm, São Paulo
, 19 (2012): 305.
49
.
For a thorough discussion of localization practices, see Miguel Á. Bernal-Merino,
Translation and Localization in Video Games: Making Entertainment Global
(New York: Routledge, 2014).
50
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 52–53. Advergaming is further discussed later in this chapter.
52
.
Eduardo Marisca, “Buscando un
gamer
: Reconstruyendo la historia del videojuego peruano,”
Pozo de letras
11, no. 11 (2013): 24.
56
.
Ibid. See also Marisca, “Buscando un
gamer
,” 23–24.
58
.
Tanja Sihvonen,
Players Unleashed! Modding
The Sims
and the Culture of Gaming
(Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2011), 12.
59
.
Henry Jenkins,
Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide
(New York: New York University Press, 2006), 137.
60
.
Marisca, “Buscando un
gamer
,” 29.
61
.
Alberto Moreiras,
The Exhaustion of Difference: The Politics of Latin American Cultural Studies
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 64.
62
.
Marisca, “Buscando un
gamer
,” 22.
64
.
Sihvonen,
Players Unleashed!
, 12–13.
65
.
Tristan Donovan,
Replay: The History of Video Games
(Lewes, England: Yellow Ant, 2010), 328.
66
.
Jenkins,
Convergence Culture
, 164–165.
67
.
Sihvonen,
Players Unleashed!
, 37.
71
.
Doris Ajin, “Lanzan el videojuego guatemalteco ‘Flappy Quetzal,’” Soy502.com, 21 February 2014, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.soy502.com/articulo/lanzan-el-videojuego-guatemalteco-flappy-quetzal.
72
.
“NicaBird te invita a volar,”
Radionicaragua.com
, 10 May 2014, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.soy502.com/articulo/lanzan-el-videojuego-guatemalteco-flappy-quetzal.
73
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 209.
75
.
Jesús Martín-Barbero, “Medios y culturas en el espacio latinoamericano,”
Iberoamericana
2, no. 6 (2002): 104.
77
.
Luis Wong, “The Argentinian Arcade Cabinet
Nave
Turns Play into a Performance,” Kill Screen Daily, 15 July 2014, accessed 16 July 2014, http://killscreendaily.com/articles/argentinian-arcade-cabinet-nave-turns-play-performance/.
78
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 94.
79
.
Captain Mike, “‘Rundown del Global Game Jam donde los Puertorriqueños ¡brillaron!,”
Yosoyungamer.com
, 28 January 2014, accessed 17 July 2014, http://yosoyungamer.com/2014/01/rundown-del-global-game-jam-donde-los-puertorriquenos-brillaron/.
81
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 200.
88
.
Wawro, “Crafting
To Leave
.”
91
.
“Videojuegos hechos por colombianos,” Cámara de Comercio de Bogotá, July 2014, accessed 5 July 2015, http://www.ccb.org.co/Cree-su-empresa/Sectores-estrategicos/Industrias-Culturales-y-Creativas-ICC/Artecamara/Exposiciones-pasadas/Ano-2014/Videojuegos-hechos-por-colombianos.
95
.
“Lanzan videojuego para reírse de la ignorancia de Portillo,”
Ñandutí
, 5 July 2014, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.nanduti.com.py/v1/noticias-mas.php?id=87922.
104
.
Byron Corrales, “Aplicaciones para laptops XO desarrolladas en Nicaragua,” Servicio de Información Mesoamericano sobre Agricultura Sostenible (SIMAS), 21 July 2011, accessed 17 July 2014, http://www.simas.org.ni/tic-y-sl/articulo/aplicaciones-para-laptops-xo-desarrolladas-en-nicaragua.
106
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 161.
108
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 159.
109
.
Medina, “La empresa.”
112
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 164.
114
.
For further discussion of
Guacamelee!
, as well as
Papo & Yo
, see
chapter 5
.
115
.
David Grandadam, Patrick Cohendet, and Laurent Simon, “Places, Spaces and the Dynamics of Creativity: The Video Game Industry in Montreal,”
Regional Studies
47, no. 10 (2013): 1705.
116
.
Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Jonas Heide Smith, and Susana Pajares Tosca, eds.,
Understanding Video Games: The Essential Introduction
, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2013), 19.
118
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 162.
119
.
Jesper Juul,
A Casual Revolution
:
Reinventing Video Games and Their Players
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), 148.
123
.
Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds,” 202–203.
1
.
Matthew Arnold,
Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism
(London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1869), 81.
2
.
Pierre Bourdieu,
Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste
(New York: Routledge, 2013 [1979]), xxx.
3
.
Ferdinand de Saussure,
Course in General Linguistics
, trans. W. Baskin (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013 [1916]),
part 1
,
chapter 1
.
4
.
Jacques Derrida, “Différance,”
Margins of Philosophy
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 1–28.
5
.
James Paul Gee, “Semiotic Domains: Is Playing Video Games a ‘Waste of Time?,’”
The Game Design Reader: A Rules of Play Anthology
, ed. Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 240.
6
.
N. Katherine Hayles,
How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 30–31.
7
.
Alexander R. Galloway,
Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic Culture
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 5.
8
.
Dominic Arsenault and Bernard Perron, “In the Frame of the Magic Cycle: The Circle(s) of Gameplay,” in
The Video Game Theory Reader 2
, ed. Bernard Perron and Mark J. P. Wolf (New York: Routledge, 2009), 111.
9
.
David Myers,
Play Redux: The Form of Computer Games
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010), 21.
10
.
Aylish Wood, “Recursive Space: Play and Creating Space,”
Games and Culture
7, no. 1 (2012): 90.
11
.
Pierre Lévy,
Becoming Virtual: Reality in the Digital Age
(New York: Plenum Press, 1998), 162.
13
.
Lev Manovich,
The Language of New Media
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 47.
14
.
Anthony Giddens,
The Consequences of Modernity
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), 21–22.
15
.
Roland Barthes,
Image, Music, Text
, trans. S. Heath (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), 52–54.
17
.
Frans Mäyrä,
An Introduction to Game Studies: Games in Culture
(London: Sage, 2008), 14.
19
.
Giddens,
The Consequences of Modernity
, 22.
20
.
Lévy,
Becoming Virtual
, 162.
21
.
Martín Hopenhayn, “Globalization and Culture: Five Approaches to a Single Text,” in
Cultural Politics in Latin America
, ed. Anny Brooksbank Jones and Ronaldo Munck (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 146.
22
.
Néstor García Canclini,
La sociedad sin relato. Antropología y estética de la inminencia
(Buenos Aires and Madrid: Katz, 2010), 67.
25
.
Espen J. Aarseth,
Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 1.
27
.
Gordon Calleja,
In-Game: From Immersion to Incorporation
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 12.
28
.
Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman, “Game Design and Meaningful Play,” in
Handbook of Computer Game Studies
, ed. Joost Raessens and Jeffrey Goldstein (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 63–64.
31
.
Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska,
Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders: Videogame Forms and Contexts
(New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006), 172–173.
32
.
James Paul Gee,
What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 149.
33
.
Philipp Reichmuth and Stefan Werning, “Pixel Pashas, Digital Djinns,”
ISIM Review
18 (2006): 46–47.
34
.
Rachael Hutchinson, “Performing the Self: Subverting the Binary in Combat Games,”
Games and Culture
2, no. 4 (2007): 286.
35
.
Phillip Penix-Tadsen, “Latin American Ludology: Why We Should Take Video Games Seriously (and When We Shouldn’t),”
Latin American Research Review
48, no. 1 (2013): 181–184.
36
.
Eduardo Marisca, “Developing Game Worlds: Gaming, Technology and Innovation in Peru,” master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, June 2014, accessed 16 July 2014,
http://marisca.pe/files/EM-DGW-Final.pdf
, 110.
37
.
King and Krzywinska,
Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders
, 174.
38
.
For further discussion of the portrayal of Latin American culture in resource management simulations, see
chapter 6
.
39
.
Claudio Lomnitz,
Death and the Idea of Mexico
(Cambridge, MA: Zone, 2005).
43
.
See also
chapter 3
. “Metroid-vania” is a portmanteau of the titles of
Metroid
(Nintendo 1986) and
Castlevania
(Konami 1986).
45
.
“TierraGamer entrevista a DrinkBox Studios,” TierraGamer, 16 April 2013, accessed 17 May 2013, http://www.tierragamer.com/especial-tierragamer-entrevista-a-drinkbox-studios/.
46
.
Ian Bogost,
How to Do Things with Videogames
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011), 28.
47
.
Roberto Schwarz,
Misplaced Ideas
, trans. J. Gledson (London: Verso, 1992), 29.
48
.
Lúcia Nagib,
Brazil on Screen: Cinema Novo, New Cinema, Utopia
(New York: I. B. Tauris, 2007), 101.
49
.
Darcy Ribeiro,
The Brazilian People: The Formation and Meaning of Brazil
, trans. G. Rabassa (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000 [1995]), 147.
50
.
Beatriz Jaguaribe, “Favelas and the Aesthetics of Realism: Representations in Film and Literature,”
Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies
13, no. 3 (2004): 327.
51
.
Roberto Schwarz, “
City of God
,” trans. J. Gledson,
New Left Review
12 (2001), 112.
56
.
See
chapter 5
for further discussion of the use of Portuguese in
Modern Warfare 2
as well as
Max Payne 3
.
57
.
“Max Payne 3 Dan Houser Interview.”
60
.
Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost,
Racing the Beam: The Atari Video Computer System
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 104–105.
Chapter 5
1
.
Philipp Reichmuth and Stefan Werning, “Pixel Pashas, Digital Djinns,”
ISIM Review
18 (2006): 46.
2
.
James Newman,
Videogames
(New York: Routledge, 2004), 108.
3
.
Henry Jenkins, “Game Design as Narrative Architecture,” in
The Game Design Reader: A Rules of Play Anthology
, ed. Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 674.
5
.
Michel Foucault, “Of Other Spaces,” trans. J. Miskowiec,
diacritics
16, no. 1 (1986): 24.
6
.
Lev Manovich,
The Language of New Media
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 114.
7
.
Shoshana Magnet, “Playing at Colonization: Interpreting Imaginary Landscapes in the Video Game
Tropico
,”
Journal of Communication Inquiry
30 (2006): 142.
8
.
My usage here follows Galloway, who adopts the terminology of film critics to distinguish between “diegetic” and “nondiegetic” acts, keeping in mind that the “diegesis of a video game is the game’s total world of narrative action,” and that on-screen acts that do not correspond to that narrative (such as pausing the game or interacting with the menu) are nondiegetic, though they are still on-screen elements of the game. See Alexander R. Galloway,
Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic Culture
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 7–8.
9
.
Tim Cresswell and Deborah Dixon, “Introduction: Engaging Film,” in
Engaging Film: Geographies of Mobility and Identity
, ed. Tim Cresswell and Deborah Dixon (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 4.
10
.
Martin Lefebvre, “Between Setting and Landscape in the Cinema,” in
Landscape and Film
, ed. Martin Lefebvre (New York: Routledge, 2006), 24.
12
.
Gordon Calleja,
In-Game: From Immersion to Incorporation
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), 74.
13
.
Stuart C. Aitken and Leo E. Zonn, “Re-Presenting the Place Pastiche,” in
Place, Power, Situation, and Spectacle: A Geography of Film
, ed. Stuart C. Aitken and Leo E. Zonn (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), 17.
14
.
Anton Escher, “The Geography of Cinema—A Cinematic World,”
Erdkunde
60, no. 4 (2006): 310.
15
.
Jeff Hopkins, “A Mapping of Cinematic Places: Icons, Ideology, and the Power of (Mis)representation,” in
Place, Power, Situation, and Spectacle
, ed. Aitken and Zonn, 47.
16
.
Fredric Jameson,
Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism
(Durham: Duke University Press, 1991), 50–51.
17
.
Calleja,
In-Game
, 87.
18
.
Lefebvre, “Between Setting and Landscape,” 22.
19
.
Here I follow Bogost’s adoption of Alain Badiou’s term “evental site,” which Badiou characterizes as “an entirely abnormal multiple” that “is on the edge of the void, or foundational,” and which Bogost refers to as “the place where current practice breaks down.” See Alain Badiou,
Being and Event
(London: Continuum, 2005), 175; and Ian Bogost,
Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Videogames
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 332.
20
.
Mark J. P. Wolf, “Space in the Video Game,”
The Medium of the Video Game
, ed. Mark J. P. Wolf (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), 53–54.
22
.
Michael Nitsche,
Video Game Spaces: Image, Play, and Structure in 3D Worlds
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), 15–16.
24
.
Newman,
Videogames
, 117.
27
.
Jenkins, “Game Design as Narrative Architecture,” 676–677.
29
.
Alejandra Bronfman and Andrew Grant Wood, “Introduction: Media, Sound, and Culture,” in
Media, Sound, and Culture in Latin America and the Caribbean
, ed. Alejandra Bronfman and Andrew Grant Wood (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2012), xvi.
30
.
Michele Hilmes, “Postscript: Sound Representation: Nation, Translation, Memory,” in
Media, Sound, and Culture
, ed. Bronfman and Wood, 122–123.
31
.
Nitsche,
Video Game Spaces
, 133.
34
.
Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Jonas Heide Smith, and Susana Pajares Tosca, eds.,
Understanding Video Games: The Essential Introduction
, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2013), 148.
38
.
Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Smith, and Tosca, eds.,
Understanding Video Games
, 147.
42
.
Aylish Wood, “Recursive Space: Play and Creating Space,”
Games and Culture
7 (2012): 90.
44
.
Nick Montfort and Ian Bogost,
Racing the Beam
:
The Atari Video Computer System
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 110.
46
.
Barry Atkins,
More than a Game: The Computer Game as Fictional Form
(Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2003), 41.
47
.
Christopher A. Paul,
Wordplay and the Discourse of Video Games: Analyzing Words, Design, and Play
(New York: Routledge, 2012), 26.
48
.
Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Smith, and Tosca, eds.,
Understanding Video Games
, 129.
49
.
Calleja,
In-Game
, 60.
51
.
Ted Friedman, “
Civilization
and Its Discontents,” in
Discovering Discs: Transforming Space and Genre on CD-ROM
, ed. Greg Smith (New York: New York University Press, 1998).
52
.
Jesper Juul,
Half-Real: Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 143.
53
.
Magnet, “Playing at Colonization,” 154. For further discussion of
Tropico 3
, see
chapter 6
.
54
.
Calleja,
In-Game
, 92.
55
.
Frederick Luis Aldama, “Latinos and Video Games,” in
Encyclopedia of Video Games: The Culture, Technology, and Art of Gaming
, ed. Mark J. P. Wolf (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2012), 356.
56
.
Calleja,
In-Game
, 75–76.
1
.
Gonzalo Frasca, “Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology,” in
The Video Game Theory Reader
, ed. Mark J. P. Wolf and Bernard Perron (New York: Routledge, 2003), 234–235.
2
.
Robert Hariman, “Political Parody and Public Culture,”
Quarterly Journal of Speech
94, no. 2 (2008): 260.
4
.
Frasca, “Simulation versus Narrative,” 222–223.
5
.
William Uricchio, “Simulation, History, and Computer Games,” in
Handbook of Computer Game Studies
, ed. Joost Raessens and Jeffrey Goldstein (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 333.
6
.
Gonzalo Frasca, “Videogames of the Oppressed: Critical Thinking, Education, Tolerance and Other Trivial Issues,” in
First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game
, ed. Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Pat Harrigan (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), 93.
7
.
Lev Manovich,
The Language of New Media
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 222.
8
.
Mark J. P. Wolf, “Genre and the Video Game,” in
Handbook of Computer Game Studies
, ed. Raessens and Goldstein, 113–134.
9
.
Claudio Fogu, “Digitalizing Historical Consciousness,”
History and Theory
48, no. 2 (2009): 121.
10
.
Alexander R. Galloway,
Gaming: Essays on Algorithmic Culture
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 102.
11
.
Georg Lukács, “Georg Lukács on Balzac’s
Lost Illusions
” (1957), in
Realism
, ed. Lilian R. Furst (London: Longman, 1992), 107.
12
.
Erich Auerbach, “Erich Auerbach on Stendhal, Balzac, and Flaubert” (repr. from “In the Hotel de la Mole” in
Mimesis
[1953]), in
Realism
, ed. Furst, 86.
13
.
André Bazin,
What Is Cinema?
, 2 vols., ed. and trans. H. Gray (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994 [1971]), 2: 53.
14
.
Manovich,
The Language of New Media
, 184.
15
.
Roland Barthes, “The Reality Effect in Descriptions” (1968), trans. R. Howard, in
Realism
, ed. Furst, 140.
16
.
Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska,
Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders: Videogame Forms and Contexts
(New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006), 143.
18
.
Jesper Juul,
Half-Real: Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 172.
22
.
Kevin Schut, “Strategic Simulations and Our Past: The Bias of Computer Games in the Presentation of History,”
Games and Culture
2, no. 3 (2007): 225.
23
.
Shoshana Magnet, “Playing at Colonization: Interpreting Imaginary Landscapes in the Video Game
Tropico
,”
Journal of Communication Inquiry
30 (2006): 155.
24
.
Schut, “Strategic Simulations and Our Past,” 229.
25
.
Among others, see Nina B. Huntemann and Matthew Thomas Payne, “Introduction,” in
Joystick Soldiers
, ed. Huntemann and Payne (New York: Routledge, 2010), 1–18.
26
.
Nick Dyer-Witheford and Greig de Peuter,
Games of Empire: Global Capitalism and Video Games
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), xxix.
28
.
Gerard Greenfield, “Writing the History of the Future: The Killing Game,”
Z Magazine
6, no. 17 (2004), accessed 5 July 2011, http://zcombeta.org/znetarticle/writing-the-history-of-the-future-by-gerard-greenfield/.
29
.
Vit Sisler, “Digital Arabs: Representation in Video Games,”
European Journal of Cultural Studies
11, no. 2 (2008): 204.
30
.
Joel Penney, “No Better Way to ‘Experience’ World War II: Authenticity and Ideology in the
Call of Duty
and
Medal of Honor
Player Communities,” in
Joystick Soldiers
, ed. Huntemann and Payne, 204.
31
.
Nina B. Huntemann, “Playing with Fear: Catharsis and Resistance in Military-Themed Video Games,” in
Joystick Soldiers
, ed. Huntemann and Payne, 232.
32
.
Greenfield, “Writing the History of the Future.”
33
.
Galloway,
Gaming
, 77.
35
.
Brett Levinson,
The Ends of Literature
(Stanford: Stanford University Press), 110.
37
.
Jesper Juul,
A Casual Revolution: Reinventing Video Games and Their Players
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), 151.
38
.
Juul,
Half-Real
, 193.
39
.
Roberto Schwarz,
Misplaced Ideas
, trans. J. Gledson (London: Verso, 1992), 40.
41
.
Hariman, “Political Parody and Public Culture,” 248.
42
.
John C. Meyer, “Humor as a Double-Edged Sword: Four Functions of Humor in Communication,”
Communication Theory
10, no. 3 (2000): 313.
44
.
Joshua M. Averbeck and Dale Hample, “Ironic Message Production: How and Why We Produce Ironic Messages,”
Communication Monographs
75, no. 4 (2008): 397.
45
.
Christopher A. Paul,
Wordplay and the Discourse of Video Games: Analyzing Words, Design, and Play
(New York: Routledge, 2012), 89.
46
.
See, for example, Judd Ethan Ruggill and Ken S. McAllister,
Gaming Matters: Art, Science, Magic, and the Computer Game Medium
(Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2011), 63.
47
.
David J. Leonard, “Not a Hater, Just Keepin’ It Real: The Importance of Race- and Gender-Based Game Studies,”
Games and Culture
1, no. 1 (2006): 85.
48
.
Dyer-Witheford and de Peuter.
Games of Empire
, 181.
49
.
Dean Chan, “Playing with Race: The Ethics of Racialized Representations in E-Games,”
International Review of Information Ethics
4 (2005): 28.
50
.
Ben DeVane and Kurt D. Squire, “The Meaning of Race and Violence in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas,”
Games and Culture
3 (2008): 281.
52
.
Claire Dormann and Robert Biddle, “A Review of Humor for Computer Games: Play, Laugh and More,”
Simulation and Gaming
40, no. 6 (2009): 815–817.
54
.
For a discussion of the relationship between the
Tropico
series and the Latin American dictator novel, see Daniel Chávez, “El coronel no tiene con quien jugar: representaciones latinoamericanas en la literatura y el videojuego,”
Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies
14 (2010): 164–172.
55
.
Magnet, “Playing at Colonization,” 142.
61
.
Levinson,
The Ends of Literature
, 109.
62
.
Magnet, “Playing at Colonization,” 150.
63
.
McKenzie Wark,
Gamer Theory
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), sect. 36.
67
.
King and Krzywinska,
Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders
, 195.
68
.
Beth Simone Noveck, “Democracy—The Video Game: Virtual Worlds and the Future of Collective Action,” in
The State of Play: Law, Games, and Virtual Worlds
, ed. Jack M. Balkin and Beth Simone Noveck (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 270.
69
.
Galloway,
Gaming
, 102–103.
70
.
Lisa Gring-Pemble and Martha Solomon Watson, “The Rhetorical Limits of Satire: An Analysis of James Finn Garner’s Politically Correct Bedtime Stories,”
Quarterly Journal of Speech
89, no. 2 (2003): 138.
