Token Economy

1961

Teodoro Ayllon (b. 1929), Nathan Azrin (b. 1930)

The basic principles of the token economy have been in place for centuries. The idea of working for a paper bill or metal coin that can then be exchanged for goods and services is, in essence, a token economy. However, the idea of implementing token economies to promote specific, positive behavior changes was first developed systematically in psychology by Teodoro Ayllon and Nathan Azrin in 1961 at Anna State Hospital in Illinois.

Ayllon and Azrin were behavioral psychologists trained in operant psychology, a system developed by B. F. Skinner. Ayllon and Azrin implemented the first token economy to help hospitalized schizophrenic patients develop more functional behaviors on a psychiatric ward. Simply put, a token economy is an intentionally designed system in which a desired behavior is followed by a token reinforcer. This token reinforcer might take the form of points or poker chips that, although intrinsically valueless, can be exchanged for primary reinforcers such as toys, food, or privileges.

The token economy quickly spread and was used not only in hospitals but also in classrooms, prisons, and many other institutional settings. The use of token economies with vulnerable populations, such as prisoners and psychiatric patients, came under intense scrutiny in the early 1970s, especially in the federal prison system in the United States. Attracting criticism was the practice of withholding prisoners’ basic rights, such as daily showers and access to the outdoors, and instead designating them as privileges to be earned through good behavior. Although token economies peaked in this period and then declined in terms of widespread use, forms of them are used today for many kinds of behavioral difficulties and challenges, especially with children.

SEE ALSO Rattus norvegicus var. albinus (1929), Operant Chamber (1930), Teaching Machine (1954)

Poker chips and cards—reinforcers exchanged for toys, food, or privileges in psychiatric wards in order to promote positive behavior during the 1960s.