15 
14 é 13 x 10 ≤ 5 × 5 
4 
4 
3The hash table is one of the most ingenious and versatile of all data structures. It is an unordered collection of key/value pairs in which all the keys are distinct, and the value associated with a given key can be retrieved, updated, or removed using a constant number of key comparisons on the average, no matter how large the hash table.
In Go, a map is a reference
to a hash table, and a map type
is written map[K]V, where K and V are the types of its keys
and values. All of
the keys in a given map are of the same type, and all of the values are of the same
type, but the keys need not be of the same type as the values.
The key type K must be comparable using ==, so that the map can test whether a
given key is equal to one already within it. Though floating-point numbers are
comparable, it’s a bad idea to compare floats for equality and, as we
mentioned in Chapter 3, especially bad if NaN is a possible value.
There are no restrictions on the value type V.
The built-in function make can be used to create a map:
ages := make(map[string]int) // mapping from strings to ints
We can also use a map literal to create a new map populated with some initial key/value pairs:
ages := map[string]int{
"alice": 31,
"charlie": 34,
}
This is equivalent to
ages := make(map[string]int) ages["alice"] = 31 ages["charlie"] = 34
so an alternative expression for a new empty map is map[string]int{}.
Map elements are accessed through the usual subscript notation:
ages["alice"] = 32 fmt.Println(ages["alice"]) // "32"
and removed with the built-in function delete:
delete(ages, "alice") // remove element ages["alice"]
All of these operations are safe even if the element isn’t in the map;
a map lookup using a key that isn’t present returns the zero value
for its type, so, for instance,
the following works even when "bob" is not yet a key in the map
because the value of ages["bob"] will be 0.
ages["bob"] = ages["bob"] + 1 // happy birthday!
The shorthand assignment forms x += y and x++ also work
for map elements, so we can rewrite the statement above as
ages["bob"] += 1
or even more concisely as
ages["bob"]++
But a map element is not a variable, and we cannot take its address:
_ = &ages["bob"] // compile error: cannot take address of map element
One reason that we can’t take the address of a map element is that growing a map might cause rehashing of existing elements into new storage locations, thus potentially invalidating the address.
To enumerate all the key/value pairs in the map, we use a
range-based for loop similar to those we saw for slices.
Successive iterations of the loop cause the name and age variables
to be set to the next key/value pair:
for name, age := range ages {
fmt.Printf("%s\t%d\n", name, age)
}
The order of map iteration is unspecified, and different
implementations might use a different hash function, leading to a
different ordering.
In practice, the order is random, varying from one execution to the
next.
This is intentional; making the sequence vary helps
force programs to be robust across implementations.
To enumerate the key/value pairs in order, we must
sort the keys explicitly,
for instance, using the Strings function from the sort package
if the keys are strings.
This is a common pattern:
import "sort"
var names []string
for name := range ages {
names = append(names, name)
}
sort.Strings(names)
for _, name := range names {
fmt.Printf("%s\t%d\n", name, ages[name])
}
Since we know the final size of names from the outset,
it is more efficient to allocate an array of the required
size up front.
The statement below creates a slice that is initially empty but has
sufficient capacity to hold all the keys of the ages map:
names := make([]string, 0, len(ages))
In the first range loop above, we require only
the keys of the ages map, so we omit the second loop variable. In
the second loop, we require only the elements of the names slice, so we
use the blank identifier _ to ignore the first variable, the index.
The zero value for a map type is nil, that is, a reference to
no hash table at all.
var ages map[string]int fmt.Println(ages == nil) // "true" fmt.Println(len(ages) == 0) // "true"
Most operations on maps, including lookup, delete, len,
and range loops, are safe to perform on a nil map
reference, since it behaves like an empty map. But storing to a nil
map causes a panic:
ages["carol"] = 21 // panic: assignment to entry in nil map
You must allocate the map before you can store into it.
Accessing a map element by subscripting always yields a value. If the
key is present in the map, you get the corresponding value; if not, you
get the zero value for the element type, as we saw with ages["bob"].
For many purposes that’s fine, but sometimes you need to know
whether the element was really there or not.
For example, if the
element type is numeric, you might have to distinguish between a
nonexistent element and an element that happens to have the value
zero, using a test like this:
age, ok := ages["bob"]
if !ok { /* "bob" is not a key in this map; age == 0. */ }
You’ll often see these two statements combined, like this:
if age, ok := ages["bob"]; !ok { /* ... */ }
Subscripting a map in this context yields two values; the second is a
boolean that reports whether the element was present.
The boolean variable is often called ok, especially
if it is immediately used in an if condition.
As with slices, maps cannot be compared to each other; the only legal
comparison is with nil.
To test whether two maps contain the same keys and the same
associated values, we must write a loop:
func equal(x, y map[string]int) bool {
if len(x) != len(y) {
return false
}
for k, xv := range x {
if yv, ok := y[k]; !ok || yv != xv {
return false
}
}
return true
}
Observe how we use !ok to distinguish the “missing”
and “present but zero” cases. Had we naïvely written xv != y[k],
the call below would incorrectly report its arguments as equal:
// True if equal is written incorrectly.
equal(map[string]int{"A": 0}, map[string]int{"B": 42})
Go does not provide a set type, but since the keys of a map are
distinct, a map can serve this purpose.
To illustrate, the program dedup reads a sequence of lines and prints only the first
occurrence of each distinct line. (It’s a variant of the dup
program that we showed in Section 1.3.) The dedup program
uses a map whose keys represent the
set of lines that have already appeared to ensure that subsequent
occurrences are not printed.
func main() {
seen := make(map[string]bool) // a set of strings
input := bufio.NewScanner(os.Stdin)
for input.Scan() {
line := input.Text()
if !seen[line] {
seen[line] = true
fmt.Println(line)
}
}
if err := input.Err(); err != nil {
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stderr, "dedup: %v\n", err)
os.Exit(1)
}
}
Go programmers often describe a map used in this fashion as a “set of
strings” without further ado, but beware, not all map[string]bool
values are simple sets; some may contain both true and false
values.
Sometimes we need a map or set whose keys are slices, but because a
map’s keys must be comparable, this cannot be expressed directly.
However, it can be done in two steps.
First we define a helper function k that maps each key to a
string, with the property that k(x) == k(y) if and only if
we consider x and y equivalent.
Then we create a map whose keys are strings, applying the helper
function to each key before we access the map.
The example below uses a map to record the number of times Add
has been called with a given list of strings.
It uses fmt.Sprintf to convert a slice of strings into a single
string that is a suitable map key, quoting each slice element with %q
to record string boundaries faithfully:
var m = make(map[string]int)
func k(list []string) string { return fmt.Sprintf("%q", list) }
func Add(list []string) { m[k(list)]++ }
func Count(list []string) int { return m[k(list)] }
The same approach can be used for any non-comparable key type, not
just slices.
It’s even useful for comparable key types when you want a
definition of equality other than ==, such as case-insensitive
comparisons for strings.
And the type of k(x) needn’t be a string; any comparable type
with the desired equivalence property will do, such as integers,
arrays, or structs.
Here’s another example of maps in action, a program that counts the occurrences of each distinct Unicode code point in its input. Since there are a large number of possible characters, only a small fraction of which would appear in any particular document, a map is a natural way to keep track of just the ones that have been seen and their corresponding counts.
// Charcount computes counts of Unicode characters.
package main
import (
"bufio"
"fmt"
"io"
"os"
"unicode"
"unicode/utf8"
)
func main() {
counts := make(map[rune]int) // counts of Unicode characters
var utflen [utf8.UTFMax + 1]int // count of lengths of UTF-8 encodings
invalid := 0 // count of invalid UTF-8 characters
in := bufio.NewReader(os.Stdin)
for {
r, n, err := in.ReadRune() // returns rune, nbytes, error
if err == io.EOF {
break
}
if err != nil {
fmt.Fprintf(os.Stderr, "charcount: %v\n", err)
os.Exit(1)
}
if r == unicode.ReplacementChar && n == 1 {
invalid++
continue
}
counts[r]++
utflen[n]++
}
fmt.Printf("rune\tcount\n")
for c, n := range counts {
fmt.Printf("%q\t%d\n", c, n)
}
fmt.Print("\nlen\tcount\n")
for i, n := range utflen {
if i > 0 {
fmt.Printf("%d\t%d\n", i, n)
}
}
if invalid > 0 {
fmt.Printf("\n%d invalid UTF-8 characters\n", invalid)
}
}
The ReadRune method performs UTF-8 decoding and returns three
values: the decoded rune, the length in bytes of its UTF-8 encoding,
and an error value. The only error we expect is end-of-file.
If the input was not a legal UTF-8 encoding of a
rune, the returned rune is unicode.ReplacementChar and the
length is 1.
The charcount program also prints a count of the lengths of the UTF-8 encodings of
the runes that appeared in the input. A map is not the best data
structure for that; since encoding lengths range only
from 1 to utf8.UTFMax (which has the value 4), an array is more
compact.
As an experiment, we ran charcount on this book itself at one point.
Although it’s mostly in English, of course, it does
have a fair number of non-ASCII characters.
Here are the top ten:
° 27
and here is the distribution of the lengths of all the UTF-8 encodings:
len count 1 765391 2 60 3 70 4 0
The value type of a map can itself be a composite type, such as a map or
slice. In the following code, the key type of graph is string and
the value type is map[string]bool, representing a set of strings.
Conceptually, graph maps a string to a set of related strings, its
successors in a directed graph.
var graph = make(map[string]map[string]bool)
func addEdge(from, to string) {
edges := graph[from]
if edges == nil {
edges = make(map[string]bool)
graph[from] = edges
}
edges[to] = true
}
func hasEdge(from, to string) bool {
return graph[from][to]
}
The addEdge function shows the idiomatic way to populate a map
lazily, that is, to initialize each value as its key appears for the
first time. The hasEdge function shows
how the zero value of a missing map entry is often put to work: even
if neither from nor to is present, graph[from][to] will
always give a meaningful result.
Exercise 4.8:
Modify charcount to count letters, digits, and so on
in their Unicode categories, using functions like unicode.IsLetter.
Exercise 4.9:
Write a program wordfreq to report the frequency of each word
in an input text file.
Call input.Split(bufio.ScanWords) before the first
call to Scan to break the input into words instead of lines.