As can be seen in these pages, both Australia and New Zealand have a history of involvement with motion pictures that extends back to the 1890s and 1900s. Sheltered by distance, the white populations of these neighbors on either side of the Tasman have shared a common thirst for entertainment. This, in turn, soon saw the establishment of thriving local production industries and vigorous distribution organizations, looking after exhibitors’ demands for local films and the increasingly glamorous products of the United States and other countries. However, despite these promising beginnings and some of the more prominent films made in the first half of the 20th century, the development of cinema in Australia and New Zealand has not been continuous.
Instead, from around 1912 onward, foreign dominance of distribution and exhibition, and competition from overseas—notably both Hollywood and the United Kingdom—led to the almost complete drying up of feature production by the 1950s and 1960s. Kristen Thompson’s 1985 study of international distribution, Exporting Entertainment, provides an excellent background to the larger forces operating on Australian and New Zealand film in this period. However, inspired by the Canadian example, governments first in Australia and then in New Zealand decided to develop state-subsidized film production industries. These are now almost-permanent parts of the cultural and business landscapes in both countries. Very many of the essays and books that are cited deal with this grand subject.
Nonetheless, the track records of the two industries are mixed. First, the two have produced only a small number of feature films that have won critical and commercial recognition at home and abroad. Second, they have also produced film industry personnel including directors, actors, cameramen, and others who have moved to join a world feature-film production industry based in Hollywood. As a string of items testify—beginning with Stuart Cunningham (“Hollywood Genres, Australian Movies”), Peter Hamilton and Sue Mathews (American Dreams: Australian Movies), and Glen Lewis (Australian Movies and the American Dream) and running down to Laurence Simmons (“Distance Looks Our Way”), and Brian McDonnell (“Postwar Hollywood Representations of New Zealand”)—this love–hate relationship is a perennial feature of film culture, including film writing, in the two places. However, on the other side of the ledger, many of the features produced under various systems of subsidization sponsored by the two governments have produced indifferent performances at both the commercial and critical box office. In turn, as will be seen below, this has been particularly valuable and useful to the film scholar and student, triggering as they have recurring inquiries, debates, and controversy about the ongoing viability of such arrangements. However, rather than making incidental references to the bibliography that follows, it is worth providing a more systematic set of introductory remarks.
The best single reference guide to the subject of Australian film is the book-length bibliography published by Brian Reis, Australian Film. As well as this, the guide compiled by Brian McFarlane, Geoff Mayer, and Ina Bertrand, The Oxford Companion to Australian Film, is an excellent reference source, offering entries covering most of the important subjects. Unfortunately, the guide has no bibliography or any reference to the work of Reis. Similarly, there is as yet no single bibliography on the subject of New Zealand film. However, Geoffrey Churchman and Ian Conrich’s Celluloid Dreams can function as a useful substitute. In addition, the collections by Jonathan Dennis and Jan Bieringa (Film in Aotearoa New Zealand) and the more recent book by Helen Martin and Sam Edwards (New Zealand Film 1912–1996) frequently provide useful background and contexts that serve as substitutes of sorts. One other landmark in the field of reference works and the bibliography of Australian cinema is also worth mention; namely, the two volumes by Andrew Pike and Ross Cooper (Australian Film 1900–1977), and Scott Murray (Australian Film 1978–1994), respectively. Published by Oxford University Press, these two volumes collectively cover the years from 1901 to 1994 as far as the output of feature films in Australia is concerned. Constituting a kind of canonical guide, the two form part of what will clearly be a series and provide excellent coverage, as far as production credits, synopsis, production and reception history, and critical evaluation are concerned. Again, there is nothing yet comparable available in relation to feature films in New Zealand, although the Martin and Edwards’ 1997 study, also published by Oxford, serves as a substitute of sorts. As a footnote to this subject area, it is also worth mentioning the volume Twin Peeks edited by Deb Verhoeven. In the first volume to be devoted to the twin subject of film in the two countries of Australia and New Zealand, this book has a number of interesting essays, as well as a most useful filmography of all feature films produced in the two places up to the time of its publication in 1999.
Marking the still recent infancy of writing about film in the two countries, there are few major biographical studies of individual filmmakers. This is most glaringly the case in Australia, where, given the number of good film historians at work, one might have expected that there would be solid biographies of important figures, such as Raymond Longford, Ken Hall, and Lee Robinson, yet no such studies exist. Instead, the only full study is Cunningham’s monograph, Featuring Australian: The Cinema of Charles Chauvel, although it is finally more concerned with his films rather than his biography. On the other hand, in the case of New Zealand, Roger Horrock’s biography of Len Lye is a major work on this international avant-garde film artist. Other than these, the student must search out shorter biographical entries and profiles in other volumes. Besides the human subjects, there are also a number of interesting studies of particular films. Despite international interest in the two cinemas, only a small handful of feature films have attained classic status such that the interested student will find critical discussion of these in international journals and anthologies. Chief among these films have been Mad Max, The Piano, and Lord of the Rings, which have been explored in a number of international publications.
A focus on films and their investigation prompts mention here of Australian and New Zealand writers whose written work have given them international reputations. Three such figures stand out. In New Zealand, Roger Horrocks has been an important figure in the development of film study in higher education and he has been a prolific writer. In Australia, Adrian Martin has bestridden the divide between film reviewing and film criticism with a grace and imagination that is fast reaching an international audience. Meanwhile, Tom O’Regan’s 1997 book, Australian National Cinema, has been hailed as both a thorough and compelling study of Australian cinema, as well as a highly imaginative and cogent theorization of the more general subject of national cinema.
In the realms of policy and economics concerning the production industries, one looks to reports and other documents produced by government bodies and other agencies such as the Australian Film Commission and the New Zealand Film Commission. However, the two-volume study of Australian government film policy, funding, and film output published in 1987 and 1988 by Susan Dermody and Elizabeth Jacka, The Screening of Australia, has become an internationally acclaimed classic in the field. Again, there is no comparable study in New Zealand, although those interested will be able to glean much comparable information and insight from both Dennis and Bieringa, and Martin and Edwards. These last-mentioned works are obviously of great significance for this expansive subject. However, government and film intertwine in a number of different ways as sketched and explored by Bertrand and Diane Collins in Government and Film in Australia. One of these particular themes is that of censorship. Film censorship has often operated with a heavy hand in the two places, most especially Australia, which has a history of illiberality second only to that of the Republic of Ireland. Solid, detailed accounts of censorship in Australia can be found in Bertrand’s Film Censorship in Australia, and in Bertrand and Collins. Similarly, for a study of this institution in New Zealand, one should turn to Paul Christoffel’s Censored: A Short History of Censorship in New Zealand, and, more recently, Chris Watson and Roy Shuker’s In the Public Good? Censorship in New Zealand.
The development of state support for a feature film production industry in Australia and New Zealand coincided with the emergence of the women’s movement so that it comes as no surprise to find several reports and books that deal with the intersection of women and film. Julie Bailey’s 1999 report, Reel Women, published by the Australian Film, Television and Radio School, is a typical example of the first, concentrating as it does on matters to do with industry, economics, employment, and policy. Meanwhile, Annette Blonski, Barbara Creed, and Freda Freiberg’s Don’t Shoot Darling and Deborah Shepard’s recent Reframing Women examine the subject in Australia and New Zealand by concentrating on screen subjects and matters of reception. It is also worth mentioning Jocelyn Robinson and Beverley Zalcock’s 1997 volume Girls’Own Stories, which takes up the subject in relation to the two industries.
There are yet two other major areas of interest within Australia and New Zealand’s film culture. These are those sectors having to do with indigenous film on the one hand and the avant-garde, experimental, underground, or amateur film on the other. Regarding the first, mention must be made of the study of Maori film in New Zealand by Martin Blythe, Naming the Other, because of its ready availability in libraries overseas. Nothing of this magnitude has been published in Australia concerning Aborigines and film, although one should consult Karen Jennings 1993 monograph, Sites of Difference. Also relevant is a third volume published the same year in the United Kingdom, Peter Loizos’ Innovation in Ethnographic Film, which concerns indigenous cinema both in Oceania and elsewhere. Meanwhile, the major source for avant-garde film is Cantrills’ Film Notes, published from Australia for over 30 years but an excellent introduction to the field there and across the Tasman.
So far as exhibition is concerned, various studies of cinemas and their history as sites of reception do exist. However, except for the 1982 study by Dianne Collins, “The 1920s Picture Palace,” there is nothing on how the film-going experience was mediated in cinemas in Australia or New Zealand in their heyday. Instead, what does exist has been written by scholars more interested in architecture of buildings than in the patrons that filled them.
Several periodicals provide information about and analysis of the film industry. Media International Australia is devoted to matters of policy, economics, and industry, not only in film but also in other areas of the media industries. Hence, to the extent to which film overlaps its domain of interest, the journal often carries useful and valuable material relating to Australian cinema, and, less frequently, to that of New Zealand. Until its recent demise, Cinema Papers was almost the indispensable guide to current happenings in Australian film. Modeling itself on a magazine such as Sight and Sound, although veering in the direction of popular accessibility, it covered the production and reviewing of recent feature films with less coverage of other kinds of film. In addition, from time to time, it also featured supplements to do with New Zealand. Meanwhile, across the Tasman, On Film is the best single equivalent. Again, too, more essays that are critical can be found in the journal Illusion.
Finally, websites maintained by various Australian and New Zealand institutions, organizations, and periodicals provide a rich source of information and analysis. The websites of government and semigovernment authorities, for example, are noteworthy for their meticulous collection of information, which is one of the side benefits of a state-supported industry. For example, the Australian Film Commission site (www.afc.gov.au) contains detailed statistics about the industry, as well as information about films supported by the commission. The sites of similar organizations—such as the Film Finance Corporation (www.afc.gov.au), Film Australia (www.filmaust.com.au), and Screensound (www.screensound.gov.au)—provide detailed information about their roles and work. Across the Tasman Sea (or “The Ditch” as it is known in the vernacular), the New Zealand Film Commission site (www.nzfilm.co.nz) and other sites, such as the New Zealand Film Archive (www.filmarchive.org.nz), provide similar information about the New Zealand industry. The Australian Film Institute (www.afi.org.au) oversees the annual film award judging, as does the Academy of Film and Television Arts of New Zealand (AFTA), which does not have an official website but its awards are listed on a website hosted by an individual (http://www.lonely.geek.nz/nzawardsindex.html). Censorship in each country is the responsibility of the benign-sounding Office of Film and Literature Classification (www.oflc.gov.au/splash.html and www.censorship.govt.nz), and the sites explain the role and classification system each organization uses.
In Australia, each state has set up a corporation to support and encourage filmmaking within its borders. The South Australian Film Corporation (www.safilm.com.au) is the oldest. Although New Zealand does not have states, it does have similarly oriented organizations to promote film-making, such as Film New Zealand (www.filmnz.com/home/index.html) and Film South New Zealand (www.filmsouth.com). Websites also allow easy access to electronic journals and other periodicals. The two most significant are Screening the Past (www.latrobe.edu.au/screeningthepast) and Senses of Cinema (www.sensesofcinema.com), while the early, digital editions of Continuum provide a wealth of detail and analysis (wwwmcc.murdoch.edu.au/ReadingRoom/continuum2.html). Inside Film (www.if.com.au) is an essential reference for people working in the industry. Of course, details of most Australian and New Zealand films appear on the Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com). Other websites listed deal with almost every aspect of cinema in Australia.
Film research in each country begins with the relevant film commission; that is, the Australian Film Commission (AFC) and the New Zealand Film Commission. Filmmakers who receive assistance from the AFC are required to file a copy of the finished product with the commission; however, this requirement is sometimes not met. Both countries have film archives—the New Zealand Film Archive (which is very active in screen education) and Screensound Australia, which is now the responsibility of the AFC. Each of the Australian state film authorities has detailed records of the films that have been produced with the assistance of that body. Notable among these are Film Victoria, the South Australian Film Corporation, and the New South Wales Film and Television Office, followed by the Western Australia Film and Television Corporation, the Pacific Film and Television Corporation, and Screen Tasmania. In Victoria as well, film collections are in the Australian Centre for the Moving Image, and detailed information about films is available at the Australian Film Institute. The Australian National Library in Canberra is the best source of publications about Australian film, and in both Australia and New Zealand, university libraries have quite extensive research collections, depending on the size of the university and its particular focus. In Australia though, some universities have moved student focus away from the study of films toward the production of films—although the contraction in the industry makes such initiatives questionable.
Studies of Particular Filmmakers
Industry Structure, Economics, and Distribution
Studies of Nongovernment Film Organizations
Cultural Policy, Industry Support, and Regulation
Committee/Commission of Inquiry Reports
Studies of Government Film Organizations
Avant-Garde and Experimental Film
Exhibition Venues and Practice
Theater Architecture and Decoration
Annual Reports of Key Film Organizations
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Academy of Film and Television Arts of New Zealand: http://www.lonely.geek.nz/nzawardsindex.html
Australian Centre for the Moving Image: www.acmi.net.au
Australian Centre for the Moving Image Lending Collection: www.acmi.net.au/lending.htm
Australian Children’s Television Foundation: www.actf.com.au
Australian Film Commission: www.afc.gov.au/
Australian Film Institute: www.afi.org.au
Australian Film in the Reading Room: wwwmcc.murdoch.edu.au/ReadingRoom/film/OzFilm.html
Australian Film Television and Radio School: www.aftrs.edu.au
Australia Now—Film in Australia: www.dfat.gov.au/facts/film_australia.html
Australian Screen Directors Association: www.asdafilm.org.au
Australian Writers’ Guild: www.awg.com.au
Continuum: wwwmcc.murdoch.edu.au/ReadingRoom/continuum2.html
Enhance: www.enhancetv.com.au
Film Australia: www.filmaust.com.au
Film Finance Corporation of Australia: www.ffc.gov.au
Film New Zealand: www.filmnz.com/home/index.html
Film South New Zealand: www.filmsouth.com
Film Victoria: www.film.vic.gov.au
Fox Studios: www.foxstudios.com.au
Greater Union Birch Carroll & Coyle: www.greaterunion.com.au
Hoyts Theater Chain: hoyts.ninemsn.com.au
Inside Film: www.if.com.au
Internet Movie Database: www.imdb.com
Movie Express: http://worldfilm.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsitehtm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fmoviexpress.tripod.com%2Findex.htm
New South Wales Film and Television Office: www.ftosyd.nsw.gov.au/about.asp
New Zealand Film: www.zeroland.co.nz/new_zealand_film.html
New Zealand Film Archive: www.filmarchive.org.nz
New Zealand Film Commission: www.nzfilm.co.nz
New Zealand International Film Festivals: www.enzedff.co.nz
New Zealand Television Archive: www.nztvarchive.co.nz
Office of Film and Literature Classification (Australia): www.oflc.gov.au/splash.html
Office of Film and Literature Classification (New Zealand): www.censorship.govt.nz
Pacific Film and Television Commission: www.pftc.com.au
Screen Directors Guild of New Zealand: www.sdgnz.co.nz
Screening the Past: www.latrobe.edu.au/screeningthepast
Screen Producers Association of Australia: www.spaa.org.au
Screenrights: www.screen.org
Screensound Australia—National Screen and Sound Archive: www.screensound.gov.au/screensound/screenso.nsf
Screen Tasmania: www.screen.tas.gov.au
Senses of Cinema: www.sensesofcinema.com
South Australian Film Corporation: www.safilm.com.au
Urban Cinefile: www.urbancinefile.com.au
Warner Bros. Movie World—Gold Coast: www.movieworld.com.au/home/homepage.cfm
Western Australia Film and Television Corporation: www.screenwest.com.au