arbitration board: A panel made up of impartial but informed individuals who are tasked with resolving disputes between two or more parties such as workers and employers.
Bt crops: Crops that have been genetically modified to produce a toxin derived from the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis. The toxin present in Bt crops is harmful to insects but not humans. First approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1995, Bt genes have been added to numerous corn, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, and other crops throughout the world.
cancer cluster: A concentration of reported cancer diagnoses that exceeds the expectations of epidemiologists in a geographical area. Epidemiologists examine cancer clusters in an attempt to identify possible environmental carcinogens such as industrial waste or other types of pollution.
collective bargaining: Negotiation between employers and employee representatives to determine conditions of employment including wages, standard working hours, overtime pay, health and safety standards, and procedures for addressing grievances.
collective bargaining agreement: A contract negotiated directly between unionized workers and their employers. Collective bargain agreements often set terms including minimum compensation for workers, overtime pay, severance pay, and the rights of workers to have grievances addressed.
closed shop: Workplaces where membership in a union is a prerequisite for hire. Open shops are workplaces where workers can choose to be members of the union or not. Advocates of closed shops argue that non-union employees in open shops dilute the bargaining power of unions in negotiating with employers.
commodity crops/cash crops: Crops grown and sold for profit rather than subsistence. Many family-operated farms throughout the world divide their land use between cash crops such as cotton and subsistence crops such as vegetables and livestock feed.
cost of living: The expenses needed to provide a defined standard of living that may include access to food, clothing shelter, transportation, and medicine.
daywork: A compensation system where workers are paid for each day of labor, rather than an hourly wage.
developed nations: There is no broadly agreed upon definition of developed versus developing nations, though criteria used to describe developed nations include diverse industrial and economic output, high per capita income, and stable government. The list of fully developed nations often includes the U.S., Canada, much of Europe, Japan and South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand.
dowry: A distribution of wealth or property to the family of the groom from the family of the bride at the time of a marriage. Dowries are an ancient custom and exist in many cultures today. Traditionally, dowries were a way to provide for the bride’s livelihood in the case of widowhood, and a way to strengthen the relationships between two families joined by marriage.
Dutch Disease: An economic phenomenon whereby the discovery of valuable natural resources introduces instability into a nation’s economy, ultimately limiting growth rather than expanding it. The phenomenon is named after an episode in which natural gas deposits discovered off the coast of the Netherlands damaged the country’s economy by driving up the cost of currency and making the cost of other Dutch exports uncompetitive.
economies of scale: Advantages in cost of production and distribution available when producing in greater quantities. For example, large industrial farms spend less per acre to plant, fertilize, and harvest than small farms, thus allowing the large farms to sell their produce at a lower cost.
exchange rate: The value of one country’s currency against another. Large international banks help determine exchange rates by trading currency in what is called the foreign exchange market. Relative values of different currencies are continuously changing and determine the costs of importing and exporting goods between countries.
export processing zones: See free trade zone.
finca: The name for a large plantation or ranch in many Latin American countries such as Guatemala. During the era of European colonization, fincas were the property of European landowners, and indigenous farm laborers known as campesinos or peons (peasants) would essentially be the property of the patrón, or landowner.
finished goods: Manufactured goods ready for market, distinct from raw materials and component parts that go into making finished goods.
food security: People who are neither malnourished nor in danger of starvation are described as food secure by sociologists.
fossil fuels: Hydrocarbon fuels such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas that are formed from ancient deposits of organic matter. Fossil fuels are considered a nonrenewable resource in that they can’t be replaced once extracted from the earth.
free trade: A policy whereby two or more countries don’t impose tariffs or otherwise interfere with imports and exports amongst themselves. Free trade agreements exist between the U.S. and numerous countries, including the North American Free Trade Agreement (1994) between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
free trade zone: Also called export processing zones, free trade zones are municipalities or regions within a country that are exempt from customs and tariffs and sometimes local or national laws and regulations. Free trade zones have existed for centuries, especially in port and coastal areas in Europe where they were known as free ports. Today, free trade zones exist throughout the developing world as a way to attract international investment. Examples of free trade mentioned in this book include Shenzhen, China; Butibori, India; Chambishi, Zambia; the suburbs of Dhaka, Bangladesh; and Tehuacán, Mexico.
genetically modified organism (GMO): Any organism that has had its genetic makeup altered through genetic engineering. Genetically modified foods (GM foods) have been engineered for higher yields, greater pest and drought resistance, and other advantages, but they remain controversial due to fears about risks they may pose to human health and the environment.
globalization: The integration of economies, politics, cultures, and languages between countries and peoples around the world.
grievance: In labor relations, a grievance is the formal process by which an individual union member or a group of union workers bargain with their employer to address potential violations of their labor agreement. Grievances may be brought due to safety concerns, wrongful termination, policies related to overtime pay, or individual conflicts between a worker and that worker’s manager.
informal economy: Economic activity that is not taxed, regulated, or closely monitored by a governing body. In developing countries, the informal economy can make up more than half of all economic activity and include sales of produce or homemade goods at village markets.
just cause: In labor contracts, just cause refers to a defined set of reasons for dismissing or disciplining workers such as documented incompetence, insubordination, or negligence. Many countries have labor laws that outline principles of just cause, and workers that are laid off or fired without just cause may often be entitled to unemployment compensation, severance pay, or other forms of compensation.
labor contract: An agreement about conditions of labor including wages, safety precautions, overtime rules, and grievance procedures that is negotiated between employees and employers.
labor contractor: A service that manages workers for a farm or factory. Labor contractors often serve as intermediaries between workers and owners.
layoff: Termination of employees on a permanent or temporary basis when a company believes the size of its workforce is larger than needed based on consumer demand. In most jurisdictions, layoffs differ from termination with cause in that laid off employees may be eligible for severance pay or unemployment compensation.
living wage: The minimum necessary wage needed to meet basic needs such as nutrition, shelter, transportation, and medical care. Living wage standards vary from community to community depending on the cost of living in a given community.
lockout: In a labor dispute, a lockout occurs when the employer closes some or all operations and excludes workers from coming to work and earning a wage. This is opposed to a strike, in which the employees attempt to close operations by refusing to come to work or otherwise attempting to shut down a business’s operations.
mega factory: A manufacturing center that uses economies of scale to produce goods more cheaply. Mega factories may have tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of employees within one factory compound.
maquila: A manufacturing center in a Mexican free trade zone. Products manufactured in maquilas are not subject to taxes or tariffs and are established in an attempt to lure international investment into Mexico. The maquila system is similar to the special economic zones established in China, India, and elsewhere.
mono-cropping: Dedication of farmland to a single cash crop such as cotton. Though mono-cropping allows farmers to concentrate on a single profitable crop, the practice risks depleting the soil and spreading invasive pests and disease.
non-governmental organization (NGO): An organization that has social or political goals but is not part of a political party or governmental agency.
open shop: A business where employees are not required to pay into or join a union as part of the hiring process. Businesses where this is a requirement are called closed shops.
overtime: The amount of time employees work beyond defined regular hours. In many countries, labor regulations require employers to compensate employees working overtime with a higher rate of pay, and sometimes caps are put on the amount of overtime employees can work.
pesticide: Any of a number of chemicals used to destroy invasive plants, insects, and other forms of life that might eat or damage crops. Numerous pesticides have been linked to adverse health effects in humans such as cancers, nervous system disorders, and birth defects. According to the World Health Organization, pesticide exposure may be directly responsible for as many as eighteen thousand deaths a year. Pesticides include insecticides, which are used to destroy insects, and herbicides, which kill off unwanted plants.
piecework: A system of payment based on the number of units a worker produces rather than the hours that they work. For instance, workers in a garment factory may be paid for the number of jeans they sew in a day rather than the length of their shifts.
plantation: An estate where crops are produced mostly for sale on the market rather than for subsistence. The word has no precise definition but often implies a very large commercial farming operation geared to international export.
semiconductor: A materials that can conduct energy at variable rates depending on factors such as heat, light, and other inputs. Semiconductors can be used to control and modify electrical impulses, and their manipulation is the basis of modern electronics.
severance pay: Money paid to workers who are dismissed from a company without cause.
shop steward: Representatives elected by unions who help ensure employer compliance with labor contracts. When workers file grievances, their shop stewards interview them, investigate the situation, and help them argue their case with their supervisors and managers.
slowdown: A form of worker protest in which workers continue to perform assigned work at a slower rate. Slowdowns allow workers to threaten a business’s productivity while not resorting to a full strike.
special economic zone (SEZ): A region within a country that has been granted exemptions from most federal taxes and labor regulations in order to keep export prices competitive on the global market. Numerous SEZs have been established in urban manufacturing areas in China, India, Africa, and elsewhere in the developing world. See also free trade zone.
strike: In labor relations, a strike occurs when employees agree amongst themselves to stop working for a defined or undefined period of time. Strikes are meant to shut down production and pressure employers to address grievances related to wages, working conditions, or working hours.
strikebreaker: Also known as “scabs,” strikebreakers are workers who refuse to join strikes or other labor actions, thus lessening their effectiveness.
subsistence farming: Crops grown to be used for the dietary needs of a farmer’s family and livestock.
Superfund site: Land anywhere in the U.S. that has been designated contaminated by materials hazardous to humans or the environment and marked as a candidate for clean-up and decontamination.
tariff: A tax on imported goods. Tariffs are designed to protect the competitiveness of local industries by increasing the cost of imported goods for consumers.
tort: a civil liability or wrongdoing that is sufficient grounds for a lawsuit.
trade agreement: A formal arrangement between countries to hold down tariffs and other protections to trade and allow import and export to take place.
unemployment compensation: Temporary payments awarded by some national or local jurisdictions to workers who have been part of layoffs or who have otherwise registered as unemployed. Typically, workers who have chosen to leave companies on their own or who have been fired with cause are not entitled to unemployment compensation.
union: A group of workers who have formally organized to negotiate better wages or working conditions from employers. Unions may be as small as a group of employees working for a single company, or they may be national organizations (AFL-CIO), or even be international in scope.
workers’ compensation insurance: An agreement whereby employers purchase insurance that provides some wage compensation and medical coverage in the case of workplace accidents. As part of most workers’ compensation insurance agreements, workers forfeit most rights to sue employers for additional compensation.