1. Robert Paul Browder and Alexander F. Kerensky, eds., The Russian Provisional Government, 1917: Documents (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1961), 383–5.
2. Leon Trotsky, Sochineniia, Seriia 1: Istoricheskoe podgotovlenie Oktiabria, vol. 3:2 (Moscow: Gosidat, 1925), 202. This is E. H. Carr’s translation from A History of Soviet Russia: The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1923, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan, 1950).
3. Victor Chernov, The Great Russian Revolution, trans. Philip Mosely (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1936, rpt. New York: Russell and Russell, 1966), 266–7; Thomas M. Prymak, Mykhailo Hrushevsky: The Politics of National Culture (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), 128–9; Serhii Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia: Mykhailo Hrushevsky and the Writing of Ukrainian History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005), 17–91.
4. Prymak, Mykhailo Hrushevksy, 129.
5. Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia, 80.
6. Plokhy, The Gates of Europe, 207.
7. All dates in this chapter are according to the ‘New Style’ (Gregorian) calendar, adopted in February 1918.
8. Subtelny, Ukraine: A History, 340.
9. Plokhy, The Gates of Europe, 206.
10. ‘First Universal of the Ukrainian Central Rada’, quoted in Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, 473.
11. ‘Third Universal of the Ukrainian Central Rada’, quoted in ibid., 480.
12. Orlando Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891–1924 (London: Pimlico, 1997), 79.
13. Shevelov, The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century, 78–9.
14. Mark von Hagen, ‘The Entangled Eastern Front and the Making of the Ukrainian State: A Forgotten Peace, a Forgotten War and Nation-Building, 1917–1918’ (unpublished conference paper), 9; George A. Brinkley, ‘Allied Policy and French Intervention in the Ukraine, 1917–1920’, in Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 323–51.
15. Von Hagen, ‘The Entangled Eastern Front’, 18.
16. Mikhail Bulgakov, The White Guard, trans. Marian Schwartz (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 54.
17. Ibid., 67.
18. Arthur E. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine: The Second Campaign, 1918–1919 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963), 11.
19. Bulgakov, The White Guard, 76.
20. Serhii Efremov, Shchodennyky, 1923–1929 (Kyiv: Hazeta ‘Rada’, 1997), 379–80.
21. Yuri Shapoval, ‘The Symon Petliura Whom We Still Do Not Understand’, Den 18, last modified 6 June 2006, accessed 2017, http://www.ukemonde.com/petlyura/petlyura_notunder.html.
22. Aleksei Aleksandrovich Gol’denveizer, ‘Iz Kievskikh vospominanii, 1917–21’, in Iosif Vladimirovich Gessen, ed., Arkhiv russkoi revoliutsii, vol. 6 (Berlin: n.p., 1922), 161–303.
23. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, 81.
24. Gol’denveizer, ‘Iz Kievskikh vospominanii’, 230–4.
25. Ibid., 232.
26. Bulgakov, The White Guard, 59.
27. Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, rev. edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 137.
28. Prymak, Mykhailo Hrushevksy, 163.
29. Gol’denveizer, ‘Iz Kievskikh vospominanii’, 234.
30. Valerii Vasyl’ev, Politychne kerivnyctvo URSR i SRSR: Dynamika vidnosyn tsentr-subtsentr vlady, 1917–1938 (Kyiv: Instytut Istoriï Ukraïny NAN Ukraïny, 2014), 53–93; Jurij Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine 1917–1923: The Communist Doctrine and Practice of National Self-Determination (Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1980), 129.
31. Graziosi, Bol’sheviki i krest’iane na Ukraine, 20–1.
32. This is argued in Anna Procyk, Russian Nationalism and Ukraine: The Nationality Policy of the Volunteer Army During the Civil War (Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1995).
33. Karl Marx, ‘The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte’, in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Selected Works, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1968), 394–488.
34. V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 10 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), 40–3.
35. Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto (Charleston, SC: Filiquarian Publishing, 2005), 32.
36. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 30–1.
37. Ibid., 121–38.
38. Josef Stalin, Works, vol. 2 (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954), 303, https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1933/01/07.htm. Originally published as ‘Natsional’nyi vopros i sotisal’demokratiia’, Prosveshchenie 3–5 (March–May 1913).
39. From his speech ‘Concerning the National Question in Yugoslavia, Speech Delivered in the Yugoslav Commission of the ECCI, March 30, 1925’, Stalin, Works, vol. 7, 71–2.
40. Steven Kotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, vol. 1 (New York: Penguin Press, 2014), 117.
41. 25 October according to the Julian calendar used in tsarist Russia; 7 November according to the Gregorian calendar, adopted in Russia in 1918.
42. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 174–5; Yaroslav Bilinsky, ‘The Communist Takeover of Ukraine’, in Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 113. They are citing a 18 December 1917 (new calendar) Pravda article.
43. This policy was a direct harbinger of one pursued by the Russian government in 2014; Bilinsky, ‘The Communist Takeover of Ukraine’, 113.
44. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 183; John Reshetar, ‘The Communist Party of Ukraine and its Role in the Ukrainian Revolution’, in Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 170–1.
45. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 79; Reshetar, ‘The Communist Party of Ukraine’, 173–4; James Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918–1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, 1983), 27.
46. Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia, 84–5.
47. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation, 26.
48. N. I. Suprunenko, Ocherki Istorii Grazhdanskoi Voiny i inostrannoi voennoi interventsii na Ukraine (Moscow: Nauka, 1966), 16.
49. Telegram to Antonov-Ovsienko and Ordzhonikidze, in V. I. Lenin, Polnoe Sobranie Sochinenii, vol. 50 (Moscow: Politizdat, 1970), 30. An alternative translation is given in the official English version in Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 44, 57–8.
50. Roy A. Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism, first published 1969, rev. and expanded edn, ed. and trans. George Shriver (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 50.
51. Suprunenko, Ocherki Istorii Grazhdanskoi Voiny, 34–5.
52. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 205–6.
53. Ibid., 215.
54. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, 100.
55. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 221.
56. How this happened is explained at length in Peter Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia’s Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 16–46.
57. M. Philips Price, My Reminiscences of the Russian Revolution (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1921), 12–16.
58. Ibid., 78.
59. Ibid., 12–16.
60. George Seldes, You Can’t Print That: The Truth Behind the News, 1918–1928 (New York: Payson & Clark, 1929), 230.
61. Francis Conte, Christian Rakovski, 1873–1941: A Political Biography (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1989), 109, citing Protokoly VIII Konferentsii RKP(b): 3 December 1919 (Moscow: n.p., 1919).
62. Aleksandr Shlikhter, ‘Bor’ba za khleb na Ukraine v 1919 godu’, Litopys revoliutsiï: Zhurnal istoriï KP(b)U ta zhovtnevoï revoliutsiï na Ukraïni 2, no. 29 (Berezen’–Kviten’, 1928), 97.
63. Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution, 96.
64. Ibid., 248.
65. Alan M. Ball, Russia’s Last Capitalists: The Nepmen, 1921–29 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987), 6.
66. Boris Pasternak, Doctor Zhivago, trans. Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky (New York: Pantheon Books, 2010), 175.
67. Bertrand Patenaude, The Big Show in Bololand: The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 18–19.
68. Ball, Russia’s Last Capitalists, 4.
69. Isaac Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography (London: Oxford University Press, 1949), 195.
70. Price, My Reminiscences of the Russian Revolution, 224.
71. Ibid., 260 and 308.
72. Gennadii Bordyugov, ‘The Policy and Regime of Extraordinary Measures in Russia under Lenin and Stalin’, in Europe-Asia Studies 47, no. 4 (June 1995), 617.
73. Vasyl’ev, Politychne kerivnytstvo URSR i SRSR, 64–9. Vasyl’ev also underlines the significance of Tsaritsyn for Stalin’s later policies.
74. Oleg V. Khlevniuk, Stalin: New Biography of a Dictator, trans. Nora Seligman Favorov (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 55–7.
75. Ibid., 57–9.
76. Deutscher, Stalin, 204.
77. Pavlo Khrystiuk, Ukraïns’ka Revoliutsiia: zamitky i materialy do istoriï Ukraïnskoï revoliutsiï, 1917–1920, vol. 2 (Vienna: n.p., 1921), 136.
78. V. M. Lytvyn et al., Istoriia ukraïns’koho selianstva: Narysy v 2-kh tomakh, vol. 2 (Kyiv: Naukova Dumka, 2006), 57.
79. O. S. Rubl’ov and O. P. Reient, Ukraïns’ki vyzvol’ni zmahannia, 1917–1921 rr., vol. 10 (Kyiv: Al’ternatyvy, 1999), 199–205.
80. Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 235.
81. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, 131–2.
82. Volodymyr Serhiichuk et al., Ukraïns’kyi khlib na eksport, 1932–1933 (Kyiv: PP Serhiichuk M.I., 2006), 3.
83. Shlikhter, ‘Bor’ba za khleb na Ukraine’, 135.
84. Elias Heifetz, The Slaughter of the Jews in the Ukraine in 1919 (New York: Thomas Seltzer, 1921), 58.
85. Leon Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution, 3 vols., trans. Max Eastman (Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2008), 229.
86. Vil’iam Noll (William Noll), Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva: Usna istoriia ukraïns’koï selans’koï kul’tury, 1920–30 rokiv (Kyiv: Rodovid, 1999), 115.
87. Ibid.
88. James Mace, ‘The Komitety Nezamozhnykh Selyan and the Structure of Soviet Rule in the Ukrainian Countryside, 1920–1933’, Soviet Studies 35, no. 4 (October 1983), 487–503.
89. Iosyp Nyzhnyk, ‘Poka Reserv’, COIM Al-1726/2.
90. Shlikhter, ‘Bor’ba za khleb na Ukraine’, 98.
91. Graziosi, Bol’sheviki i krest’iane, 135.
92. Price, My Reminiscences of the Russian Revolution, 309–10.
93. Orlando Figes, Peasant Russia, Civil War: The Volga Countryside in Revolution, 1917–1921 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 187.
94. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine, 125–7; Rubl’ov and Reient, Ukraïns’ki vyzvol’ni zmahannia, 199–205.
95. Shlikhter, ‘Bor’ba za khleb na Ukraine’, 135.
96. Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution, 175–80.
97. Ibid., 185.
98. Holquist, ‘ “Conduct Merciless Mass Terror”: Decossackization on the Don, 1919’, Cahiers du monde russe 38, nos. 1–2 (January–June 1997), 127–62.
99. Shlikhter, ‘Bor’ba za khleb na Ukraine’, 135.