1. P. V., ‘Collective Farming’, in Pidhainy, The Black Deeds of the Kremlin, 213.
2. Lyons, Assignment in Utopia, 283.
3. Miron Dolot, Execution by Hunger: The Hidden Holocaust (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 1–2. Dolot is a pseudonym: the writer’s real name was Simon Starow.
4. ‘Schedule A, vol. 37, Case 622/(NY)1719 (interviewer W. T., type A4). Female, 53, Ukrainian, Kolkhoznik’, July 1951, Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Slavic Division, Widener Library, Harvard University, 52.
5. ‘Schedule B, vol. 7, Case 67 (interviewer J. R.)’, Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Slavic Division, Widener Library, Harvard University, 12.
6. Stanislav Kul’chyts’kyi, ed., Narysy povsiakdennoho zhyttia radians’koi Ukraïny v dobu NEPu (1921–1928 rr.) kolektyvna monohrafiia v 2-kh chastynakh, vol. 2 (Kyiv: Instytut Istoriï Ukraïny NAN Ukraïny, 2010), 183.
7. Kotkin, Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 672, citing Izvestiia TsK KPSS, 1991, no. 6, 203–5, and RGASPI, 558/11/118, 23–6.
8. There were three basic types of collective farm (kolkhoz): the commune, the artel and the association for joint cultivation of land (TOZ or SOZ). In addition, there were state-owned farms (sovkhoz). R. W. Davies, The Soviet Collective Farm (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 68.
9. For a general description of collective farm life, see Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 128–51.
10. Stalin, ‘God velikogo pereloma’, Pravda (7 November 1929), in Danilov et al., eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 1, 741–2.
11. RtsKhIDNI 17/2/441, vols. 1 and 2; summarized in Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 112–14; and Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 24–6.
12. Dolot, Execution by Hunger, 6.
13. Lynne Viola, The Best Sons of the Fatherland: Workers in the Vanguard of Soviet Collectivization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 31, 62.
14. Ibid., 64.
15. Lev Kopelev, To Be Preserved Forever, trans. Anthony Austin (New York: Lippincott, 1977), 11.
16. Hindus, Red Bread, 1.
17. Sholokhov, Virgin Soil Upturned, 84.
18. Viola, The Best Sons of the Fatherland, 76.
19. Antonina Solovieva, ‘Sent by the Komsomol’, in Sheila Fitzpatrick and Yuri Slezkine, eds., In the Shadow of Revolution: Life Stories of Russian Women from 1917 to the Second World War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 237.
20. Tracy McDonald, ‘A Peasant Rebellion in Stalin’s Russia: The Pitelinskii Uprising, Riazan 1930’, Journal of Social History 35, no. 1 (Fall 2001), 125–46.
21. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 180.
22. ‘Case History LH38: Oleksandr Honcharenko, Cherkasy oblast’’, in U.S. Congress, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, 1932–1933, Report to Congress/Commission on the Ukraine Famine, adopted by the Commission 19 April 1988, submitted to Congress 22 April 1988, James E. Mace, ed. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O., 1988), 317.
23. TsA FSB RF 2/9/21 (1930), 393–4, in Lynne Viola and V. P. Danilov, eds., The War Against the Peasantry, 1927–1930: The Tragedy of the Soviet Countryside, trans. Steven Shabad (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 219.
24. Solovieva, ‘Sent by the Komsomol’, in Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, eds., In the Shadow of Revolution, 236–7.
25. Pasha Angelina, ‘The Most Important Thing’, in Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, eds., In the Shadow of Revolution, 310.
26. RTsKhIDNI 85/1/118 (1930), 1–13, reproduced in Graziosi, ‘Collectivisation, révoltes paysannes et politiques gouvernementales’, 476.
27. DAZhO (Zhytomyr) 1520/4828 (1931), 9–16.
28. Graziosi, ‘Collectivisation, révoltes paysannes et politiques gouvernementales’, 450. This use of ‘criminal elements’ not only had precedents in 1919–20, it remained part of the Soviet tactical arsenal: the NKVD would rely on criminal networks when creating new secret police forces in occupied Central Europe after 1945.
29. Ibid., 449, citing ‘Sergo Ordzhonikidze, “Stenogramma” (Sténogramme) du rapport au noyau militant restraint (aktiv) du parti du district de Herson, 24 mars 1930’; and R. W. Davies, The Socialist Offensive: The Collectivization of Agriculture 1929–30 (London: Macmillan, 1980), 225.
30. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 126.
31. TsA FSB RF 2/8/344 (1930), 344–56, in Danilov, Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 336–42.
32. Testimony of Stepanyda Melentiïivna Khyria, in Mytsyk et al., eds., Ukraïns’kyi holokost, vol. 1, 87.
33. ‘Case History LH57: Mikhail Frenkin, Baku’, in U.S. Congress, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, Report to Congress, 363.
34. Testimony of Nicolas Chymych, in U.S. Congress and Commission on the Ukraine Famine, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, 1932–1933: Second Interim Report, meetings and hearings of and before the Commission on the Ukraine Famine held in 1987: hearing, San Francisco, California, 10 February 1987; hearing, Phoenix, Arizona, 13 February 1987; hearing and meeting, Washington, D.C., 30 April 1987; hearing, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 5 June 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O.: For sale by the Supt. of Docs. U.S. G.P.O., 1988), 126–8.
35. Testimony of Valentin Kochno, in ibid., 18.
36. Dolot, Execution by Hunger, 8.
37. Graziosi, ‘Collectivisation, révoltes paysannes et politiques gouvernementales’, 439–40.
38. Ekaterina Olitskaia, ‘My Reminiscences’, in Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, eds., In the Shadow of Revolution, 39–40.
39. TsDAZhR Ukraïny 539/7/71 (1929), 139, reproduced in Stanislav Kul’chyts’kyi et al., Kolektivizatsiia i holod na Ukraïni, 1929–1933: zbirnyk dokumentiv i materialiv (Kyiv: Naukova Dumka, 1992), 106–7.
40. Lynne Viola explains that the podkulachnik was thought to be animated by kulak ‘essence’, even though he owned no property (Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin, 34).
41. Hindus, Red Bread, 45–6.
42. Otto J. Pohl, Eric J. Schmaltz and Ronald J. Vossler, ‘ “In our hearts we felt the sentence of death”: Ethnic German Recollections of Mass Violence in the USSR, 1928–48’, Journal of Genocide Research 11, no. 2 (2009), 325–7 and 343.
43. TsA FSB RF 2/8/40 (1930), 6–17, in Danilov, Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 292–303.
44. GARF 9414/1/1944 (1930), 17–25, in Viola and Danilov, eds., The War Against the Peasantry, 240–1.
45. TsA FSB RF 2/8/3 (1930), 2, in Berelovich, Sovetskaia derevnia glazami VChK-OGPU–NKVD, vol. 3, 71.
46. Dolot, Execution by Hunger, 18–19.
47. RGAE 7446/1/283 (1930), 13–18, in Danilov et al., eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 292–303.
48. Testimony of Anastasia Shpychka, in L. B. Kovalenko and Volodymyr Maniak, eds., 33-i Holod: narodna knyha-memorial (Kyiv: Radians’kyi Pys’mennyk, 1991), 53.
49. TsA FSB RF 2/8/678 (1930), 163–5, in Danilov et al., eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 141–4.
50. Testimony of Kylyna Vasylivna Dykun, in Mytsyk et al., eds., Ukraïns’kyi holokost, vol. 1, 89.
51. RGAE 7446/1/283 (1930), 13–18, in Danilov et al., eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 198–203.
52. Testimony of Maria Leshchenko, in Kovalenko and Maniak, eds., 33-i Holod, 522.
53. RGASPI 17/3/779/ (1930), 18–20, in Danilov et al., eds. Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 303–5.
54. ‘Case History LH46: anonymous, Dnipropetrovs’k area’, in U.S. Congress, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, Report to Congress, 339–41.
55. Testimony of Olena Davydivna Demchenko, in Kovalenko and Maniak, eds., 33-i Holod, 505–6.
56. Dolot, Execution by Hunger, 25.
57. TsA FSB RF 2/8/40 (1930), 6–17, in Viola and Danilov, eds., The War Against the Peasantry, 281.
58. Testimony of Ivan Samsonovych, in Kovalenko and Maniak, eds., 33-i Holod, 503–4.
59. Testimony of Mykola Demydovych Fenenko, in Kovalenko and Maniak, eds., 33-i Holod, 540–2.
60. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 124.
61. TsA FSB RF 2/8/823 (1930), 342–51, in Viola and Danilov, eds., The War Against the Peasantry, 248.
62. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 155.
63. Testimony of Henrikh Pidvysotsky, in Kovalenko and Maniak, eds., 33-i Holod, 78.
64. TsDAZhR Ukraïny 27/11/543 (1930), 215.
65. RGAE 7446/1/283 (1930), 13–18, in Danilov et al., eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 198–203.
66. Sheila Fitzpatrick, ‘The Great Departure: Rural-Urban Migration in the Soviet Union, 1929–1933’, in William G. Rosenberg and Lewis H. Siegelbaum, eds., Social Dimensions of Soviet Industrialization (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993), 22–5. In footnote 56, Fitzpatrick writes that Rykov remarked that ‘the kulaks are fleeing from the raions not yet affected by total collectivization, anticipating that even if there is not total collectivization in their region today, there will be tomorrow’. Desiataia Ural’skaia oblastnaia konferentsiia Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (bol’shevikov) (Sverdlovsk, 1930), Bulletin no. 7, 19.
67. Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror in the Donbas, 35–41.
68. ‘Case History LH38: Oleksandr Honcharenko, Cherkasy oblast’’, in U.S. Congress, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, Report to Congress, 317.
69. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 155–6.
70. TsA FSB RF 2/8/678 (1930), 163–5, in Danilov et al., eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 161–3.
71. N. A. Ivnitskii, Kollektivizatsiia i raskulachivanie, nachalo 30-kh gg. (Moscow: Interpraks, 1994), 122–37; also V. N. Zemskov, ‘Spetsposelentsy (po dokumentam NKVD-MVD-SSSR)’, Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniia 11 (1990), 4.
72. N. A. Morozov, GULAG v Komi Krae, 1929–1956 (Syktyvkar: Syktyvkarskii Gosudarstvennyi Universitet, 1997), 104.
73. RGASPI 17/3/775 (1930), 15–16, in Danilov et al., eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, vol. 2, 174–5.
74. Ivnitskii, Kollektivizatsiia i raskulachivanie, 122–37; also Zemskov, ‘Spetsposelentsy (po dokumentakm NKVD-MVD-SSSR)’, 4.
75. Anne Applebaum, Gulag: A History (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 46–50.
76. James Harris, ‘The Growth of the Gulag: Forced Labor in the Urals Region, 1929–31’, The Russian Review 56, no. 2 (1997), 265–80.
77. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 125.
78. Ibid., 269–71.
79. ‘Case History LH38: Oleksandr Honcharenko, Cherkasy oblast’’, in U.S. Congress, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, Report to Congress, 325–9.
80. See for example the testimony of Vasyl’ Pavlovych Nechyporenko and Iakiv Antonovych Dziubyshyn in Mytsyk et al., eds., Ukraïns’kyi holokost, vol. 1, 163, and vol. 2, 116; and ‘Testimony of Mr. Sviatoslav Karavansky’, in U.S. Congress, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, 1932–1933: First Interim Report of Meetings and Hearings of and Before the Commission on the Ukraine Famine, meeting and hearing 8 October 1988 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O., 1987), 79; as well as ‘Case History LH8’, ‘Case History LH46’ and ‘Case History SW34’, all in U.S. Congress, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, Report to Congress, 256, 345 and 386.
81. Oleksandra Bykovets, ‘Interview with Oleksandra Bykovets’ (Sviatoslav Novytskyi, 1 September 1983) excerpted from the archives of the copyright holder, UCRDC.
82. Testimony of Larysa Donchuk, in U.S. Congress, Investigation of the Ukrainian Famine, 1932–1933, second report, 138.
83. Olesia Stasiuk, ‘The Deformation of Ukrainian Folk Culture During the Holodomor Years’, trans. Marta Olynyk, in Key Articles on the Holodomor Translated from Ukrainian into English, Holodomor Research and Education Consortium, 12–13, http://holodomor.ca/translated-articles-on-the-holodomor.
84. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 340–87.
85. TsDAHOU 1/20/3108 (1930), 1.
86. Hiroaki Kuromiya, The Voices of the Dead: Stalin’s Great Terror in the 1930s (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 109.
87. Ibid., 110.
88. Boleslaw Szczesniak, The Russian Revolution and Religion: A Collection of Documents Concerning the Suppression of Religion by the Communists, 1917–1925 (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1959), 158; Alla Kyrydon, ‘Ruinuvannia kul’tovykh sporud (1920–1930-ti rr.): porushennia tradytsiinoï rytmolohiï prostoru’, in Ukraïns’kyi Istorychnyi Zhurnal 22, no. 6 (2013), 91–102.
89. McDonald, ‘A Peasant Rebellion in Stalin’s Russia’, 125–46.
90. Testimony of Mykola Ievhenovych Petrenko, in Kovalenko and Maniak, eds., 33-i Holod, 460.
91. Grigorenko, Memoirs, 39.
92. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 251–4.
93. Stasiuk, ‘The Deformation of Ukrainian Folk Culture During the Holodomor Years’.
94. Noll, Transformatsiia hromadians’koho suspil’stva, 242–50.
95. Lytvyn, Ekonomichna istoriia Ukraïny, vol. 2, 231–2, 261.