aestheticization of politics, 107
Afghanistan, consequences of continuous war in, 84
African-American Civil Rights Movement, 55
Albright, Madeleine, 21
Algerian War, 42, 50, 70, 75, 78, 79, 80
Ali, Tariq, 9
Alternative für Deutschland (Germany), 3, 31, 43, 72
Amendola, Giovanni, 154
Améry, Jean (Hans Mayer), 80–1
Anderson, Benedict, 33
anti-antifascism, 127, 135–41, 143, 147, 148, 149
anti-communism
as one of fascism’s major distinctive markers, 12, 86, 102, 116, 117, 118, 126
as pushing Europe’s elites to accept Hitler, Mussolini, and Franco, 13
as synonymous with anti-totalitarianism, 155, 157
antifascism. See also anti-antifascism
crisis of as ethical and political paradigm, 127
equivalences, 143–7
‘grey zone,’ 147–9
Holocaust memory as gradually replacing memory of, 98
one of twentieth century’s conflicts about ideological and political causes, 149
rejection of in Italy as politics of simple minority, 128
revisionism(s), 131–5
syllogisms, 141–3
varieties of, 142
antifascist Manifesto, 141
anti-liberalism, 102, 108, 113, 126, 170, 171
anti-Semitism
as being replaced by Islamophobia, 28, 65–73
as deeply affecting France’s radical nationalisms, 66
fascism as deeply anti-Semitic, 66
Judeophobia as distinguished from, 77
of Ku Klux Klan, 76
as leading to Holocaust, 74
as playing role of ‘cultural code,’ 69
postfascism and, 31
as producing widespread form of ‘Jewish self-hatred,’ 78
redemptive anti-Semitism, 74, 174
similarities to Islamophobia, 68–71, 74
traditional anti-Semitism as residual phenomenon, 66
as widespread almost everywhere in first half of twentieth century, 66
Antonescu, General, 122
Arab revolutions, 53, 91, 92, 184, 185, 186
Arendt, Hannah, 51, 52, 126–7, 156–9, 182
Aristotle, 156
Aschheim, Steven E., 123
atheistic fascism, 83
Aufklärung, 110
Austria, government of as of 2018, 3
authoritarian personality, 24
Babeuf, François-Noël, 171
Badiou, Alain, 83
Bale, Jeffrey M., 178
Bauman, Zygmunt, 166
Bebel, August, 82
Belgium, government of as of 2018, 3
Benjamin, Walter, 107
Benzine, Rachid, 74
Bergson, Henri, 113
Berlin, Isaiah, 17–18, 119, 170
Berlusconi, Silvio, 3, 5, 10, 16, 20, 21, 38
Berman, Paul, 177
Bernstein, Eduard, 131
Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Geyer and Fitzpatrick), 167
biopolitical power, 57
The Black Book of Communism (Paczkowski et al.), 91, 172
Blair, Tony, 9
Bloch, Marc, 181
blood mixture (Blutvermischung), 71
Bloy, Léon, 67
Blum, Léon, 68
Bobbio, Norberto, 102
Bolshevism, 12, 93, 118, 141, 155, 162, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 175
Boltanski, Luc, 56
Bouteldja, Houria, 52, 53–4, 55
Bracher, Karl Dietrich, 169
Brasillach, Robert, 29, 103, 114
Bruneteau, Bernard, 138
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 158, 159
Burrin, Philippe, 119
Bush, George W., 83
Calderoli, Roberto, 68n9
capitalism
as adopting violent face, 98
attempt at destruction of, 109
communism as alternative to, 184
crisis of, 183
neoliberal capitalism, 5
reinterpretation of, 131
tax avoidance capitalism, 11
Carlists, 119
CasaPound (Italy), 33
Cassirer, Ernst, 109
Castoriadis, Cornelius, 157
Catholicism, National-Catholicism (Spain), 66, 121
CDU (Christian Democratic Union), 3
Céline, Louis Ferdinand, 67, 72
Cercle Proudhon, 113, 114, 115
Césaire, Aimé, 44
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart, 67
Charlie Hebdo, attacks on, 49, 62–3, 82
Cheka, 172
Chemises Vertes, 114
Chibber, Vivek, 54
Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 3
Churchill, Winston, 168
Ciampi, Carlo Azeglio, 68
Cité nationale de l’histoire de l’immigration (CNHI), 61
Ciudadanos (Spain), 35
civil religion, 61–3, 67, 81, 105, 107, 117, 152
clash of civilizations, 152
Clash of Civilizations (Huntington), 53–4
classical fascism, 5, 6, 7, 12, 15, 22, 23, 29, 30, 32, 68, 84, 86, 87, 88, 183
clerical fascism, 84
Clinton family, 22
CNHI (Cité nationale de l’histoire de l’immigration), 61
colonialism, 37, 42, 46, 48, 49, 53, 60, 61, 62, 75, 81, 126, 135, 159
Combe, Sonia, 165
Committee of Public Safety of 1793, 171
communism
according to Courtois, 91
according to Malia, 172
affinities with National Socialism, 159
as alternative to capitalism, 184
and fascism, 19, 23, 108–9, 117, 170, 183, 186
political radicalisation driven by, 86
as reduced to accomplishment of murderous ideology, 152
role of in Resistance movements, 146
as secular religion, 106
in syllogism, 141
as totalitarian ‘ideocracy,’ 133
totalitarian interpretation of, 158
totalitarianism as synonymous with, 157
communitarianism, 44
concentration camps, 54, 104, 122, 123, 142, 152, 160, 166
Confederate (HBO series), 20
Congress for Cultural Freedom, 158
Conquest, Robert, 132
Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France (Representative Council of French Jewish Institutions; CRIF), 82
conservatism, 13, 46, 99, 101, 102, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 143, 146, 154
conservative liberalism, 115
constitutional patriotism, 43, 76
Corradino, Enrico, 115
Counter-Enlightenment (Gegenaufklärung), 111, 112, 117, 118, 161, 164, 170, 174
Crenshaw, Kimberlé, 55
The Crisis of German Ideology (Mosse), 109–10
critical historians, 139–40
The Crowd (Le Bon), 24
cultural pessimism, 104
culture, fascism as, 101–11, 122
D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 113, 115
De Benoist, Alain, 30
Debray, Régis, 62
De Felice, Renzo, 93, 99, 100, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 134, 135, 138, 141, 145, 169
De Gaulle, Charles, 70
De Man, Henri, 29
democracy. See also liberal democracy
as abstract, disembodied, timeless value, 148
Berlusconi’s conception of, 5
and counterdemocracy, 26
European fascism as born as reaction against, 178
German social democracy, 106, 141
populism as authoritarian form of, 17
and postfascism, 28
in United States, 183
Denmark, government of as of 2018, 3
Der Monat (journal), 158
Deutscher, Isaac, 167
Devji, Faisal, 89
Dick, Philip K., 20
Dieudonné, 81
Die Weltbühne, 141
División Azul (Spain), 147
Dreyfus Affair, 68, 78, 112, 113, 122
The Drowned and the Saved (Levi), 147
Drumont, Edouard, 67
Dutschke, Rudi, 158
Dymenstain, Armand, 79–80
ECB (European Central Bank), 10, 11
economic crisis
link of xenophobia with, 24
Eichmann in Jerusalem (Arendt), 52
11 September 2001, 77, 151, 155–6, 176, 185
El Pais, 18
Enciclopedia italiana, 107, 154
Encounter (journal), 158
‘equal-violence’ (equiviolencia), 143, 146
equivalences, 143–8
Esposito, Roberto, 26
Esquerre, Arnaud, 56
EU Commission, 10
Eurogroup, 11
Europe
immigration as future of, 44
institutional failure in, 8, 10
European Central Bank (ECB), 10, 11
European Union (EU)
after trauma of Brexit, 12
as creating ‘troika,’ 10–11, 17
difficulty of in integrating immigrants, 76
as representing economic elites’ interests, 13
state of exception in, 11
unraveling of, 12
Evola, Julius, 103
Evstignev, Sergei, 165–6
Falange/Falangists (Spain), 43, 83, 119, 121
Farage, Nigel, 16
fascism
according to Benjamin, 107
according to De Felice, 169
according to Gentile, 170n51
according to Mosse, 100
according to Sternhell, 170–1
anti-communism as one of major distinctive markers of, 12, 86, 102, 116, 117, 118, 126
as applied to radical right and Islamism, 183
atheistic fascism, 83
as being inspired by traits of socialism, 106
birth of, 119
as claiming to be option against Bolshevism, 12
as class dictatorship, 98
classical fascism, 5, 6, 7, 12, 15, 22, 23, 29, 30, 32, 68, 84, 86, 87, 88, 183
clerical fascism, 84
coining of word, 113
and communism, 19, 23, 108–9, 117, 170, 183, 186
conflict with conservative authoritarianism, 121–2
constitutive elements of, 34, 102–3, 111, 118
as counterrevolutionary phenomenon, 117
as deeply anti-Semitic, 66
as eclectic amalgam of ideological debris, 101–2
essence of in counter-Enlightenment, 111, 117
far right’s relationship with, 34
first expression of as revolutionary right, 112
French fascism, 7, 29, 113, 114, 116, 125, 129
as having deep intellectual roots, 112
as ideological archetype, 112
as illustrating transformation of nationalism into civil religion, 105
imperial fascism, 85
interpretations of, 97–129
Italian fascism, 29, 66, 83, 85, 99, 101, 113, 114, 115, 117, 120, 123, 145, 154, 169
and Jacobin tradition, 106, 108, 119
language and myths of, 109
in Latin America, 86
as ‘magnetic field,’ 126
matrix of as anti-communism, 56
as modern dictatorship, 97–8
new fascism, 5
as not reducible to temperament of leader nor psychological disposition of followers, 24
as offering alternative to historical crisis of liberal democracy, 86
paleofascism, 5
as putting forward a new civilisation, 25, 30
as radical form of anti-Enlightenment, 143
religious dimension of, 106, 107
representations of, 107, 109, 122
as revolution, 101
as revolution against the revolution, 117
revolutionary nature of, 116–27
as revolutionary phenomenon, 104
revolutionary right as first expression of, 112
role of in grasping new reality, 4
as supporting idea of national/racial community, 22
as totalitarian, 119–20
totalitarian character of, 169–70
totalitarian interpretation of, 158
as transnational, transatlantic, and transhistorical, 5
Trump as having fascist traits, 21
Trump’s fascist behaviour, 23
use of term after World War II, 4
as Weltanschauung, 101
World War I as authentic matrix of, 114, 115
fascist ‘impregnation,’ 126
fascist modernism, 104
fascist movements, 8, 21, 22, 25, 115, 117, 119
fascist regimes, 84, 86, 100, 115, 120, 136
fascist revolution, 98, 118–19
Fest, Joachim, 145
15-M movement (Spain), 23, 185
Fillon, François, 35
‘Final Solution,’ 74, 169, 174–5
The Financial Times, 18
Finchelstein, Federico, 17
Finis Germania (Sieferle), 73
Finkielkraut, Alain, 30, 72, 81
Finland, government of as of 2018, 3
Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 132–3, 176
Five Star Movement (Italy), 28
FLN (National Liberation Front) (Algeria), 59, 80
Ford, Henry, 76
Fortuyn, Pim, 31
Forza Italia, 3
Foucault, Michel, 57
The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (Chamberlain), 67
Fourest, Caroline, 47
France. See also Vichy France
anti-antifascist historical revision, 137–8
appearance of national-populism, 15
Cité nationale de l’histoire de l’immigration (CNHI), 61
clash between national republicanism and postcolonial memory in, 61–2
Fifth Republic, 7, 34, 35, 38, 42
Fourth Republic, 42
France Insoumise, 35
Islamophobia as obsession of neoconservative, Christian fundamentalists in, 48
laïcité, 45–55
Marche des beurs (March for Equality), 53n23
Ministry of Immigration and National Identity, 43
National Front. See National Front (France)
Nouveau Parti Anticapitaliste (NPA), 34, 50–1
Parti des Indigènes de la République (PIR), 41–2, 51
Parti Socialiste, 35
political system as amplifying far right, 14–15
Popular Front, 142
presidential elections in 2017, 35, 37
Third Republic, 15, 42, 46–7, 68, 75, 98, 113
violent anti-immigrant discourse in, 43–4
France Insoumise, 35
Franco, Francisco, 29, 66, 83, 86, 121, 138, 147
Francoism, 43, 84, 86, 97, 116, 119, 121, 123, 139
Frankfurt School, 110
French Institute for the Near East, 77
French nationalism, 34, 121, 122, 126
French Revolution, 105–6, 110, 111, 112, 140, 172
Freud, Sigmund, 79
Fromm, Erich, 24
Fukuyama, Francis, 152
Furet, François, 108, 137, 140–2, 152, 172
Gazeta Wyborcza, 177
genocide, 59, 60, 74, 122, 123, 126, 144, 149, 152, 153, 169, 180–1
Gentile, Emilio, 98–101, 104, 107, 108, 114–17, 119, 122, 124–6, 128, 169
Gentile, Giovanni, 107, 115, 119, 154
German National Socialism. See National Socialism (Germany)
German Sonderweg, 110
Germany
Alternative für Deutschland, 3, 31, 43, 72
anti-antifascist campaign, 137
government of as of 2017, 3
Historikerstreit, 60, 134, 137, 145, 172
Männerbund (male youth movements), 103
Nazis break out of the margins in, 12
as not having citizenship based on jus soli, 76
Pegida, 43
Social Democratic Party (SPD), 3, 9, 131, 141
Getty, J. Arch (John), 132, 176
Gide, André, 142
Giustizia e Libertà movement, 141
Goebbels, Joseph, 104, 154, 179
government, as replaced by governance, 11
GRECE (Groupement de recherche et d’études pour la civilisation européenne’), 29–30
Greece
‘grey zone,’ 147–9
Grillo, Beppe, 16
Grossdeutschland, 146
Grundgesetz, 157
Gulags, 90, 91, 133, 139–40, 163, 165, 172, 182
Günther, Hans, 67
Gurian, Waldemar, 170
hands off my mate (touche pas à mon pote), 53
Hayek, Friedrich von, 171
Heidegger, Martin, 67, 89, 144
Heschel, Abraham J., 78
Historikerstreit, 60, 134, 137, 145, 172
history
public use of, 127–9, 135, 182
tension of with language, 4
Hitchens, Christopher, 177
Hitler, Adolph, 13, 24, 29, 85, 86, 93, 105, 118, 120, 122, 146, 154, 157, 161, 168, 174, 175
Hitlerism, 173
Hollande, François, 9, 14, 43, 61, 62
Holocaust
according to Friedländer, 174
according to Mosse, 123n85
according to Plessini, 124
economic rationality of, 164–165
as emerging from exceptional circumstances during World War II, 74
Holocaust (TV series), 60
Holocaust memory/memorialisation, 60, 66–7, 73, 81, 98, 127, 151–2
Holquist, Peter, 167
homosexuality, 31, 68, 103, 124, 163
Houellebecq, Michel, 67, 71, 72
Hungary
government of as of 2018, 3
Huntington, Samuel, 53–4
Huttenbach, Henry, 181
Huxley, Aldous, 160
Hypercacher kosher supermarket, attacks on, 62
identification, use of term, 57
identity
origins of word, 58
as subjective, 59
types of, 58
identity memories, 59–61
identity politics, 41–5, 57, 59
ideology
fascism as ideological archetype, 112–16, 122
as pillar of totalitarian model of scholarship, 170
Iglesias, Pablo, 16
Il popolo d’Italia (Mussolini), 107
Imagined Communities (Anderson), 33
imperial fascism, 85
imperialism, 102, 104, 122, 126, 127, 159, 168
impolitical (impolitico), 26–8
indignados, 184
intellectuals, 8, 19, 29–33, 67, 113, 126, 142, 143, 186–7
intentionalism, 172–3
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 10
intersectionality, 55–9
Iraq, consequences of continuous war in, 84
irredentismo, 115
Islamic fascism, 6, 82–93, 183
Islamic fundamentalism, 77, 85, 89, 156, 176, 179
Islamic invasion, 56
Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 178–9, 183
Islamic totalitarianism, 176–9
Islamism
PIR as working against slide toward, 42
radical Islamism as attracting young Muslims from popular classes and young middle-class converts, 86
as response to xenophobia of Christian Europe, 184
as surrogate for utopias, 184
Islamist terrorism/Islamic terrorism appeal of, 86
as arising within weak states, 179
as defined as Islamic fascism, 6
depiction of terrorists with physical traits stressing otherness, 67
fitting of into totalitarian model, 178
as form of conservative revolution or reactionary modernism, 87
as replacing Bolshevism, 13
as threat to democracy, 5, 152
totalitarianism as mobilized in opposition to, 151
Islamophobia
as changing in postcolonial era, 73, 75
as core of new nationalism, 28
as growing everywhere, 60
as having ancient roots, 73, 75
as obsession of neoconservative, Christian fundamentalists, 48
roots of in United States, 76–7
as shaping cultural and political landscape of twenty-first century, 65
similarities of older anti-Semitism to, 68–71, 74
Israel-Palestine conflict, 78, 82
Italian Social Movement (MSI), 43
Italy
anti-antifascist historical revision, 135–6
anti-Semitism in, 66
Casa Pound, 33
Five Star Movement, 28
Forza Italia, 3
government of as of 2018, 3
Italian Social Movement (MSI), 43
Lega Nord, 3, 10, 33–4, 43, 186
as not having citizenship based on jus soli, 45
Partito d’Azione, 141
racial status of first generation Italian immigrants, 55n27
Salò Republic, 43, 85, 128, 134, 147
Jewish France (Drumont), 67
Jewish self-hatred (jüdische Selbsthass), 78
Jews
genocide of during World War II, 60
as mythical vision of anti-race, 30
rejection of, 104
stereotype of, 66
Judaism in Music (Wagner), 69
Judeophobia, 77–82
Juliá, Santos, 145
Juncker, Jean-Claude, 11
Kaminsky, Adolfo, 80
Kantorowicz, Ernst, 109
King, Martin Luther, Jr, 78
Kirchner, Cristina, 16
Kirchner, Nestor, 16
Koagan, Robert, 21
Koestler, Arthur, 142
Koselleck, Reinhart, 4
Kotkin, Stephen, 165
Kracauer, Siegfried, 107–8
Ku Klux Klan, 76
Kyenge, Cecile, 68n9
Labour Party (United Kingdom), 184
laïcité, 45–55
l’Algérie française, 7, 34, 59
language, tension of with history, 4
La Rochelle, Pierre Drieu, 67, 103, 114
Lefort, Claude, 157
left alternative, lack of, 12
legal revolutions, of Mussolini and Hitler, 118
Lega Nord (Italy), 3, 10, 33–4, 43, 186
Le Grand Remplacement (Camus), 71
Leninist/Leninism, 34, 140, 177
Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 14
Le Pen, Marine, 7, 8, 12, 14, 16, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 43, 83
Le Pen, Marion Maréchal, 31
Le suicide français (Zemmour), 44
Lévy, Bernard-Henry, 177
Lewin, Moshe, 132
LGBT conservatism, 31
liberal democracy, 19, 36, 86, 98, 176, 180, 183
liberalism
British liberalism, 110
conservative liberalism, 115
and idea of ‘equal-violence,’ 146
ordo-liberalism, 11
L’identité malheureuse (Finkielkraut), 72
Liogier, Raphaël, 90
Lombroso, Cesare, 48
Lovejoy, Arthur, 111
Löwy, Michael, 50
Luxembourg, Grand Duchy of, 11
Luzzatto, Sergio, 149
Lyotard, Jean-François, 157
Machiavelli, Niccolò, 37
Maistre, Joseph de, 119
Malia, Martin, 133, 140, 152, 172
The Man in the High Castle (Dick), 20
Mann, Thomas, 28
Männerbund (male youth movements) (Germany), 103
Marche des beurs (March for Equality), 53n23
Marcuse, Herbert, 144, 157, 158
Mariage pour tous, 57–8
Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 115
Marrus, Michael, 129
Marxist/Marxism, 34, 50, 51, 56, 97, 101, 112, 113, 118, 131, 154, 155, 161, 175
Mattarella, Sergio, 10
Mein Kampf (Hitler), 173
Michnik, Adam, 177
Ministry of Immigration and National Identity (France), 14, 43
Mitterand, François, 9
Moa, Pio, 138
Mommsen, Hans, 160
Montesquieu, 156
Monti, Mario, 10
Morano, Nadine, 68n9
Morris, Benny, 133
Mosse, George L., 68, 98–9, 100, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109–10, 111, 112, 114, 116, 117, 119, 122, 123–4, 125, 126, 127, 128, 156
Moussaïd, Ilham, 50
Mouvement contre le racisme et pour l’amitié entre les peuples (Movement against Racism and for Friendship between Peoples; MRAP), 79
MSI (Italian Social Movement), 43
Müller, Jan-Werner, 19
Munich Institut für Zeitgeschichte, 166
Münzenberg, Willi, 142
Muslim Brotherhood, 177
Mussolini, Benita, 5, 12, 24, 29, 66, 85, 86, 97, 105, 107, 113–15, 118, 119, 120, 122, 134, 136, 146, 147, 154, 157, 161, 179
National Catholicism (Spain), 66, 121
National Front (France), 3, 7–8, 14, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 41, 42, 47, 48–9, 56, 186
national identity, 33, 43, 72, 73
National Institute for Demographic Studies, 75
National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies, 75
nationalism
defined, 33
French nationalism, 34, 121, 122, 126
ISIS as embodying radical form of, 85
modern nationalism as product of French Revolution, 111
radical nationalism, 17, 66, 115, 171
as transforming mass society, 105
völkisch nationalism, 41, 74, 109–10, 122, 154, 169, 173
nationalization of the masses, 100, 105, 111
National Liberation Front (FLN) (Algeria), 59, 80
National Party (Slovakia), 4
National Revolution (France), 29, 116
national socialism, 66, 112, 113
National Socialism (Germany), 4, 81, 97, 110, 116, 134, 135, 139, 141, 143, 154, 155, 159, 160, 169, 171, 175
nations, defined, 33
The Nation, 21
Nazis/Nazism, 12, 20, 24, 29, 43, 79, 80, 83, 85, 87, 103–4, 105, 106, 109–10, 114, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127, 143, 145, 154, 161, 163–4, 167, 168, 169
neoliberalism, 9, 18, 25, 34, 35, 56
Netanyahu, Benjamin, 82
Neue Wache, 147
New Deal (United States), 25, 183
new fascism, 5
New Left, 56
‘New Man,’ 101, 103, 120, 162, 179
The New Republic, 21
Ni droite ni gauche (Sternhell), 114
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 113
1984 (Orwell), 180
Noiriel, Gérard, 54
Nolte, Ernst, 60, 118, 128, 134, 138, 145, 169
Non-Aligned Movement, 185
Nouveau Parti Anticapitaliste (NPA) (France), 34, 50–1
Nuit Debout (France), 184, 185
Occupy Wall Street, 23, 55, 184, 185
Omsen, Omar, 88
Operation Barbarossa, 167–8, 174
Orbán, Viktor, 16
The Origins of Totalitarianism (Arendt), 158–9
Ortega y Gasset, José, 145
Ossietzky, Karl von, 141
otherness, 66, 67, 72, 99, 124, 182
paleofascism, 5
Panunzio, Sergio, 115
Pappe, Ilan, 133
Pareto, Vilfredo, 113
Parti des Indigènes de la République (PIR) (France), 41–2, 51
Partido dos Trabalhadores, 185
Partido Popular (Spain), 35, 43
Parti Populaire Français, 114
Partisanenkampf, 169
Parti Socialiste (France), 35
Partito d’Azione (Italy), 141
Pasolini, Paolo, 5
The Passing of an Illusion (Furet), 137, 152
Pavone, Claudio, 148
Paxton, Robert O., 23, 116, 121, 129
Payne, Stanley G., 138
Pegida (Patriotische Europäer gegen die Islamisierung des Abendlandes, Patriotic Europeans Against the Islamisation of the West) (Germany), 43
Pétain, Marshall, 29, 116, 137
Peyrefitte, Alain, 70
Philippot, Florian, 31
philo-Semitism, 82
PIR (Parti des Indigènes de la République) (France), 41–2, 51
Plessini, Karel, 124
The Plot Against America (Roth), 20
Podemos (Spain), 17, 34, 35, 184, 185, 186–7
Poland, government of as of 2018, 3
political parties, as no longer needing ideological arsenal, 32
political religion, 17, 83, 107, 179
politicization of aesthetics, 107
politicized religion, 179
politics
aestheticization of, 107
financialization of, 11
identity politics, 41–5, 57, 69
as site for pure governance and distribution of power, administration of huge resources, 26
Popular Front (France), 142
Popular Front (Spain), 138
populism
according to Finchelstein, 17
according to Rosanvallon, 26
accusations of, 16
as embodiment/form of anti-politics, 26
as form of political demagogy, 49
growth of, 17
populist parties in Western Europe as characterised by xenophobia and racism, 18–19
postfascism as distinguished from Latin American populism, 18
right-wing populism according to Revelli, 19
as style of politics rather than ideology, 15
as twin of totalitarianism, 19
use of term, 15, 16, 17–18, 19
postcolonialism, 55
postfascism
as belonging to beginning of twenty-first century, 7
as distinguished from Latin American populism, 18
as distinguished from neofascism, 6
emergence of, 186
expression of in Submission, 67
as filling vacuum left by politics reduced to impolitical, 28
main feature of, 32
as result of defeat of twentieth century revolutions, 13
as taking on traits of neofascism if EU were to break up, 12
tensions and contradictions in, 31
transient and unstable character of, 12
as transitional phenomenon, 187
Preuves (journal), 158
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Weber), 90
protest movements, 187
Protocols of the Elders of Zion (Ford), 76, 78
Proust, Marcel, 66
PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party), 9, 35
Putin, Vladimir, 3
Qutb, Sayyid, 177
Race in America: Your Stories (New York Times report), 53
racialism, 66
‘racial state’ (völkische Staat), 154
racism, 17, 18, 21, 28, 31, 34, 36, 41, 42, 54, 56, 66, 76, 77, 79, 113, 122, 125, 126, 168
radical nationalism, 17, 66, 115, 171
radical right
as heterogeneous and composite phenomenon, 6
homophobia and anti-feminism as widespread among voters of, 31
as no longer represented by ultra-nationalists marching in uniform, 186
as not concerned with building new civilisation, 30
as seeking to mobilize masses, 56
as surrogate for utopias, 184
Rancière, Jacques, 16
Raz-Krakotzkin, Amnon, 82
reactionary modernism, 87, 104, 164, 179
Reagan, Ronald, 147
religion
civil religion, 61–3, 67, 81, 105, 107, 117, 152
political religion, 17, 83, 107, 179
politicized religion, 179
socialism as new secular religion, 106
substitute religions, 83
Rémond, René, 129
representations
political representation, 27
self-representations of fascism, 100, 108
Republican Party (United States), Trump as exploiting identity crisis of, 22
Resistance, 80, 136, 137, 139, 141, 145, 146, 148, 149, 157, 185
Revelli, Marco, 19
revisionism(s), use of term/sorts of, 131–5
revolutionary right, as first expression of fascism, 112
revolutionary syndicalism, 115
‘reworking the past’ (Verarbeitung der Vergangenheit), 157
The Road of Serfdom (Hayek), 171
Robespierre, Maximilien, 171
Robledo, Ricardo, 143
Rocco, Alfredo, 115
Romanian Iron Guard, 122
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 183
Rosanvallon, Pierre, 26
Roth, Philip, 20
Rothberg, Michael, 79
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 170, 171
Russell Tribunal, 185
Russia, as bastion of nationalism, 3
Russian Revolution, 13, 117, 132, 135, 168, 172, 183, 185
Salafism, 90
Salazarism (Portugal), 97, 116
Salò Republic (Italy), 43, 85, 128, 134, 147
Salvemini, Gaetano, 142
Sand, Shlomo, 82
Sarfatti, Margherita, 31
Sarkozy, Nicolas, 14, 16, 34, 38, 42–3, 44, 83
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 74
Savona, Paola, 10
Schäuble, Wolfgang, 11
Schnitzler, Arthur, 66
Scholem, Gershom, 52
Schuman, Robert, 8
screen memory (Deckerinnerung), 79
secularism, conceptions of, 46
Sémelin, Jacques, 181
Shatz, Adam, 72
Shias, 85
Sieferle, Rolf Peter, 72–3
Sinclair, Upton, 142
Sironneau, Jean-Pierre, 107
Sittlichkeit, 110
Slezkine, Yuri, 65
Slovakia
government of as of 2018, 3
National Party in, 4
Snyder, Timothy, 173, 174, 175
Social Democratic Party (SPD) (Germany), 3, 9, 131, 141
socialism
national socialism, 66, 112, 113
National Socialism (Germany). See National Socialism (Germany)
as new secular religion, 106
Sorelian socialism, 169
Socialisme ou Barbarie, 157
social movements, 14, 152, 185, 186. See also specific social movements
Soral, Alain, 30
Sorel, Georges, 113
SOS Racisme, 53n24
The Soviet Tragedy (Malia), 152
Soviet Union
attempts to eradicate religion in, 48
comparison of to Nazi Germany, 161, 163–6
depicted as ‘ideocracy,’ 91
fall of, 152
histories of, 140
history of as progressive unveiling of criminal ideology in power, 133
influence on European intelligentsia of, 137
strong state intervention in economy of, 25
violence in, 175–6
Spain
anti-antifascist historical revision, 138–9
anti-Semitism in, 66
Catalan crisis in, 43
Ciudadanos, 35
División Azul, 147
Falange/Falangists, 43, 83, 119, 121
neofascism as almost nonexistent in, 43
nostalgia for Francoism in, 43
Podemos, 17, 34, 35, 184, 185, 186–7
Popular Front, 138
Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE), 9, 35
Spanish Civil War, 90, 117, 121, 138
Spanish Francoism. See Francoism
Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE), 9, 35
SPD (Social Democratic Party) (Germany), 3, 9, 131, 141
Sperber, Manes, 142
Spinelli, Altiero, 8
The Spirit of the Laws (Montesquieu), 156
Stalin, Joseph, 157, 161, 162, 167–8, 174, 175
Stalinist/Stalinism, 54, 91, 133, 137, 140, 142, 152, 155, 158, 162–3, 165, 166, 167, 170–6, 177, 182
Stauffenberg, Claus von, 145–6
steel romanticism (stahlartes Romantik), 104
Sternhell, Zeev, 98, 99, 100, 104, 108, 111–12, 114, 115, 116–17, 119, 122, 125, 126, 129, 170
Stora, Benjamin, 58–9
students’ movements, 185
Submission (Houellebecq), 67, 68, 71
Suchomel, Franz, 166
Sunnis, 85
Sury, Jules, 113
syllogisms, as inspiring anti-antifascist historiography, 141–3
‘synchronization’ (Gleichschaltung), 163
Syriza (Greece), 17, 34, 184, 186
Taguieff, Pierre-André, 15
Talmon, Jacob L., 108, 119, 171
Talon, Claire, 87–8
Taubira, Christiane, 68n9
tax avoidance capitalism, Grand Duchy of Luxembourg as, 11
Tempo Presente (journal), 158
terrorism
Islamist terrorism/Islamic terrorism. See Islamist terrorism/Islamic terrorism
as shaping cultural and political landscape of twenty-first century, 65
Third Reich, 81, 134, 142, 144, 146, 160, 161, 163. See also Nazis/Nazism
Tiso, Jozef, 84
Todorov, Tzvetan, 148
Togliatti, Palmiro, 93
‘totalitarian’ (totalitario), origin of word, 154
Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (Friedrich and Brzezinski), 159–60
totalitarianism
as abstract idea, 180
as abstract model, 160
according to Neumann, 180
according to Voegelin and Aron, 106
according to Žižek, 180
comparing Nazi and Stalinist ideologies, 170–6
as criticized for its ambiguities, 182
as eliminating public sphere, 182
first international symposium on, 155
historical patterns, 167–70
Islamic totalitarianism, 176–9
as malleable, elastic, polymorphous, and ultimately ambiguous notion, 154
populism as twin of, 19
shifting from political theory to historiography, 158–62
stages in history of concept of, 153–8
‘theocratic’ totalitarianism, 179
uses of, 151–82
utopias as inevitably leading to, 184
violence as crux of, 162–7
totalitarian modernity, 104
Toury, Jacob, 65
Tria, Giovanni, 10
Tricontinental, 185
Trietschke, Heinrich von, 69–70
trincerocrazia, 114
Triumph of the Will (film), 24
Trotha, Lothar von, 169
Trump, Donald, 3, 16, 20–6, 33, 38, 77
United States
appearing as imperial power to most Islamic countries, 178
conclusion on results of US election (2016), 20
as diverse country, 52–3
Islamophobia as obsession of neoconservative, Christian fundamentalists in, 48
as never having president as right-wing as Trump, 25
rise of new nationalist, populist, racist, and xenophobic right in, 3
roots of Islamophobia in, 76
rural and urban divide in, 24
utopia, 44, 87, 172, 178, 179, 18–5, 187
Valois, Georges, 113
veil, wearing of, 47, 48, 50, 57, 58
Vichy France, 7, 34, 42, 59, 79, 81, 84, 85, 97, 98, 112, 114, 116, 121, 129, 137, 148
Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, 80
Videla, Jorge Rafael, 178
violence
‘equal-violence’ (equiviolencia), 143, 146
in Soviet Union, 175–6
and totalitarian model, 162–7
‘vital space’ (Lebensraum), 168, 173
Vivarelli, Roberto, 146–7
völkisch nationalism, 41, 74, 109–10, 122, 154, 169, 173
Wagner, Richard, 69
Warburg, Aby, 109
Washington, Post, 21
Watkins, Susan, 8
Weidel, Alice, 31
Weimar Republic, 13, 86, 99, 146, 154
The Whites, the Jews and Us (Bouteldja), 52
Wilders, Geert, 31
Winckelmann, Johann, 103
Wissentransfer, 156
World War I
according to Mosse, 122
as authentic matrix of fascism, 114, 115
consequences of on Soviet society, 140
as foundational experience, 153
premises of idea of totalitarianism as emerging during, 153
World War II
according to intentionalist historians, 172–3
antifascism as shared ethos for democratic regimes emerging from defeat of Third Reich, 142
genocide of Jews during, 60
Holocaust as emerging from exceptional circumstances during, 74
use of term fascism after, 4
welfare states created in wake of, 34
xenophobia, 17, 18, 21, 24, 28, 33, 34, 36, 39, 41, 56, 60, 67, 76, 184, 186
youth revolt, 185
zeks (Gulag inmates), 165–6
Žižek, Slavoj, 180
Zuckerman, Moshe, 86
Zunino, Pier Giorgio, 100