1. The Hornhausen relief is a rare depiction of a mounted Germanic warrior who would have been typical of most later Vandal warriors. Many or most early Vandals probably fought on foot. (Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, Halle)

2. Silver spurs from a third-century Germanic noble’s grave in Leuna, Germany. They were possibly made from recycled Roman silver. Many of the early Vandals probably fought on foot but as the lesser warriors were cremated, we do not have detailed knowledge of their equipment. (British Museum, author’s photo)

3. These Sarmatian warriors depicted on Trajan’s column were the ancestors of the Alans who joined up with the Vandals. They were noted as heavily armoured cavalrymen and although some early Alans may also have been mounted archers, horse archery died out amongst those Alans who migrated with the Vandals into Spain and Africa. (Trajan’s Column, Rome, author’s photo).

4. This magnificent gilded Roman cavalry helmet from Deurne in the Netherlands is of a style that may also have been worn by wealthier Vandal warriors. Most Vandal arms and equipment came from Roman sources after they crossed the Rhine. A prestige piece of equipment such as this would have been a warrior’s prized possession. (Rijksmuseum voor Oudheden, Leiden, photo Michiel)

5. This page from a medieval copy of the Notitia Dignitatum shows the cities under the control of the Dux Mogontiacensis. With his headquarters at Mogontiacum (Mainz), he was the Roman officer responsible for the defence of the middle Rhine frontier where the Vandals crossed on the last day of 406. (Notitia Dignitatum, Bodleian manuscript)

6. A reconstructed ship of the Roman Rhine fleet. Such ships helped to protect the frontier. (The Museum of Ancient Shipping, Mainz)

7. This carving from around 395 depicts the half-Vandal general Stilicho, his wife, Serena, and son, Eucherius. Stilicho was widely criticised after his death for having let the Vandals into the Empire and then not taking any steps to defeat them. There is, however, no evidence of collusion. (Monza Cathedral)

8. This stele is thought to show an Alan. Wearing scale armour and carrying a lance, he would have been a formidable opponent in hand-to-hand combat. Although many Vandals probably had shields and shorter lances they did not use missile weapons. They often found themselves at a loss when confronted by the more lightly equipped Moors. (Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg)

9. In 425 the Vandals raided the Balearic Isles and North African coast, probably commandeering fishing boats such as the one depicted here on a North African mosaic. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

10. Transporting cavalry horses by sea was not impossible as this North African mosaic depicts. However, it would have required specialist transport ships, which the Vandals are unlikely to have possessed in 429. Most likely only a few horses came with them across the Straights of Gibraltar. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

11. The province of Africa Proconsularis was the most prosperous region of the West Roman Empire in the early fifth century. Luxurious villas, such as this of the Dominus Julius outside Carthage, provided food and taxes to keep the Empire running. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

12. Luxury ceramics known as African sigillata, characterised by its red slip, were exported all over the Roman Empire. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

14. This fifth-century wood carving from Egypt shows Roman soldiers defending a city from marauding tribesmen. With a garrison such as this, the city of Hippo Regius was able to hold out against the Vandals in 430-31. (Museum für Byzantinische Kunst, Berlin)

13. North Africa provided much of the produce that kept the West Roman Empire alive. This mosaic from Hadrumentum (Sousse) shows a merchant ship being offloaded and food supplies being weighed. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

15. This frontispiece from the Notitia Dignitatum emphasises the prosperity of Africa Proconsularis and the importance of maritime trade. The Comes Africae was the Roman official responsible for the defence of the Region with an army of 11,500 infantry and 9,500 cavalry at full strength. Boniface, who held the office in 429, was defeated by the Vandals in battle. (Notitia Dignitatum, Bodleian manuscript)

16. A silver plate celebrating the appointment of Flavius Ardabur Aspar as Consul of Africa in 434. Aspar was defeated in battle by Geiseric but briefly held onto Carthage under the terms of the treaty of 435. (National Archaeological Museum, Florence, photo by Sailko)

17. The ruins of Roman Carthage. The Vandals failed to take the city as long as it was well garrisoned but seized it in a surprise attack in 439. It then became their capital. (Antonine Baths, Carthage, author’s photo)

18. A necklace and earrings from the so-called Carthage Treasure, which was buried by the Cresconii family for safekeeping, probably when Geiseric attacked the city in 429. This combination of emeralds, sapphires and pearls was held in such high esteem that the Emperor Leo (447-474) restricted the wearing of such jewels to the Imperial family in later years. (British Museum, author’s photo)

19. A fifth-century funerary mosaic depicting a Roman banker from Thabraca (Tabarka) in Numidia. After the Vandal conquest Roman officials continued to administer the bureaucracy, gather taxes and keep things running in a profitable manner. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

20. This fifth-century funeral mosaic also from Thrabraca is of a ship owner by the name of Felix. Men such as he would have provided the expertise which enabled the Vandals to build a powerful fleet. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

21. The gravestone of a priest from the Basilica of Vitalis (Sbeitla) in Byzacena. He died on 12 September 467 in the twenty-eighth year of Geiseric’s reign. The Vandals vigourously persecuted the Roman orthodox clergy. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

22. This fourth-century mosaic from Dougga in North Africa depicts Ulysses tied to a mast to resist the Sirens. The single-banked galley carrying men equipped as late Roman soldiers would have been the sort of ships that took part in the failed expedition to reconquer Africa from the Vandals in 468. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

23. This surviving fragment of the column of Arcadius in Constantinople is a rare depiction of a fifth-century East Roman infantryman. Men such as this would have taken part in the 468 expedition. (Istanbul Archeological Museum, author’s photo)

24. The military port of Carthage could accommodate 220 warships in its heyday. Civilian ships were harboured in an adjoining port. Geiseric probably had around 300 ships under his command when he took control of the Western Mediterranean. (Port of Carthage, author’s photo)

25. This painting by Karl Briullov (1799–1852) depicts the Vandals’ fourteen-day sack of Rome in 455. It captures the popular image of modern times with savage barbarians and dark skinned ‘Moors’ carrying off helpless maidens, including the widow and daughters of the late Emperor. Few of the details are correct, however the figure of Pope Leo in negotiation with Geiseric is not far from the truth. The terms of the sack were worked out between the two outside the walls. Although the Vandals carried off everything of value, including the Imperial women and many other captives, there was probably less bloodshed than there would have been otherwise. (Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow)

26. This fragment of a large mosaic pavement from Carthage, shows a Vandal horseman riding in front of a villa he has appropriated from its former Roman owner. His clothing, including bare upper legs, shows how the Vandals adopted Roman styles suitable for the North African climate but his long hair marks him out as a Vandal. The brand on the horse’s rear, known as the tamga, is thought to be typical of the Sarmatians. As the Alans were a Sarmatian people this may have been an Alan tradition. Other mosaics depict horses with the same brand. (British Museum, author’s photo)

27. Another mosaic fragment from Carthage depicting a Vandal hunting. Procopius says that the Vandals clothed themselves in silk garments, ‘and passed their time, thus dressed, in hippodromes and in other pleasurable pursuits, and above all else in hunting’. (British Museum)

28. These items from a Vandal woman’s grave in North Africa show a mix of influences. The amber beads may be heirlooms from her original central European homeland. The gold and garnet earrings are of typical Germanic style, while the disk broaches show Mediterranean influences. (British Museum, author’s photo)

29. The engraving on this sixth-century Vandal belt buckle depicts a lion hunt, shows how the Vandals had adopted the lifestyles of the Roman aristocracy once they had settled in Africa. (British Museum, author’s photo)

30. The Moors were lightly equipped, fast moving cavalry and infantry who caused the Vandals no end of trouble after Geiseric’s death. Although this detail is from Trajan’s coloumn, they probably did not change much in appearance over the centuries. (Trajan’s column Rome, author’s photo)

31. A Vandal coin, probably from Gelimer’s reign, depicting a Vandal warrior which may be a likeness of the king himself. It shows many classical influences, including the horse head which was a common symbol of the ancient Carthaginians. (British Museum)

32. A reconstruction of a dromon, one of the small, fast galleys that protected Belisarius’ armada on the long voyage from Constantinople to Africa. It is likely that the Vandals also had such ships in their navy, although the majority were probably simple troop transports. Larger galleys were no longer in use at the time of the Vandals. (Model Ship Master)

33. This mosaic from Ravenna depicts the Emperor Justinian surrounded by ecclesiastic and secular officials as well as Roman guardsmen. Created in the mid-540’s after the reconquest of Africa and Italy, it is an evocative statement of Justinian’s power. The bearded man standing at Justinian’s right-hand side (on the left from the viewer’s perspective) could be Belisarius. (Church of San Vitale, Ravenna)

34. A silver dish from Isola Rizza near Verona probably depicting a sixth-century East Roman soldier riding down a Lombard. The Roman’s weapons and equipment show Alan influences and many men in both Gelimer’s and Belisarius’ armies would have looked quite similar. Most Vandals probably carried a shield and spear rather than the two-handed lance. (photo James Steakley)

35. This sixth-century Egyptian ivory shows late Roman troops. In the middle is a horse archer armed and equipped as described by Procopius. The Vandals had no tactical response to such troops who could both skirmish and fight in hand-to-hand combat. (Rheinisches Landes Museum Trier)

36. This hunting scene from the late fifth/early sixth-century probably depicts a Vandal. Although seemingly Roman in appearance, the way he wears his cloak and the undecorated tunic are different from Roman fashions. The loose, long trousers seem to have been quite common amongst Germanic warriors at the time of Justinian’s re-conquests. It is most unlikely than any Romans in North Africa would have remained in possession of their old grand estates. (Bardo Museum, author’s photo)

37. When Gelimer marched on Carthage prior to the Battle of Tricamarum in December 533, he cut the aqueduct that supplied the city with water. Water supplies held out as Carthage had twenty-four huge water cisterns capable of storing over 50 million litres of water. (La Malga, Tunisia, author’s photo)