1949 to the Present
In 1971 the administrative capital of Crete was moved from Chania to Iraklion, and in 1994 the prefects were elected for the first time. The national Kallikratis Programme reforms of 2011 then abolished the prefectures and replaced them with regional units. Crete now became an administrative region of Greece (its title being Periphereia Kritis), containing four regional units virtually identical to the previous prefectures. The reforms also saw the amalgamation of many dimoi (municipalities) into larger units.
Perhaps this is a good place to dispel another Cretan myth. Sometime around 2010, news articles began to claim that there was a growing movement for Crete to become independent from Greece. It was further asserted that, as part of the 1913 treaty which united Crete with Greece, the people of the island would have the opportunity to decide by a referendum in 2013 whether they wanted to leave Greece. Nobody seems to know where these rumours originated, or whether they were a hoax or a genuine ambition from some disenchanted quarters in the island. What is certain, as has been pointed out by several academics, is that there is no mention of such a referendum in the 1913 constitution. Nor is there any great desire for independence among the Cretans. Certainly, the people of the island often refer to themselves as Cretans first and Greeks second, but this is evidence of local pride rather than any desire to secede, in the same way that people who are proud of being from Yorkshire do not wish to leave the UK. Indeed, the opposite may be the case. As a perceptive American Cretophile wrote in 1905:
The Cretans have an intense enthusiasm for “Hellenism” in the abstract, and desire a union with Greece; but they have no exaggerated respect for the Greeks of the mainland ... Indeed, I often used to suspect that the true Cretan, in his secret mind, imagines that union means the annexation of Greece to Crete.1
After the end of the war, Greek politics was noted for its instability. Between 1945 and 1967, there were thirty-three changes of prime minister, including nine caretaker governments when no parliamentary majority could be formed. Against this background, Cretan politics was relatively stable. As noted in chapter 15, after unification with Greece, Crete remained staunchly Venizelist, and this trend continued after the war. The island generally voted for the Liberal Party of Sophokles Venizelos or, later, the Centre Union party of Georgios Papandreou. After the fall of the Greek junta and the restoration of democracy in 1974, the Greek parliament more or less settled down into a two-party system, with governments alternating between the conservative New Democracy (ND), founded by Konstantinos Karamanlis, and the left-of-centre Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), founded by Andreas Papandreou. From 1974 until 1990, Crete was a PASOK stronghold, with that party on occasions polling twice as many votes as ND.2 This trend continued into the 1990s, and in most elections the island returned a majority of PASOK members amongst its sixteen MPs, often against the national trend.
In the somewhat chaotic elections since 2012, Crete has generally swung behind the left-wing Coalition of the Radical Left (Syriza) party, although what the future now holds is anybody’s guess.3 Perhaps unsurprisingly, the right-wing Popular Orthodox Rally party has made little headway in Crete. In some parts of Greece, especially the islands most affected by the immigration crisis, the ultranationalist Golden Dawn party has seen a surge in support, giving it about eighteen seats in parliament. In Crete, on the other hand, there has been very little support, largely due to the perception of Golden Dawn as a neo-Nazi party. Although the party denies this, its reputation was enough for twenty-six villages in Crete to give no votes at all to Golden Dawn in the two elections of 2015. One of these villages was Anogeia, the scene of one of the worst of the massacres during the Second World War. Interviewed for Greek television, one old man there said, “With so many dead, so many homes razed, we all decided with the blood which our families shed, we would not vote for this barbaric ideology, which is a blot on humanity.”4 Another created a spontaneous mantinada: “The Anogeian carries great pride/Because he didn’t vote for the party that kills.”5
From 1967 to 1974, Greece was ruled by a military junta, which was characterised by strict curtailment of political liberties and civil rights, imprisonment or exile of opponents and intense (and enforced) patriotism. At the same time, the period saw high rates of economic growth, low inflation and low unemployment. There is little published information about the impact of military rule on Crete, but limited anecdotal evidence gained from personal interviews indicates that the junta was regarded mainly with indifference among the usually volatile islanders. Perhaps because of its relative isolation, and perhaps because one of the top three organisers of the coup, Stylianos Pattakos, was a Cretan, military rule on the island seems to have been relatively light. Even the requirement for all houses to display the Greek flag on national holidays was no problem for the inherently patriotic Cretans. For the rest, while accepting the road improvements, hospital building and debt relief for farmers initiated by the government, Cretans were generally prepared to wait patiently until the “aberration” disappeared. A common adjective used by mainland Greeks to describe Cretans is kouzoulos, which can be translated as “dotty” but also means not taking things too seriously. This characteristic was apparent during the junta years.
In spite of limitations on entertainment and a curfew on discos and nightclubs, tourism began to prosper, and, despite the inherent puritanism of the regime, a hippie colony at Matala was left largely undisturbed. The writings of a young Englishman travelling and working in Crete from 1968 to 1975 illustrate the laid-back attitude of the Cretans towards the strict laws of the junta. He described an evening in a taverna in Iraklion:
These tunes went on for a while, forty or fifty minutes with the women dancing then the mood changed and the next tune was much slower but more majestic. Four men stepped up onto the stage to dance and I was amazed to see that one of these men was the chief of police who had given me my work permit. He was not in uniform now, of course. The law laid down by the new military junta did not allow more than about five or six people to be together in a public place, but this is Crete, of course, here there were nearly five hundred people all enjoying themselves and not giving a damn about the government. Not least the chief of police. I smiled, what could I say. He certainly knew how to dance.6
During the post-war period, there has been an increase in population from about 440,000 in 1940 to over 600,000 in 2011. A slowdown in the 1950s – followed by a drop of 2.9% in the 1960s – may have been due to emigration, but has been more than compensated for by large increases from the 1970s onwards. The rural population peaked at 350,000 in 1951 (75% of the population of Crete), but then began to decline until, by the time of the 2011 census, 42% of the population lived in the main cities.7 There has been a general movement from inland villages to coastal tourist resorts, resulting in some of the more remote villages becoming almost deserted. As in the rest of Greece, the 2008 financial crisis led to emigration from Crete, especially among the young and better educated, but the still-thriving tourist industry has moderated the worst effects. Ironically, the recession also led to a slowdown in the rural decline, as unemployed youngsters moved back to the villages to live with their parents or grandparents.
The effects of emigration have been more than counteracted by immigration. The recession has led to an increase in young people moving to Crete from other parts of Greece, to seek work in the tourist industry. This is mainly seasonal. There are also many immigrants from more affluent European Union (EU) countries, who come to seek a more relaxed lifestyle, and work in tourism, property, teaching and trades. Most of these immigrants gravitate towards the coastal resorts or towns, but another group has migrated to all parts of the island. These are the retirees from northern Europe – mainly the UK, France, Germany and the Netherlands – looking for a place in the sun where they can live either permanently or for part of the year. This group has had a significant effect on the economy, and in some cases these expats have helped to bring deserted villages back to life.
Originally, economic immigrants to Crete came mainly from Albania, but later they increasingly hailed from fellow EU members such as Romania and Bulgaria, and more recently from Pakistan and various African countries. These immigrants generally work in less-skilled, lower-income jobs (usually in agriculture in rural areas, and in tourism or construction in towns), and in the context of a booming economy they pose little threat to Greek workers. After the crisis of 2008, however, there was a collapse in the property market and an 80% fall in activity in the construction sector. This has led to immigrants now competing with locals for low-paid jobs, although the flourishing tourist sector helps to mitigate the effects. In the 2001 census (the first to collect such information), non-Greeks represented 7.6% of the population of Crete, and it is forecast that this will increase to 10% by 2021, leading to a 4.8% increase in the total population of the island, at a time when the figures for Greece as a whole will remain static or fall.
To date, the European refugee crisis has not caused problems in Crete, as the majority of refugees tend to head for the mainland or the more northerly Greek islands. Recently, however, rumours of plans to rehouse substantial numbers of refugees in Crete have caused some rumbles of discontent.
In the immediate post-war period, the Cretan economy remained primarily agricultural. In spite of the move towards service industries – mainly tourism – which began in the 1970s, agriculture still accounted for about 38% of the economic activity on the island in 2016. Partly because of the landscape, there are few large-scale agricultural enterprises and most production comes from small farms, often still using traditional methods. From the 1950s, there was a rapid increase in the use of plastic greenhouses for cultivation of tomatoes and bananas, especially in the areas around Ierapetra and Malia. Unfortunately, this was accompanied by increasing use of pesticides and chemical fertilisers. In recent years, this trend has been counterbalanced by a growing interest in organic farming on the island. Greece joined the EU in 1980 and, in general, Crete has benefitted from Common Agricultural Policy subsidies for Cretan olive and sheep farmers.
The main exports continue to follow the traditional pattern: raisins, wine, olives, olive oil, fresh fruit, fresh vegetables, honey and herbs (both culinary and medicinal). Since interest in natural products and health foods is increasing, the latter four items are seeing something of a surge in demand. Cretan sheep and goat cheeses continue to be of high quality, especially local feta, anthotiros, mizithra and graviera. All types of Cretan cheese are finding an increasing export market. There is scope for better marketing of Cretan olive oil, which is of excellent quality, but much of which is exported to Italy to be blended with poorer-quality oil and re-exported, sometimes back to Greece. In an interesting development, Zaro’s natural mineral water, bottled from sources at the foot of Mount Psiloritis, was recently judged to be the best bottled water in the world. Zaro’s was awarded gold at the Berkley Springs International Water Tasting, in competition with over 600 bottled waters from around the world. It beat the £80-a-bottle Svalbarði Polar Iceberg Water into third place. Given the popularity of bottled water and the relative cheapness of Zaro’s, there must surely be an export opportunity here.8
Whether for wool, meat, milk or cheese, sheep and goats still play an important part in the economy. Herds are still grazed in the traditional way on higher pastures in summer, moving to lower valleys in winter. Much of this movement is now carried out by transporting the animals by lorry in autumn to industrial farming areas. In some parts of the island, however, the animals are moved in the traditional way by a herder and one or two dogs, and it is quite common, even on major trunk roads, to have to stop one’s car to allow a herd of sheep or goats to cross. Often, the only nod to modernity is that the shepherd follows his herd in a 4×4 rather than on foot. Fishing remains important on the coast, and is almost entirely carried out by individual fishermen in small caiques. The fish caught are relatively limited in quantity, but are of very good quality.
Due to the continuing strength of its agricultural sector and its strong tourism base, Crete has suffered less than many parts of Greece during the recession. The two sectors are, indeed, complementary, as the winter olive-picking season falls outside the main summer tourist season. For this reason, it is unlikely that attempts to extend the tourist season into the winter will be successful in Crete, although a later finish and earlier start are possible.
The major development in infrastructure has been the improvement of the road network. With assistance from an EU structural fund, the roads along the north coast between Chania and Siteia have been considerably improved over the last few years, the ultimate aim being a major trunk road for the entire length of the island. There have also been significant improvements to road access to the remoter areas, including the Lassithi plateau. In 2000, a study investigated the feasibility for two tram lines in Iraklion, one linking the stadium to the airport, and the other travelling between the centre of Iraklion and Knossos. No approval has yet been given for this proposal.
Disappointingly, the idea of a north coast railway remains a dream, in spite of support from the Green Party and detailed studies and plans published in 2007 and 2012. More feasible is the planned new airport at Kastelli, north-east of Iraklion, to replace the overstretched Nikos Kazantzakis Airport in Iraklion. Although the airport was originally set to be operational by 2018, the submissions process has been continuously postponed. Finally, in October 2016, a bid for the financing, construction and operation of the airport was made by a consortium comprising a local construction company and a major Indian group. There is no information yet on the next step, although major road improvements between Iraklion and Kastelli are continuing.
High and increasing demand for electricity in Crete, particularly during the tourist season, has put tremendous strain on the island’s power supply. Fortunately, its climate provides opportunities for expanding renewable energy sources. Although there is limited potential for wave power and agricultural biomass units, there have been developments in wind and solar power. Crete is an extremely windy island, and by 2014 thirty wind farms were producing 18.3% of Crete’s electricity. Over the last few years, solar power has also increased dramatically. Installations range from large solar thermal power plants to small solar panels on individual houses. Many hotels are installing large photovoltaic systems, and two have pointed the way to massive future savings in power demand by using solar-powered air conditioning plants.
Unfortunately, the post-war period has seen an increase in the number of bird and mammal species becoming endangered. The spiny mouse (Acomys minous) and Cretan shrew (Crocidura caneae) are unique to Crete and predate human occupation of the island. Both have been forced further and further into the mountainous highlands by habitat loss, and are now only to be found above 1,200 m. The Cretan shrew has also suffered by being displaced by the common shrew, and is classified as vulnerable. The spiny mouse is now very rare, but there is insufficient data to classify its status, which is probably somewhere between vulnerable and critically endangered.
The best-known Cretan mammal is the kri-kri, the Cretan wild goat (Capra aegagrus cretica), known since Minoan times and possibly introduced from Persia. Classified as vulnerable, its situation has improved a little. During the war, it was hunted almost to extinction by andartes hiding in the mountains, and in 1960 there were fewer than 200 surviving. After it was made a protected species, the population recovered somewhat, but it remains vulnerable both through human disturbance and by interbreeding with domestic goats. There have been successful attempts at repopulation by isolating groups of kri-kri on uninhabited islands like Thodorou, near Chania; Dia, north of Iraklion; and Aghioi Pandes, near Aghios Nikolaos. The total population is now about 2,000, mainly on these islands, the peaks of the Lefka Ori (White Mountains), and the remoter parts of the Samaria Gorge.
The loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), as in many parts of the world, is extremely vulnerable to environmental change. There is major danger from rubbish washed into the sea, particularly plastic bags, which the turtles mistake for edible jellyfish. In Crete, three important turtle nesting sites in Rethymnon, Chania and Messara Bay have been affected by the pressure of tourism, although there have been partially successful efforts to protect the sites by local volunteers and by the Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece. Nevertheless, there have been many sightings of dead turtles at various locations on the island, and constant vigilance is needed at the nesting sites.
The magnificent golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is now extremely rare in Crete, with only a few breeding pairs remaining in remote areas. The smaller Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciatus) has fared better and, although the population has declined, it is not endangered. The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), one of the rarest raptors in Europe, can now be found only above the tree line, and at one point the population was reduced to twenty-five individuals and four breeding pairs. A conservation project from 1998 to 2002 helped to reverse the decline by providing feeding stations in the mountains. An education project set up at the same time has brought the use of poisons and the shooting of raptors under control. In 2014, there were seven breeding pairs successfully producing five young. There were also six solitary adults, and it was hoped that they would breed with the young birds. The species is still extremely vulnerable, however, and in 2016 it was estimated that there were only nine or ten breeding pairs. The education programme also helped with the declining population of griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus), which had reduced from 200 breeding pairs in the 1980s to 140 in 2010. The process has been reversed, and griffon vultures are now fairly common in large numbers in all areas of the island.
In 1948, new forms of treatment for leprosy were developed, with impressive results. Over the subsequent few years, many patients were cured and allowed to return home. By 1957, only twenty patients remained on the island, and they were transferred to the Aghia Varvara Hospital in Athens, after which the Spinalonga colony was closed. The resident priest at the time, Father Chrysanthos, opted to stay on Spinalonga so that he could conduct memorial services for the dead on the first, third and fifth anniversaries of their deaths. He left after the final fifth anniversary in 1962. After this, Spinalonga was left derelict, with building materials and anything else useful being taken by local villagers.
That is not the end of the story, however. From the 1980s, restoration work began on the settlement buildings and the Venetian walls, and boats began to take tourists to the island. Many books were written about the leprosy colony, but it was probably The Island by Victoria Hislop, published in 2005, which put Spinalonga on the map.9 Since a television adaptation on a Greek channel in 2010, it has become a major tourist attraction for foreigners and Greeks alike, the second most popular archaeological site in Crete after Knossos. In an ironic twist, the Island of Tears has thus become a major source of income for the surrounding area.
In some respects, Crete is still a very traditional society, and even in the twenty-first century the Cretan dialect is widely spoken. Traditional costumes can still be seen in the countryside, not least because, for mountainous areas, they remain extremely practical. Like most Greeks, the vast majority of Cretans are baptised into the Orthodox Church. Although devoutness is definitely not what it was, especially among the young, and attendance is declining, the Church still plays an important role in the lives of most Cretans. This role is as much cultural as religious; the traditions of the Church provide continuity with the past which, to some extent, helps to counteract the influences of globalism and materialism. The art of iconography endures too: not only is there a host of highly skilled icon painters throughout Crete painting icons using traditional methods, but a number of original painters have added modern touches to the ancient themes and techniques. Like the icon painters of the Cretan Renaissance, some of these have taken their talents far and wide, working in churches on Mount Athos, and in Russia and the United States. On a more secular level, food in Crete also has a cultural aspect. In spite of the ubiquitous Coca-Cola and burgers, there are still few homes where you cannot find traditional dishes served regularly.
Notwithstanding the growing influence of American and European music, especially among young people, Cretan dances and music are still widely performed, and not just for the tourists. There are many local variations, but they are generally based on the old “warrior” dances representing heroism, dynamism and rebelliousness. Dances mostly for men – such as the Kastrinos from Iraklion, or the Pentozalis, which was reputedly invented by Daskalogiannis (see chapter 12) – are fast, with complicated steps and energetic leaps. In contrast, the Siganos, dating from Ottoman times, is a slower communal dance representing unity and freedom, while the Sousta, for both men and women, is a story of love and seduction. There are few wedding receptions that do not begin with a version of the Siganos in which the bride and groom are gradually joined by the best man or woman, the parents and eventually the whole extended family. During the heat of summer, when Athens virtually closes down, popular and famous Greek music groups travel around the country, performing in even the smallest villages.
As for poetry, the classic Erotokritos is still frequently recited or sung, either as a whole or in extracts. Not long back, I was present at a spontaneous performance of verses from the poem by a famous Cretan singer. Well-known mantinades and rizitika are also often sung informally at parties and celebrations. The great lyra player and composer Nikos Xylouris from Anogeia (who lived from 1936 to 1980) did much to popularise rizitika (and Cretan music generally) in the cities, before his early death at the age of forty-four. He was nicknamed the Archangel of Crete.
Rizitika and mantinades are not merely repetitions of archaic songs and poems, but living art forms. The great song of rebellion “When will the night be starry? When will it be February?”, mentioned in chapter 12, received a new lease of life under the military dictatorship in Greece when students sang it during their occupation of the polytechnic university in Athens in 1973. The line “to descend to Omalos” was changed to the words “to walk down to the Faculty of Law”. Mantinades are also still being composed. A delightful modern example comes from Aristides Chairetis, a shepherd from central Crete widely acknowledged as the greatest mantinada composer of today: “My thought goes out to my true love a million times a day./No wonder it is tired out and can no longer stray.”10 Moreover, as throughout their history, mantinades have remained relevant and up to date: “In the sheepcote I set up a modem to use,/For to sell on the Net the milk from my ewes.”11
Alongside these natural links with the past, tourism has played a part in restoring some of the traditional festivals and events that were in danger of dying out. For example, the village of Kritsa holds a traditional wedding every so often, when a young couple volunteer to follow all the old wedding customs for the benefit of visitors. Other villages have revived the old raki celebrations, when the first distillation of the year’s raki is sampled, or fish nights, when locally caught fish are barbecued to the accompaniment of music and dancing. Meanwhile, the EU has provided funds to aid the restoration of historical sites. There has also been an attempt to re-establish the famous windmills of Lassithi, which once covered the plateau but have since largely fallen into disuse and been replaced by diesel pumps.
One final aspect of Cretan culture that is worth mentioning is the increasing interest taken by Cretans in their own history and traditions. In 1953, the Historical Museum of Crete was founded, with exhibits ranging from the Byzantine era up to and including the Second World War. Since 1980, the Natural History Museum of Crete has helped to illustrate the flora and fauna of the island from prehistoric times to the present. At the same time, there has been a growth in the number of folk museums around the island, ranging from a few exhibits displayed in one room to the magnificent Lychnostatis openair museum near Chersonisos. The latter promotes understanding and awareness of Cretan folk heritage not only through exhibitions of old artefacts but also with gardens containing examples of indigenous Cretan plants, fruit trees and herbs, as well as a comprehensive collection of rocks and fossils found on the island. Even the building of the museum (from 1986 to 1992) was carried out using traditional manual methods of construction, with no mechanical aids.
As we have seen, archaeological excavations continue to reveal new insights into the ancient world, although financial constraints have curtailed some of the activity in recent years. All archaeological work takes place under the supervision of the Ministry of Culture and the University of Crete, often in co-operation with foreign universities (mainly British, American, French and Italian). It is also worth mentioning that recent refurbishments to the Heraklion Archaeological Museum and the Historical Museum of Crete have made them a joy to visit.
As well as maintaining its own cultural traditions, Crete has continued, as in previous eras, to export its talent to the wider Greek artistic scene. The great writer Nikos Kazantzakis produced his most famous novels in the 1940s and 1950s. Although he has been described as more of a philosopher than a novelist, it is his novels that have spread his fame worldwide, including Zorba the Greek (1946), Christ Recrucified (1948), Captain Michalis (1950, its UK title being Freedom and Death), The Last Temptation of Christ (1955) and Saint Francis (1956, its UK title being God’s Pauper). His Report to Greco, published posthumously in 1961, was a mixture of autobiography and fiction, and gave deep insights into his philosophy. The Last Temptation of Christ fell foul of the Roman Catholic Church and was included in the Vatican’s Index of Prohibited Books, a decision to which Kazantzakis responded with a letter to the Vatican quoting the third-century Christian philosopher Tertullian: “Ad tuum, Domine, tribunal appello” (“At Your court, Lord, I make my appeal”). The Greek Orthodox Church also accused him of heresy, blasphemy and irreverence – charges which he refuted in a letter to the Holy Synod:
You have execrated me, Holy Fathers; I bless you. I pray that your conscience may be as clean as mine and that you may be as moral and as religious as I am.12
In spite of continuing rumours to the contrary, and although he came close to it, Kazantzakis was never actually excommunicated by the Orthodox Church. Indeed, after his death, his coffin was laid in the Cathedral of Saint Minas in Iraklion for people to pay their respects, after which he was given an Orthodox funeral by the Archbishop of Crete. He was buried on the Martinengo Bastion, the highest point of the Venetian walls of Iraklion. On his tombstone, at his request, are the words, “I fear nothing, I hope for nothing, I am free.” In 1968, the Patriarch of Constantinople Athinagoras stated that “Kazantzakis’s books adorn the Patriarchal Library”.
One of the greatest Greek literary figures of modern times, Odysseas Elytis (who lived from 1911 to 1996), was born in Iraklion, although his family moved to Athens during his school years.13 His poetry, often described as “romantic modernism”, is complex and richly textured, with references to Ancient Greece and Byzantium mingled with a sort of twentieth-century mythology. The citation for his receipt of the Nobel Prize for Literature, which he won in 1979, declared:
[His poetry] depicts with sensual strength and intellectual clear sightedness, modern man’s struggle for freedom and creativity ... [In] its combination of fresh, sensuous flexibility and strictly disciplined implacability in the face of all compulsion, Elytis’ poetry gives shape to its distinctiveness, which is not only very personal but also represents the traditions of the Greek people.14
One of his most famous creations is To Axion Esti (Worthy it is), written in 1959 and set to music in 1964 by Mikis Theodorakis (who himself has a Cretan father, although he was born in Chios). It is a long and intricate cycle of poetry and prose exploring his own life, the richness of Greek culture and tradition and the human condition. The language is difficult and, as acknowledged by translators, not easy to do justice to in English. The following is a tiny sample, and the powerful music for the oratorio by Theodorakis is well worth seeking out:
The blood of love has robed me in purple
And joys never seen before have covered me in shade.
I’ve become corroded in the south wind of humankind,
Oh distant mother, my rose unfading.
On the open sea they lay in wait for me,
With triple-masted men-of-war they bombarded me,
My sin that I too had a love of my own,
Oh distant mother, my rose unfading.
Once in July her large eyes
Half-opened, deep down in my bowels,
For a moment to light up the pure life,
Oh distant mother, my rose unfading.
And since that day the wrath of ages
Has turned on me, shouting out the curse:
“He who saw you, let him live in blood and stone,”
Oh distant mother, my rose unfading.
Once again I took the shape of my native country,
I grew and flowered among the stones.
And the blood of killers I redeem with light,
Oh distant mother, my rose unfading.15
Also born in Iraklion, in 1939, the great Greek composer Giannis Markopoulos moved to Athens to complete his musical studies at the age of seventeen. He moved again to England in 1967 when the junta came to power, and studied under several eminent British composers, including Elisabeth Lutyens. Returning to Athens in 1969, he organised performances of his work, which not only revolutionised Greek music but acted as thinly veiled criticisms of the junta and support for those protesting against it. Working alongside Nikos Xylouris, he developed music which combined Cretan instruments with standard western orchestras (for example, the beautiful Concerto Rhapsody for lyra and orchestra). Among his enormous output, it is worth mentioning two other pieces: the large-scale choral work Liturgy of Orpheus, and Re-Naissance: Crete – Between Venice and Constantinople, a massive symphony dealing with the Cretan influence on the empires that invaded and ruled the island. Like many Greek composers, Markopoulos does not see any distinction between high art and popular music, and his composition most familiar to English listeners is almost certainly the music for the 1977 BBC series Who Pays the Ferryman?, which is set in Crete.
Other children of Crete, like Elytis, only have a tenuous link to the island but are nevertheless claimed by Cretans as their own. Nana Mouskouri, one of the bestselling singers of all time – and, to many people, “the voice of Greece” – was born in Chania in 1934, but moved with her family to Athens when she was three years old. In July 2008, just before her final concert in Athens, she gave an emotional farewell performance in Chania. Less famous is Giannis Anastasakis, born in Chania, whose parents emigrated to the United States in 1935 when he was two years old. Under his anglicised name of John Aniston, he appeared in many American television films and series, including Days of Our Lives. He is the father of the actress Jennifer Aniston, star of the sitcom Friends.
The landscape and culture of Crete have been spread around the world by film and television.16 Perhaps the most famous example is the 1964 film Zorba the Greek starring Anthony Quinn, Alan Bates and Irene Papas, based on the Kazantzakis book. Filming locations used included the town of Chania, the Apokoronas region and the Akrotiri peninsula. The famous Sirtaki dance scene, with music by Theodorakis, was filmed on the beach of the village of Stavros. In the same year, Disney’s The Moon-Spinners, starring Hayley Mills, was released. It was far from being such a classic as Zorba, but included some interesting location shots of the countryside around Elounda. In 1968, the German director Werner Herzog made the short film Letzte Worte (Last Words). Set on the island of Spinalonga, it tells the story of the last man to leave the island after the leprosy colony was closed. Depending on your point of view, it could be described as unconventional, avant-garde, thought-provoking or just weird.
In the 1970s, two BBC drama series written by Michael J. Bird helped to put one part of Crete on the map. The Lotus Eaters was filmed in and around Aghios Nikolaos and broadcast from 1972 to 1973. Starring Ian Hendry and Wanda Ventham, it now looks somewhat dated, but contains some interesting location shots. Michael J. Bird’s subsequent Cretan series has worn much better. Set and largely filmed in Elounda, Who Pays the Ferryman? stars Jack Hedley and was broadcast in 1977. The theme tune by Markopoulos became a hit in the UK in 1978. These two series were largely responsible for an upsurge in tourism in the area from the late 1970s onwards.
And so we come to the last – to date – invaders of Crete: the tourists. No battles were involved this time, but it is possible that the longterm effects of tourism could be as far-reaching as previous military invasions.
Until the post-war period, Crete was virtually unknown as a holiday destination, except by individuals or small groups of intrepid travellers, some of whose experiences are quoted in previous chapters. There was little change in the 1960s and early 1970s, when Crete was “discovered” by backpackers and hippies. Many of them settled in the caves at Matala on the south coast, a place made famous in Joni Mitchell’s song Carey, the lyrics of which can be found on her website.17 Apart from the hippies, of whom the government strongly disapproved, tourism was actively encouraged by the junta, and by 1973 the number of tourists to Crete had risen to about 31,000 annually, dropping to 24,700 after the restoration of democracy in 1974.
For the next fifteen years, there was a slow but steady increase in the number of visitors to the island, but it wasn’t until the 1990s that the real boom occurred. Available statistics are only for international arrivals to Crete by air, and do not include internal flights from other parts of Greece or arrivals by sea. Nevertheless, the figures are impressive: 1.5 million visitors in 1990, 2.5 million in 1997 and 2.8 million in 2007. Due to the recession, tourism then stagnated a little for a few years, but began to recover in 2012, reaching 3.5 million in 2014. In 2008, tourism accounted for 40% of the island’s income and 36% of employment, while many other sectors, especially services, are heavily dependent on tourism. Most tourists come from Europe – mainly the United Kingdom, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Scandinavia. There is also a big influx of Italians during their annual holiday period in July. In recent years, increasing numbers of Russians have visited Crete, which has in turn led to a rise in investment from Russia, including in new hotels. In 2017, Time magazine chose Crete as the third most important place in the world to visit, while it was placed sixth in the world and fourth in Europe in TripAdvisor’s Travellers’ Choice awards.
The 20% increase in the population of Crete during the holiday season has, of course, put considerable strain on public services, but on the whole, transport, rubbish collection, water supply, electricity supply and availability of parking are just about holding their own. The exception is Iraklion airport, which can be a nightmare in peak season. The increase in flights to the small airports at Chania and Siteia has done little to improve the situation, but the new airport at Kastelli should solve the problem, if the project ever comes to fruition.
There has also been pressure on the environment due to new hotels and holiday complexes springing up at an alarming rate. To date, however, development has been regulated and hotels are limited to three floors, to avoid the rows of skyscrapers that mar the beauty of some Spanish resorts. In 2014, a bill was presented in the Greek parliament allowing hotels and other businesses to claim stretches of coastline for the exclusive use of their customers, but a massive outcry forced its withdrawal. Currently, all beaches in Crete remain open to the public and free to use, except for charges for sunbeds and umbrellas. The biggest environmental impact has undoubtedly been an increase in sea pollution. Although most Cretan beaches are kept clean and many have been awarded Blue Flags, rubbish and waste washed into the sea has had an impact on sea life, particularly the loggerhead sea turtle.
The rise in all-inclusive holiday packages has had a negative impact on local village tavernas, bars and shops in parts of Crete, but so far there has been little attempt to counteract this damage. Most of the resorts are foreign owned, and contribute almost nothing to the local economy. It is unlikely that the situation will improve without government intervention. Restriction of licences could halt the steadily increasing number of all-inclusive resorts, while aggressive marketing of the joys of participating in the authentic Greek experience could help.18
Many cruise ships now include Chania, Iraklion and Aghios Nikolaos in their schedules, and this has had a generally positive effect on the economies of these towns. There are concerns about the potential for environmental damage from waste and oil spillage, but, according to the coastguard, there is little evidence of this to date.
In one sense, the only certainty about Crete is that its future will be very different from its past. The cultural influences of globalisation, the Internet and immigration from northern Europe are already visible in ways that are subtle but significant. Three examples will illustrate this point – two relatively trivial, and the third extremely dangerous.
Firstly, about fifteen years ago, Crete discovered the joys of northern European Christmas decorations, including lights, trees and Father Christmas figures. These, however, supplemented the traditional Cretan celebration of Christmas, rather than replacing it.
Secondly, twenty years ago, dogs were only kept for hunting or guarding property, but now – possibly under the influence of UK and German immigrants – an increasing number of Cretan families own a pet dog.
Thirdly, the healthy aspects of the Cretan diet are taking a severe beating from the encroachment of junk food and fizzy drinks, and child obesity is fast becoming as big a problem in Crete as it is in the UK.
On the other hand, as noted above, the people of Crete still show their historic resilience in retaining those aspects of their culture that are most important to them, such as the Orthodox faith, Cretan music and dancing, and, up to a point, their food. It is always dangerous to generalise, especially about a whole group of people, but social scientist Diana Conyers has made a convincing argument about Crete’s adaptability:
Over the centuries, the Cretans developed the capacity to take what they wanted from the invaders and ignore what was of no benefit to them, to tolerate them if they did not cause too much trouble and to revolt against them if they did.19
It seems that most of Conyers’ statements remain true in relation to the explosion of tourism, while there is even an occasional glimpse of her latter point about revolting. When Spinalonga first became a popular excursion site, the tourist coaches would drop visitors at the boats and pick them up as soon as they returned from the island. This meant that, apart from the boat owners, local businesses gained no benefit from the visits to Spinalonga. The businessmen of Elounda therefore blockaded the only road into the village until the coach companies agreed to give the visitors at least an hour in the village for shopping and eating. The rebellious spirit still lives!
To sum up, in spite of all difficulties, it is likely that the spirit of Crete will survive. It is appropriate that the final words of this history should go to a Cretan in the form of a mantinada:
Όσο θα στέκει να κτυπά ήλιος στον Ψηλορείτη,
Θα στέκει και θα πολεμά και θα γλεντίζει η Κρήτη
As long as the sun rises over Mount Psiloriti,
So long will we stand up to fight and to party in Kriti.20