Notes

Prologue

1. Frost: Interview with phillip Frost. The Sunshine State. WLRN, June 12, 2017.

2. Hansen: Jeff Goodell. “We Must Act Now.” Rolling Stone, August 20, 2009, 65.

3. twenty to thirty feet: Andrew Dutton et al. “Sea-Level Rise Due to Polar Ice-Sheet Mass Loss During Past Warm Periods.” Science 349, no. 6244 (2015).

4. four hundred feet: Richard B. Alley et al. “Ice-Sheet and Sea-Level Changes.” Science 310, no. 5747 (October 21, 2005), 457.

5. six inches: Robert Kopp et al. “Temperature-Driven Global Sea-Level Variability in the Common Era.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 11 (2016), 1435.

6. twice the rate: Carling C. Hay et al. “Probabilistic Reanalysis of Twentieth-Century Sea-Level Rise.” Nature 517, no. 7535 (2015), 481.

7. eight feet by 2100: The estimated sea-level rise for 2100 in the most recent report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is twenty-six to ninety-eight centimeters (about one foot to three feet). But this does not include contributions from marine-based ice sheets in Antarctica, in part because, at the time the IPCC report was finalized, there was not enough confidence in scientists’ understanding of the dynamics of these ice sheets to make any sound projections. (New research published since the IPCC report was finalized has resolved some of that uncertainty.) See John Church and Peter Clark et al. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/

In 2017, the US’s National Oceanic Atmospheric Association did its own evaluation of future sea-level rise, which included more recent papers on ice dynamics on main Antarctica. Not surprisingly, the NOAA paper comes up with bigger numbers than did the IPCC, suggesting that we could see between 30 centimeters and 2.5 meters of sea-level rise by 2100 (one foot to more than eight feet). See William Sweet et al. “Global and Regional Sea-Level Rise Scenarios for the United States.” NOAA technical report January 2017, vi. https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/techrpt83_Global_and_Regional_SLR_Scenarios_for_the_US_final.pdf

8. hottest year: “NASA, NOAA Data Show 2016 Warmest Year on Record Globally.” NASA press release, January 18, 2017. Accessed March 3, 2017. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-noaa-data-show-2016-warmest-year-on-record-globally

9. thirty-six degrees: Chris Mooney and Jason Samenow. “The North Pole Is an Insane Thirty-Six Degrees Warmer Than Normal as Winter Descends.” Washington Post, November 17, 2016.

10. thirteen feet: Pierre Deschamps et al. “Ice-Sheet Collapse and Sea-Level Rise at the Bølling Warming 14,600 Years Ago.” Nature 483, no. 7391 (2012), 559.

11. “Stonehenge”: David Archer. The Long Thaw: How Humans Are Changing the Next 100,000 Years of Earth’s Climate (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 1.

12. time to adapt: Sweet et al., “Global and Regional Sea-Level Rise Scenarios for the United States,” 12.

13. two hundred feet: Ricarda Winkelmann et al. “Combustion of Available Fossil Fuel Resources Sufficient to Eliminate the Antarctic Ice Sheet.” Science Advances September 11, 2015, vol. 1, no. 8.

14. Zillow: Krishna Rao. “Climate Change and Housing: Will a Rising Tide Sink All Homes?” Zillow, August 2, 2016. Accessed March 2, 2017. https://www.zillow.com/research/climate-change-underwater-homes-12890/

15. $100 trillion: Jochen Hinkel et al. “Coastal Flood Damage and Adaptation Costs under 21st Century Sea-Level Rise.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 9 (2014), 3292.

16. 145 million people: David Anthoff et al. “Global and Regional Exposure to Large Rises in Sea-Level: A Sensitivity Analysis.” Report by the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research (2006), 8.

17. people will be displaced: Benjamin H. Strauss et al. “Mapping Choices: Carbon, Climate, and Rising Seas, Our Global Legacy.” Climate Central Research Report (November 2015), 5. A slightly different way of looking at populations of displaced people can be found in Robert Nicholls et al. “Sea-level rise and Its Possible Impacts Given a ‘Beyond 4 C World’ in the Twenty-first Century.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 369 (2011), 161–181. A good discussion of the complexity of estimating the number of people who will be displaced by rising seas can be found in Michal Lichter et al. “Exploring Data-Related Uncertainties in Analyses of Land Area and Population in the ‘Low-Elevation Coastal Zone.’” Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 27, no. 4 (July 2011), 757–768.

Chapter 1

1. R/V Knorr: Kathryn Eident. “Farewell to the Knorr.” Oceanus, December 1, 2014.

2. 14,500 years ago: Jessi Halligan et al. “Pre-Clovis Occupation 14,550 Years Ago at the Page-Ladson Site, Florida, and the Peopling of the Americas.” Science Advances 2, no. 5 (May 1, 2016), e1600375.

3. more than a foot per decade: Pierre Deschamps et al. “Ice-Sheet Collapse and Sea-Level Rise at the Bølling Warming 14,600 Years Ago.” Nature 483, no. 7391 (March 29, 2012), 559.

4. five hundred to six hundred feet a year: Personal communication with Jessi Halligan, October 2016.

5. A Grammar of Yidi : R. M. W. Dixon, A Grammar of Yidi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972).

6. “In the beginning, as far back as we remember…”: Patrick D. Nunn and Nicholas J. Reid. “Aboriginal Memories of Inundation of the Australian Coast Dating from More Than 7,000 Years Ago.” Australian Geographer 47, no. 1 (September 7, 2015), 12.

7. islands like Fitzroy: Ibid., 26.

8. even earlier flood story in The Epic of Gilgamesh: Irving Finkel. The Ark Before Noah (New York: Anchor, 2014), 35.

9. “It’s hard to imagine the terror…”: William Ryan and Walter Pitman. Noah’s Flood (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 235.

10. It’s not a thesis all scientists accept: Liviu Giosan et al. “Was the Black Sea Catastrophically Flooded in the Early Holocene?” Quaternary Science Reviews 28, no. 1 (January 2009), 1–6.

11. Calusa: Victor D. Thompson et al. “From Shell Midden to Midden-Mound: The Geoarchaeology of Mound Key, an Anthropogenic Island in Southwest Florida, USA.” Karen Hardy, ed. PLoS ONE 11, no. 4 (April 28, 2016), 46.

Chapter 2

1. $25-million Mediterranean Revival mansion: Debora Lima. “Former Miami Beach Home of Lenny Kravitz Listing for $25 Million.” Miami Herald, March 27, 2016.

2. “each of us began”: Rachel Carson. The Sea Around Us (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), 14.

3. A few billion years ago: Albert C. Hine. Geologic History of Florida (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013), 47.

4. ooids: Ibid., 197.

5. In the pancake-flat topography: Ibid., 199.

6. Julia Tuttle: T. D. Allman. Finding Florida (New York: Grove/Atlantic, 2013), 320.

7. the memoirs of George Merrick: Arva Moore Parks. George Merrick, Son of the South Wind (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2015), 68–72.

8. By 1909, dredging of the Miami Canal: T. D. Allman. Miami (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013), 239.

9. “From the time the Hebrews…”: Michael Grunwald. The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007), 176.

10. “The suntan, once a symbol of labor…”: Ibid.

11. “There is something very distressing…”: Ibid., 174.

12. “Virgin jungle crept right down…”: Jerry M. Fisher. The Pacesetter (Victoria, BC: FriesenPress, 2014), 208.

13. Jane Austen observed: Cited in John R. Gillis. The Human Shore (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 115.

14. “aesthetic conquest of the shore…”: Ibid., 149.

15. Jack Peacock: Fisher, The Pacesetter, 141.

16. a New Jersey farmer named John Collins: Ibid., 142.

17. “Creatures that made me shudder”: Mark Davis, ed. American Experience: “Mr. Miami Beach.” WGBH, Boston, 1998.

18. “sloppy Cream of Wheat”: Fisher, The Pacesetter, 161.

19. “The bayside gradually began”: Ibid., 165.

20. “Hundreds of Negroes”: Davis, American Experience: “Mr. Miami Beach.”

21. Venice of America: Beth Duff Sanders. “Affluent Area Has Problems and Squabbles Too.” Sun Sentinel, April 26, 1989.

22. “Hardly anybody talks of anything…”: Davis, American Experience: “Mr. Miami Beach.”

23. “the first man smart enough to discover…”: Fisher, The Pacesetter, 320.

24. “Miami Beach was isolated in a sea…”: Quoted in Polly Redford. Billion-Dollar Sandbar: A Biography of Miami Beach (New York: Dutton, 1970), 123.

25. September 18, 1926: Fisher, The Pacesetter, 300–304.

26. fifteen-foot tsunami: Grunwald, The Swamp, 192.

27. “Miami Beach has based its economy…”: Jerry Iannelli. “Miami Beach Plans to Use Alarming Ads to Scare Away Airbnb-Style Renters.” Miami New Times, September 8, 2016.

28. “the poor people who suffered…”: Grunwald, The Swamp, 180.

29. “Sure, some lives were lost…”: Ibid., 188.

Chapter 3

1. entire surface of the ice sheet: “An Intense Greenland Melt Season: 2012 in Review.” Nsidc.org, February 5, 2013. Accessed February 12, 2017. http://nsidc.org/greenland-today/2013/02/greenland-melting-2012 in review/

2. River Thames: According to Jason Box, peak discharge on the Watson River during the 2012 heat wave averaged 1,200 cubic meters per second and peaked at 3,200 cubic meters per second. This highest recorded flow on the Thames was 275 cubic meters per second in January 2014. See Matt McGrath. “River Thames Breaks Records for Water Flows in January.” BBC News, February 13, 2014. Accessed May 3, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-26175213

3. risks in Greenland and Antarctica: “Quick Facts on Ice Sheets.” National Snow and Ice Data Center. Nsidc.org. Accessed February 19, 2017. https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/quickfacts/icesheets.html

4. seven billion human beings: “Richard Alley at INSTAAR, April 2015.” University of Colorado Boulder, April 6, 2015.

5. West Antarctica: John Mercer. “West Antarctic Ice Sheet and CO₂ Greenhouse Effect: A Threat of Disaster.” Nature 271, 1978, 1–5. See also Ian Joughin et al. “Marine Ice Sheet Collapse Potentially Under Way for the Thwaites Glacier Basin, West Antarctica.” Science 344 (May 2014), 735–38.

6. raise the seas ten to thirteen feet: Personal communication with Penn State glaciologist Richard Alley, February 7, 2017.

7. glaciologist Jay Zwally: Jay Zwally et al. “Surface Melt–Induced Acceleration of Greenland Ice-Sheet Flow.” Science 297, no. 5579 (July 12, 2002), 218–22.

8. fingerprinting: Jerry X. Mitrovica et al. “The Sea-Level Fingerprint of West Antarctic Collapse.” Science 323, no. 5915 (February 6, 2009), 753–53.

9. water would rise thirteen feet: William Sweet et al. “Global and Regional Sea Level Rise Scenarios for the United States.” NOAA Technical Report NOS CO-OPS 083 (January 2017), 17.

10. three times as much ice: Darryl Fears. “New Study Affirms Ice-Sheet-Loss Estimates in Greenland, Antarctica.” Washington Post, November 29, 2012.

11. trillion tons: Chelsea Harvey. “Greenland Lost a Staggering One Trillion Tons of Ice in Just Four Years.” Washington Post, July 19, 2016.

12. Crystal Serenity: Will Oremus. “The Upside of Global Warming: Luxury ‘Northwest Passage’ Cruises for the Filthy Rich.” Slate, August 17, 2016. Accessed March 3, 2017. http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2016/08/17/crystal_serenity_s_northwest_passage_cruise_is_a_festival_of_environmental.html

13. three degrees Fahrenheit: Andrea Thompson. “2016 ‘Arctic Report Card’ Gives Grim Evaluation.” Climate Central, December 14, 2016. Accessed February 20, 2017. http://www.climatecentral.org/news/2016-arctic-report-card-grim-20968

14. California’s recent record drought: S. Y. Wang et al. “Probable Causes of the Abnormal Ridge Accompanying the 2013–2014 California Drought: ENSO Precursor and Anthropogenic Warming Footprint.” Geophysical Research Letters 41, no. 9 (May 16, 2014), 3220–26.

15. summer climate extremes: Michael Mann et al. “Influence of Anthropogenic Climate Change on Planetary Wave Resonance and Extreme Weather Events.” Scientific Reports 7 (March 27, 2017), 45242.

16. “Scientists didn’t expect to see…”: Author interview with Michael Mann, June 2013.

17. giant cloud of water: “Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water.” NASA.gov, July 22, 2011. https://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html

18. scientists have calculated: N. B. Karlsson et al. “Volume of Martian Midlatitude Glaciers from Radar Observations and Ice Flow Modeling.” Geophysical Research Letters, 42 (April 28, 2015), 2627.

19. three feet of ice: Cassie Stuurman et al. “SHARAD detection and characterization of subsurface water ice deposits in Utopia Planitia, Mars.” Geophysical Research Letters 43 (2016), 9484–9491.

20. icy comets: Brian Greene. “How Did Water Come to Earth?” Smithsonian, May 2013.

21. Milutin Milankovitch: Steve Graham. “Milutin Milankovitch.” NASA Earth Observatory, March 24, 2000. Accessed March 1, 2017. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Milankovitch/

22. Thomas Jefferson: Amy Dusto. “Reading Between the Tides: 200 Years of Measuring Global Sea Level.” Climate.gov, August 4, 2014. Accessed February 20, 2017. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-tech/reading-between-tides-200-years-measuring-global-sea-level

23. glacial rebound: “Glacial Rebound: The Not So Solid Earth.” NASA.gov, August 26, 2015. Accessed March 10, 2017. http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/glacial-rebound-the-not-so-solid-earth

24. thermal expansion: John Church and Peter Clark et al. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1161.

25. Cape Hatteras: Paul B. Goddard et al. “An Extreme Event of Sea-Level Rise Along the Northeast Coast of North America in 2009–2010.” Nature Communications 6 (February 24, 2015), 6346.

26. time machine: Jerry X. Mitrovica et al. “Reconciling Past Changes in Earth’s Rotation with Twentieth-Century Global Sea-Level Rise: Resolving Munk’s Enigma.” Science Advances 1, no. 11 (December 1, 2015), e1500679–79.

27. “Jason was smart…”: Cited in Jeff Goodell. “The Ice Maverick.” Rolling Stone, August 3, 2013.

28. James Hansen: James Hansen and Larissa Nazarenko. “Soot Climate Forcing via Snow and Ice Albedos.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101, no. 2 (January 13, 2004), 423–28.

29. collapsed in spectacular fashion: “Larsen B Ice Shelf Collapses in Antarctica.” Nsidc.org, March 18, 2002. Accessed March 2, 2017. https://nsidc.org/news/newsroom/larsen_B/2002.html

30. “It was mind-blowing…”: Interview with the author, July 2016.

31. “It showed us how much…”: Interview with the author, August 2016.

32. 2013 IPCC report: John Church and Peter Clark et al. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

33. exponential increase: James Hansen et al. “Ice Melt, Sea-Level Rise, and Superstorms: Evidence from Paleoclimate, Data, Climate Modeling and Modern Observations that 2°C Global Warming Could Be Dangerous.” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 23 (2015), 20063.

34. three feet of sea-level rise by 2100: Robert DeConto and David Pollard. “Contribution of Antarctica to Past and Future Sea-Level Rise.” Nature 531, no. 7596 (March 30, 2016), 591.

35. “OMG thing…”: Quoted in Don Jergler. “RIMS 2016: Sea-Level Rise Will Be Worse and Come Sooner.” Insurance Journal, April 12, 2016, 64.

Chapter 4

1. $100 million: Erica Martinson. “Obama’s Budget Shows Alaska’s on the President’s Mind.” Alaska Dispatch News, February 9, 2016.

2. twice as fast: “Climate Impacts in Alaska.” EPA.gov. Accessed February 21, 2017. https://www.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-alaska

3. thirty-five thousand stressed-out walruses: The Associated Press. “Alaska: Walrus Again Crowd onto Shore.” New York Times, September 10, 2015.

4. $3.7-billion budget shortfall: Tim Bradner. “Fiscal Year 2016 Budget Deficit Estimated at $3.7 Billion.” Alaska Journal of Commerce, July 8, 2015.

5. 30 percent of the known natural gas reserves: US Energy Information Administration. “Arctic Oil and Natural Gas Resources.” Eia.gov, January 20, 2012. Accessed March 4, 2017. http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=4650

6. sixty feet of shoreline: Nichelle Smith and Sattineni Anoop. “Effect of Erosion in Alaskan Coastal Villages.” Proceedings of Fifty-Second ASC Annual International Conference, 2016, 98.

Chapter 5

1. “the Trump of the Tropics”: Siobhan Morrissey. “Twenty-Five Most Influential Hispanics in America.” Time, August 22, 2005.

2. $55 million: “Museum Receives $40 Million Gift from Miami Developer Jorge M. Pérez.” PAMM.org, December 1, 2011. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://www.pamm.org/about/news/2011/museum-receives-40-million-gift-miami-developer-jorge-m-pérez

See also “Pérez Art Museum Miami Receives $15 Million Gift from Philanthropist and Patron of the Arts Jorge M. Pérez.” PAMM.org, November 30, 2016. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://pamm.org/about/news/2016/pérez-art-museum-miami-receives-15-million-gift-philanthropist-and-patron-arts-jorge

3. one out of every five condos: Personal communication with condo analyst Peter Zalewski, February 21, 2017.

4. “He dares to dream…”: Jorge Pérez. Powerhouse Principles (New York: Penguin, 2008), xi.

5. $2.8 billion: “The Forbes 400.” Forbes.com. Accessed February 21, 2017. http://www.forbes.com/profile/jorge-perez/

6. More than three quarters of the population: “National Coastal Population Report.” NOAA’s State of the Coast website, March 2013.

7. the Risky Business Project: “Risky Business: The Economic Risks of Climate Change in the United States.” The Risky Business Project, June 2014.

8. one third: Personal communication with Miami-Dade Tax Collector’s Office, January 20, 2017.

9. Foreign nationals: Nichola Nehamas. “Buying a Home in Miami-Dade Is So Expensive It Could Hurt the Economy.” Miami Herald, February 9, 2017.

10. Cash deals: “Feds Want to Know Who’s Behind Purchases in Number One Cash Real Estate Market Miami.” Zillow, January 13, 2016. Accessed March 2, 2017. https://www.zillow.com/blog/cash-buyers-in-real-estate-market-190774/

11. $25 billion: “Hurricanes in History.” National Hurricane Center. Accessed February 21, 2017. http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/outreach/history/#andrew

12. $2 billion in additional damage: Harvey Liefert. “Sea-Level Rise Added $2 Billion to Sandy’s Toll in New York City.” Eos, March 16, 2015. Accessed May 1, 2017. https://eos.org/articles/sea-level-rise-added-2-billion-to-sandys-toll-in-new-york-city

13. $23 billion in debt: United States Government Accountability Office. “GAO Report to Congressional Committees: High Risk Series.” February 2017.

14. $428 billion in property value: See “Policy Information by State” section at FEMA.gov. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://bsa.nfipstat.fema.gov/reports/1011.htm

15. 346,742 policies: Ibid.

16. modest reforms: Ann Carrns. “Federal Flood Insurance Premiums for Homeowners Rise.” New York Times, April 2, 2015.

17. ten thousand properties: Jake Martin. “Proposed FEMA Maps Remove over 10,000 Structures from St. Johns County Flood Zones.” St. Augustine Record, July 14, 2016.

18. Royal Russian Midgets: Theo Karantsalis. “Sweetwater’s History Rich with Circus-Like Troubles.” Miami Herald, December 12, 2014.

19. poorest cities: “QuickFacts: Sweetwater, Florida.” United States Census Bureau. Accessed February 21, 2017. www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045216/1270345,12,56037,00

20. “ground zero”: Marc Caputo. “2013: A Dirty Year When It Came to Public Corruption in Miami-Dade.” Miami Herald, December 28, 2013.

21. $17-million budget: “City of Sweetwater Adopted Budget FY 2016–2017.” Cityofsweetwater.fl.gov, 2017. Accessed March 1, 2017. http://cityofsweetwater.fl.gov/documents/Budget%202016-2017%20FINAL%20ADOPTED%20BUDGET.pdf

Chapter 6

1. “Time is water…”: Charles Fenyvesi. “The City Nobel Laureate Joseph Brodsky Called Paradise.” Smithsonian Journeys, Winter, 2015, 68–72.

2. Giovanni da Cipelli: Egnazio’s edict, translated from engraving on a marble slab in Museo Correr, Venice. http://correr.visitmuve.it/en/il museo/layout-and-collections/venetian-culture/

3. “islands were submerged…”: Thomas F. Madden. Venice: A New History (New York: Viking, 2012), 63.

4. Marco Polo’s house: John Berendt. The City of Falling Angels (New York: Penguin, 2006), 183.

5. “difficult to overestimate”: Madden, Venice, 412–413.

6. Special Law of 1973: Ibid., 412.

7. corruption scandal: “Mayor of Venice Arrested over Alleged Bribes Relating to Flood Barrier Project.” The Guardian, June 4, 2014.

8. Aquagranda: Opera composed by Filippo Perocco, libretto by Roberto Bianchin and Luigi Cerantola. Premiered November 4, 2016, at La Fenice, Venice.

9. five hundred police officers: Nick Squires. “Venice Dawn Raids over Flood Barrier Corruption.” The Telegraph, July 12, 2013.

10. “illicit gains”: Cited in Salvatore Settis. If Venice Dies (New York: New Vessel Press, 2016), 171.

11. UNESCO report: “From Global to Regional: Local Sea-Level Rise Scenarios.” Report of workshop organized by UNESCO Venice office, November 22–23, 2010.

12. 1953 flood: Tracy Metz and Maartje van den Heuvel. Sweet and Salt (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2012), 227.

13. “O Venice!”: From “Ode to Venice.” Collected in George Gordon Byron. Lord Byron: The Major Works (London: Oxford University Press, 2008), 301.

Chapter 7

1. Hurricane Sandy: Storm damage statistics from personal communication with Office of Mayor Bill de Blasio.

2. East Side Coastal Resiliency Project: “OneNYC: 2016 Progress Report.” The City of New York, Mayor Bill de Blasio. May 2016, 160.

3. budgeted at $760 million: Personal communication with Dan Zarrilli.

4. 10 percent of the US gross domestic product: Richard Florida. “Sorry, London: New York Is the World’s Most Economically Powerful City.” TheAtlantic.com, March 3, 2015. Accessed March 1, 2017. http://www.citylab.com/work/2015/03/sorry-london-new-york-is-the-worlds-most-economically-powerful-city/386315/

5. Manhattan in 1650: Snejana Farberov. “How Hurricane Sandy Flooded New York Back to Its Seventeenth-Century Shape as It Inundated 400 Years of Reclaimed Land.” Daily Mail, June 16, 2013.

6. $129 billion: “On the Front Lines: $129 Billion in Property at Risk from Floodwaters.” Office of the New York City Comptroller, October 2014, 2.

7. 50 percent faster: Robert Kopp et al. “Probabilistic Twenty-First and Twenty-Second-Century Sea-Level Projections at a Global Network of Tide-Gauge Sites.” Earth’s Future 2, no. 8 (August 1, 2014), 383–406.

8. Rebuild by Design competition: Rebuild by Design website. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://www.rebuildbydesign.org/our-work/exhibitions/rebuild by design-hurricane-sandy-design-competition-exhibition. See also Rory Stott. “OMA and BIG Among Six Winners in Rebuild by Design Competition.” ArchDaily, June 3, 2014. Accessed March 4, 2017. http://www.archdaily.com/512516/oma-wins-rebuild-by-design-competition-with-resist-delay-store-discharge

9. Sandy-like events: A. J. Reed et al. “Past, Present, and Future Threat of Tropical Cyclones and Coastal Flooding in New York City.” American Geophysical Union fall meeting abstracts, December 1, 2015.

10. Bangladesh: Quirin Schiermeier. “Floods: Holding Back the Tide.” Nature 508 (April 10, 2014), 164–166.

11. seawalls in Zhuhai: Michael Kimmelman. “Rising Waters Threaten China’s Rising Cities.” New York Times, April 7, 2017.

12. Susannah Drake: An overview of Drake’s plan for Lower Manhattan is available on her firm’s website. Accessed May 5, 2017. http://www.dlandstudio.com/projects_moma.html

13. Living Breakwaters: SCAPE’s plan for Staten Island is available on the website of the New York State Governor’s Office of Storm Recovery. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://stormrecovery.ny.gov/living-breakwaters-tottenville

14. Orff wrote: Kate Orff. “Adapt to the Future with Landscape Design.” New York Times, October 28, 2015.

15. Blue Dunes: An overview of Blue Dunes is available on the West 8 website. Accessed May 5, 2017. http://www.west8.nl/projects/all/blue_dunes_the_future_of_coastal_protection/

16. high-level study: Cynthia Rosenzweig et al. Responding to Climate Change in New York State: The ClimAID Integrated Assessment for Effective Climate Change Adaptation. Technical report. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), Albany.

17. LaGuardia Airport: Deepti Hajela. “New York Reveals $4 Billion Plan for a New LaGuardia Airport.” The Associated Press, July 27, 2015.

18. case study: Mireya Navarro. “New York Is Lagging as Seas and Risks Rise, Critics Warn.” New York Times, September 10, 2012.

19. guidelines: Nicholas Kusnetz. “NYC Creates Climate Change Roadmap for Builders: Plan for Rising Seas.” InsideClimate News, May 3, 2017. Accessed May 8, 2017. https://insideclimatenews.org/news/02052017/nyc-publishes-building-design-guidelines-adapting-climate-change

20. Broad Channel: Lisa L. Colangelo. “Queens Residents Still Struggle to Rebuild Homes Damaged by Hurricane Sandy Two Years Ago.” New York Daily News, October 26, 2014.

21. Army Corps of Engineers: “Atlantic Coast of New York, East Rockaway Inlet to Rockaway Inlet and Jamaica Bay.” Report by US Army Corps of Engineers New York District, August 2016.

Chapter 8

1. “Within seconds…”: Corel Davenport. “The Marshall Islands Are Disappearing.” New York Times, December 1, 2015.

2. twenty-three bombs: “Bikini Atoll Nuclear Test Site.” UNESCO World Heritage List. Accessed March 1, 2017. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1339

3. the US argued: “The Legacy of US Nuclear Testing and Radiation Exposure in the Marshall Islands.” Report by the US Embassy in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Accessed March 7, 2017. https://mh.usembassy.gov/the-legacy-of-u-s-nuclear-testing-and-radiation-exposure-in-the-marshall-islands/

4. “Within hours…”: Oliver Milman and Mae Ryan. “In the Marshall Islands, Climate Change Knocks on the Front Door.” Newsweek, September 15, 2016.

5. Cancers: Steven L. Simon et al. “Radiation Doses and Cancer Risks in the Marshall Islands Associated with Exposure to Radioactive Fallout from Bikini and Enewetak Nuclear Weapons Tests: Summary.” Health Physics 99, no. 2 (August 1, 2010), 105.

6. Portland, Oregon: This is a rough estimate. The Marshall Islands emitted about 125,000 metric tons of CO₂ equivalent in 2000. See “Republic of the Marshall Islands Intended Nationally Determined Contribution.” Report to the UNFCC, July 21, 2015. According to Kyle Diesner, policy analyst for the city of Portland, total emissions in Multnomah County, Oregon, in 2014 were 7,064,000 metric tons of CO₂ equivalent. Here’s the math: 125,000 tons x 50 years = 6,250,000 tons < 7,064,000.

7. “genocide”: “Climate Change Migration Is Cultural Genocide.” Tony de Brum interview on Radio New Zealand, October 6, 2015. Accessed March 1, 2017. http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/201773361/climate-change-migration-is-cultural-genocide-tony-de-brum

8. unemployment rate: The World Factbook: 2013–14 (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2013).

9. twelve hundred Americans: “Reagan Test Site, Marshall Islands: Managing a Missile Test Range Crucial to US Defense.” Bechtel. Accessed January 14, 2017. http://www.bechtel.com/projects/kwajalein-test-range/

10. new radar installation: Nick Perry. “US Ignored Rising Sea Warnings at Radar Site.” The Associated Press, October 18, 2016.

11. 34 million gallons: “Fresh Water Sources.” Marshall Islands Guide. October 9, 2015. Accessed January 20, 2017. http://www.infomarshallislands.com/fresh-water-sources/

12. overweight or obese: W. Snowdon and A. M. Thow. “Trade Policy and Obesity Prevention: Challenges and Innovation in the Pacific Islands.” Obesity Reviews 14, no. 2 (October 23, 2013), 150–58.

13. In Egypt: Jean-Daniel Stanley and Pablo L. Clemente. “Increased Land Subsidence and Sea-Level Rise Are Submerging Egypt’s Nile Delta Coastal Margin.” GSA Today 27, no. 5. (May 2017).

14. World Bank: Susmita Dasgupta et al. “River Salinity and Climate Change: Evidence from Coastal Bangladesh.” World Bank Group, Policy Research working paper, March 2014.

15. shrimp farming: Joanna Lovatt. “The Bangladesh Shrimp Farmers Facing Life on the Edge.” The Guardian, February 17, 2016.

16. San Diego: David Talbot. “Desalinization out of Desperation.” MIT Technology Review, December 16, 2014.

17. low-elevation coastal zones: Generally defined as thirty feet or less below high-tide line. See Barbara Neumann et al. “Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding—A Global Assessment.” PLoS ONE vol. 10, issue 3 (2015).

18. Green Climate Fund: Michael Slezak. “Obama Transfers $500 Million to Green Climate Fund in Attempt to Protect Paris Deal.” The Guardian, January 17, 2017.

19. “a Chinese colony”: Sanjay Kumar. “This Will Make the Country a Chinese Colony.” TheDiplomat.com, July 25, 2015. Accessed May 4, 2017. http://thediplomat.com/2015/07/this-will-make-the-country-a-chinese-colony/

20. 200 million climate refugees: “Migration, Climate Change, and the Environment: A Complex Nexus.” International Organization for Migration website. Accessed January 24, 2017. https://www.iom.int/complex-nexus#estimates

21. 1951 Refugee Convention: “What Is a Refugee?” The UN Refugee Agency website. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://www.unrefugees.org/what-is-a-refugee/

22. fifty chickens a minute: Bryce Covert. “The Hellish Conditions Facing Workers at Chicken Processing Plants.” Thinkprogress.com, October 27, 2015. Accessed May 5, 2017. https://thinkprogress.org/the-hellish-conditions-facing-workers-at-chicken-processing-plants-1eb2f4206968

23. Human Rights Watch: “Blood, Sweat, and Fear: Workers’ Rights in U.S. Meat and Poultry Plants.” Report by Human Rights Watch (January 24, 2005), 32.

24. Kiribati purchased: Laurence Caramel. “Besieged by the Rising Tides of Climate Change, Kiribati Buys Land in Fiji.” The Guardian, June 30, 2014.

25. “Fiji will not turn…”: Shalveen Chand. “Kiribati’s Hope for Land.” Fiji Times, February 14, 2014.

26. “You can drastically…”: Quoted in Michael Gerrard. “America Is the Worst Polluter in the History of the World. We Should Let Climate Change Refugees Resettle Here.” Washington Post, June 25, 2015.

27. Gerrard argues: Ibid.

28. Runit Dome: Michael Gerrard. “A Pacific Isle, Radioactive and Forgotten.” New York Times, December 3, 2014.

Chapter 9

1. $250 million: “On the Front Lines of Rising Seas: Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia.” Fact sheet, Union of Concerned Scientists. Accessed March 20, 2017. http://www.ucsusa.org/global-warming/global-warming-impacts/sea-level-rise-flooding-naval-station-norfolk#.WMqvUBiZNN0

2. political instability: Benjamin I. Cook et al. “Spatiotemporal Drought Variability in the Mediterranean over the Last 900 Years.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres vol. 121, no. 5 (2016), 2060–2074.

3. real estate portfolio: Chuck Hagel. Quadrennial Defense Review. US Department of Defense, March 4, 2014, 40.

4. Diego Garcia: “Military Expert Panel Report: Sea-Level Rise and the US Military’s Mission.” The Center for Climate and Security, September 2016, 67.

5. witch-hunt: John Collins Rudolf. “A Climate Skeptic with a Bully Pulpit in Virginia Finds an Ear in Congress.” New York Times, February 22, 2011.

6. “left-wing term”: Rebecca Leber. “Virginia Lawmaker Says ‘Sea-Level Rise’ Is a ‘Left-Wing Term,’ Excises It from State Report on Coastal Flooding.” ThinkProgress, June 10, 2012. Accessed March 3, 2017. https://thinkprogress.org/virginia-lawmaker-says-sea-level-rise-is-a-left-wing-term-excises-it-from-state-report-on-coastal-805134396adc?gi=7f60ed42a9be#.3xm2pbn1v

7. Governor Terry McAuliffe: Ladelle McWhorter and Mike Tidwell. “Virginia Governor Terry McAuliffe Has Abysmal Climate Record.” Washington Post, June 10, 2016.

8. One study: “Recurrent Flooding Study for Tidewater Virginia.” Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences, January 2013.

9. Arab Spring: Francesco Femia and Caitlin Werrell, eds. “The Arab Spring and Climate Change.” The Center for Climate and Security, February 2013.

10. Boko Haram: Erika Eichelberger. “How Environmental Disaster Is Making Boko Haram Violence Worse.” MotherJones.com, June 10, 2014. Accessed May 3, 2017. http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2014/06/nigeria-environment-climate-change-boko-haram

11. Rear Admiral Daniel Abel: Emily Russo Miller. “For New Coast Guard Head, Mission Still the Same.” Juneau Empire, December 7, 2014.

12. six Russian fighters: Steve Brusk and Ralph Ellis. “Russian Planes Intercepted near US, Canadian Airspace.” CNN.com, November 13, 2014. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://www.cnn.com/2014/09/19/us/russian-plane-incidents/

13. Bulava: Trude Pettersen. “One More Missile Launch from Barents Sea.” Barents Observer, November 5, 2014.

14. “fifteenth century…”: Doug Struck. “Russia’s Deep-Sea Flag-Planting at North Pole Strikes a Chill in Canada.” Washington Post, August 7, 2007.

15. 2011 op-ed: Mac Thornberry. “Washington Won’t Solve Our Drought.” USA Today, August 10, 2011.

16. The report: Peter Schwartz and Doug Randall. “An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States Security.” US Department of Defense, October 2003.

17. “threat multipliers”: John D. Banusiewicz. “Hagel to Address ‘Threat Multiplier’ of Climate Change.” DoD News, October 13, 2014.

18. Quadrennial Defense Review: Hagel, Quadrennial Defense Review, 34.

19. Mattis: Andrew Revkin. “Trump’s Defense Secretary Cites Climate Change as National Security Challenge.” ProPublica, March 14, 2017. Accessed March 20, 2017. https://www.propublica.org/article/trumps-defense-secretary-cites-climate-change-national-security-challenge

20. Senate floor: John McCain. “Remarks on Climate Stewardship Act of 2007.” Office of Senator John McCain press release. January 12, 2007.

21. Center on Climate Change and National Security: Annie Snider. “Amid Budget Scrutiny, CIA Shutters Climate Center.” Greenwire, November 19, 2012. Accessed December 20, 2016. http://www.eenews.net/stories/1059972724

22. amendment: Ryan Koronowski. “House Votes to Deny Climate Science and Ties Pentagon’s Hands on Climate Change.” ThinkProgress, May 22, 2014. Accessed March 1, 2017. https://thinkprogress.org/house-votes-to-deny-climate-science-and-ties-pentagons-hands-on-climate-change-6fb577189fb0#.bd9dd1dwq

23. “When we distract…”: W. J. Hennigan. “Climate Change Is Real: Just Ask the Pentagon.” Los Angeles Times, November 11, 2016.

24. “mass destruction…”: Arshad Mohammed. “Kerry Calls Climate Change ‘Weapon of Mass Destruction.’” Reuters, February 16, 2014.

25. “On what planet…”: Aaron Blake. “Gingrich Calls for Kerry to Resign over Climate Change Speech.” Washington Post, February 18, 2014.

26. exhaustive study: Colin P. Kelley et al. “Climate Change in the Fertile Crescent and Implications of the Recent Syrian Drought.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 11 (2015), 3241–46.

27. Syrian farmer: Ibid., 3246.

28. “cripple the security…”: Bryan Bender. “Chief of US Pacific Forces Calls Climate Biggest Worry.” Boston Globe, March 9, 2013.

29. Inhofe: Ryan Koronowski. “Congress: Where the Bible Disproves Science and a Senator Tries to Torpedo an Admiral.” ThinkProgress, April 10, 2013. Accessed March 7, 2017. https://thinkprogress.org/congress-where-the-bible-disproves-science-and-a-senator-tries-to-torpedo-an-admiral-73dc1772710

30. global CO₂ levels: When Kerry and I talked in late 2015, the latest annual CO₂ emissions data showed a long upward trend. In 2015 and 2016, due largely to reduced coal consumption in China and improved energy efficiency in the US, the upward curve flatlined at about thirty-two gigatons per year of CO₂. “IEA Finds CO₂ Emissions Flat for Third Straight Year Even as Global Economy Grew in 2016.” International Energy Agency, March 17, 2017. Accessed March 24, 2017. https://www.iea.org/newsroom/news/2017/march/iea-finds-co2-emissions-flat-for-third-straight-year-even-as-global-economy-grew.html

Chapter 10

1. official count: United Nations Data Booklet. “The World’s Cities in 2016.” Accessed March 10, 2017. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2016_data_booklet.pdf

2. 21 million: National Population Commission, Nigeria. The easiest way to access its population count is here: https://www.citypopulation.de/php/nigeria-metrolagos.php.

3. ten times faster: Walter Leal Filho and Ulisses M. Azeiteiro, eds. Climate Change and Health: Improving Resilience and Reducing Risks (New York: Springer, 2016), 175.

4. $1.25 a day: “World Development Indicators 2013.” The World Bank, 2013. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/population-living-below-125-ppp-day

5. two million barrels: “OPEC Annual Statistical Bulletin: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries,” 2016. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://www.opec.org/opec_web/static_files_project/media/downloads/publications/ASB2016.pdf

6. Flash flooding: “Nigeria Floods Kill 363 People, Displace 2.1 Million.” Reuters, November 5, 2012.

7. Eko Atlantic: The development has a glitzy website, which includes a virtual tour of the site: http://www.ekoatlantic.com/

8. South China Sea: Gordon Lubold. “Pentagon Says China Has Stepped Up Land Reclamation in South China Sea.” Wall Street Journal, August 20, 2015.

9. Singapore: “Such Quantities of Sand.” The Economist, February 26, 2015.

10. Tokyo Bay: Ibid.

11. satellite data: Alister Doyle. “Coastal Land Expands as Construction Outpaces Sea-Level Rise.” Reuters, August 25, 2016.

12. Frontline: Robin Urevich. “Chasing the Ghosts of a Corrupt Regime: Gilbert Chagoury, Clinton Donor and Diplomat with a Checkered Past.” Frontline/World, January 8, 2010.

13. economic losses: Stephane Hallegatte et al. “Future Flood Losses in Major Coastal Cities.” Nature Climate Change 3, no. 9 (2013), 802–6.

14. 30 million: Daniel Hoornweg and Kevin Pope. “Socioeconomic Pathways and Regional Distribution of the World’s 101 Largest Cities.” Global Cities Institute working paper, 2014 Accessed March 4, 2017. http://media.wix.com/ugd/672989_62cfa13ec4ba47788f78ad660489a2fa.pdf

15. sub-Saharan coastline: Matteo Fagotto. “West Africa Is Being Swallowed by the Sea.” Foreign Policy, October 21, 2016.

16. “In West Africa…”: Quoted in ibid.

17. Accra: Ibid.

18. breeding grounds for sea turtles: Ibid.

19. “Some of our children…”: Ibid.

20. floating school: “Makoko Floating School/NLE Architects.” ArchDaily, March 14, 2013. Accessed March 4, 2017. http://www.archdaily.com/344047/makoko-floating-school-nle-architects

21. “beacon of hope”: Jessica Collins. “Makoko Floating School, Beacon of Hope for the Lagos ‘Waterworld.’” The Guardian, June 2, 2015.

22. 250,000 used plastic bottles: “The Island in Cancun Built on Recycled Plastic Bottles.” BBC News, April 2, 2016.

23. Seasteading Institute: Kyle Denuccio. “Silicon Valley Is Letting Go of Its Techie Island Fantasies.” Wired.com, May 16, 2015. Accessed March 5, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2015/05/silicon-valley-letting-go-techie-island-fantasies/

24. “serious blow”: Cynthia Okoroafor. “Does Makoko Floating School’s Collapse Threaten the Whole Slum’s Future?” The Guardian, June 10, 2016.

25. 300,000 people: Unofficial estimate, provided by Megan Chapman of Justice & Empowerment Initiatives in Lagos.

26. issued an order: Ben Ezeamalu. “Lagos Slum Dwellers Set for Showdown with Government over Eviction Notice.” Premium Times, October 12, 2016.

27. police entered: Paola Totaro and Matthew Ponsford. “Demolitions of Lagos Waterfront Communities Could Leave 300,000 Homeless: Campaigners.” Reuters, November 11, 2016.

28. Otodo Gbame: Laurin-Whitney Gottbrath. “Thousands Displaced as Police Raze Lagos’ Otodo Gbame.” Aljazeera.com, April 10, 2017. Accessed May 2, 2017. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/04/thousands-displaced-police-raze-lagos-otodo-gbame-170410090717831.html

Chapter 11

1. Miami Beach developer: Zachery Fagenson. “Sunset Harbour Developer Scott Robins: It’s Never the Chef, It’s the Business Guy.” Miami New Times, December 28, 2015. See also Christina Lawrence. “Astute Awakening.” Miami, October 24, 2012. Accessed March 7, 2017. http://www.modernluxury.com/miami/articles/astute-awakening

2. made a fortune: Richard Bradley. “Philip Levine’s Second Wave.” Worth, October 7, 2014.

3. $100 million in bonds: “Moody’s Assigns Negative Outlook to Miami Beach, Florida’s Stormwater Revenue Bonds.” Moody’s Investors Service, July 10, 2015. Accessed February 4, 2017. https://www.moodys.com/research/Moodys-assigns-negative-outlook-to-Miami-Beach-FLs-Stormwater-Revenue--PR_329912

4. Rolling Stone: Jeff Goodell. “Goodbye, Miami.” Rolling Stone, June 20, 2013. See also Suzanne Goldenberg. “US East Coast Cities Face Frequent Flooding Due to Climate Change.” The Guardian, October 8, 2014. See also Joel Achenbach. “Is Miami Drowning?” Washington Post, July 16, 2014.

5. Chicago: The engineering and political complexities of raising Chicago are covered in detail in Harold L. Platt. Shock Cities: The Environmental Transformation and Reform of Manchester and Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 118–133.

6. cholera epidemic: David Young. “Raising the Chicago Streets Out of the Mud.” Chicago Tribune, November 15, 2015.

7. fecal levels: Jenny Staletovich. “Miami Beach King Tides Flush Human Waste into Bay, Study Finds.” Miami Herald, May 16, 2016.

8. “in order to sell ads”: Fred Grimm. “The Stink Beach Mayor Smells Isn’t a Conspiracy, It’s Fecal Runoff.” Miami Herald, June 9, 2016.

9. a liar: Personal communication between the author and an off-the-record source.

10. “a hit job”: Grimm, “The Stink Beach Mayor Smells Isn’t a Conspiracy, It’s Fecal Runoff.”

11. “recklessly and incorrectly…”: Letter from Raul Aguila, Miami Beach city attorney, to Aminda Marqués Gonzalez, executive editor of Miami Herald, May 25, 2016. Accessed March 15, 2017. http://www.miamiherald.com/latest-news/article82543332.ece/binary/Letter%20To%20Aminda%20Gonzalez.pdf

12. $1.6 billion on repairs: Patricia Mazzei. “Federal Judge Signs Agreement for $1.6 Billion in Miami-Dade Sewer Repairs.” Miami Herald, April 15, 2014.

13. 86,000 in-ground systems: Linda Young. “Florida Waters: ‘Fountains of Youth’ or ‘Fountains of Yuk’?” Report for the Florida Clean Water Network, February 13, 2015. Accessed March 12, 2017. http://floridacleanwaternetwork.org/florida-waters-fountains-of-youth-or-fountains-of-yuk/

14. Florida Department of Health: Personal communication with the author.

15. 40 percent: Young, “Florida Waters: ‘Fountains of Youth’ or ‘Fountains of Yuk’?”

16. green glop: Craig Pittman. “Toxic Algae Bloom Crisis Hits Florida, Drives Away Tourists.” Tampa Bay Times, July 1, 2016.

17. viral tracers: John H. Paul et al. “Viral Tracer Studies Indicate Contamination of Marine Waters by Sewage Disposal Practices in Key Largo, Florida.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 61, no. 6 (1995), 2230.

18. Haiti: Jonathan M. Katz. “UN Admits Role in Cholera Epidemic in Haiti.” New York Times, August 17, 2016.

19. Mount Trashmore: Sean Rowe. “Our Garbage, Ourselves.” Miami New Times, January 25, 1996.

20. remains to float out: Lydia O’Connor. “Even the Dead Have Been Displaced by Louisiana Flooding.” Huffington Post, August 19, 2016. Accessed March 12, 2017. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/louisiana-flooding-caskets_us_57b5e6d7e4b034dc73262ee2

21. cemeteries are on low-lying ground: I calculated the elevations of cemeteries mentioned here with Google Maps’ Elevation service. I accessed the service through a Web app developed by Florida International University. Accessed March 12, 2017. http://citizeneyes.org/app/

22. Key West Cemetery: Personal communication with Russell Brittain, Sexton at Key West Cemetery.

23. elevated twenty feet: Personal communication with Michael Waldron, Florida Power & Light spokesperson. April 2013. Also mentioned in Christina Nunez, “As Seas Rise, Are Coastal Nuclear Plants Ready?” National Geographic, December 16, 2015.

24. peak storm surge: Ed Rappaport. “Preliminary Report: Hurricane Andrew, 16–28 August, 1992.” National Hurricane Center. Accessed March 12, 2017. http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1992andrew.html

25. leaky canals: Jenny Staletovich. “Evidence of Salt Plume Under Turkey Point Nuclear Plant Goes Back Years.” Miami Herald, April 21, 2016.

26. inundation maps: I used Climate Central’s Surging Seas risk finder. Accessed February 14, 2017. http://sealevel.climatecentral.org

27. $20-billion plan: Susan Salisbury. “FPL’s Turkey Point Cost Estimate Rises to Top Range of $20 Billion.” Palm Beach Post, June 27, 2015.

28. environmental review: “FPL Gets Environmental Approval for Two More Reactors at Turkey Point.” Miami Herald, November 3, 2016.

Chapter 12

1. Snowmass: “Workshop on Critical Issues in Climate Change.” Energy Modeling Forum. July 25–August 3, 2006. Details of event reconstructed from interviews with many participants, including Lowell Wood.

2. “multiplanet civilization”: Quoted in Ross Andersen. “Exodus.” Aeon, September 30, 2014. Accessed March 12, 2017. https://aeon.co/essays/elon-musk-puts-his-case-for-a-multi-planet-civilisation

3. research project: Henry Fountain. “White House Urges Research on Geoengineering to Combat Climate Change.” New York Times, January 10, 2017.

4. Davos: The Global Risks Report 2017. World Economic Forum, Geneva, 43. Accessed March 12, 2017. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GRR17_Report_web.pdf

5. Antarctica: Chris Mooney. “This Mind-Boggling Study Shows Just How Massive Sea-Level Rise Really Is.” Washington Post, March 10, 2016.

6. $2 billion a year: David Keith. A Case for Climate Engineering (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013), 43.

7. subsidies: Coming up with an accurate number for fossil fuel subsidies is difficult, in part because it depends on how you define a subsidy. My $1 trillion estimate comes from Oil Change International’s “Fossil Fuel Subsidies: Overview.” Accessed March 12, 2017. http://priceofoil.org/fossil-fuel-subsidies/

If “externalities” such as the health effects of air pollution, the environmental damages caused by drilling and mining, and the impacts of climate change are included, the cost of fossil fuel subsidies estimated by the International Monetary Fund rises to more than $5 trillion annually. Accessed March 12, 2017. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2015/NEW070215A.htm

8. 6.5 million people: Stanley Reed. “Study Links 6.5 Million Deaths Each Year to Air Pollution.” New York Times, June 26, 2016.

9. Keith estimated: Keith, A Case for Climate Engineering, 69.

10. cancer clusters: Dan Fagin. Toms River: A Story of Science and Salvation (New York: Bantam, 2013), 332.

11. a report: “Under Water: How Sea-Level Rise Threatens the Tri-State Region.” A report of the Fourth Regional Plan. Regional Plan Association, December 2016, 18. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://library.rpa.org/pdf/RPA-Under-Water-How-Sea-Level-Rise-Threatens-the-Tri-State-Region.pdf

12. nine-foot storm surge: “Barnegat Bay Storm Surge Elevations During Hurricane Sandy.” The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, October 29, 2014, 14. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://www.nj.gov/dep/shoreprotection/docs/ibsp-barnegat-bay-storm-surge-elevations-during-sandy.pdf

13. 10,000 homes: Jill P. Capuzzo. “Not Your Mother’s Jersey Shore.” New York Times, June 16, 2017.

14. all but 60: Ibid.

15. one document: “Resilience + the Beach: A Regional Strategy and Pilot Projects for the Jersey Shore.” Jury brief by Rutgers University, Saski, and ARUP for Rebuild by Design Competition, March 2014, 19. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://www.rebuildbydesign.org/data/files/670.pdf

16. stronger dune: Karen Wall. “Protection for Toms River: Long-Awaited Army Corps Dune Project Goes Out to Bid.” Toms River Patch, September 29, 2016.

17. shortfall: Personal communication with Mayor Tom Kelaher’s office, January 2017.

18. building codes: Gregory Kyriakakis. “Toms River Continues Aim to Relax Construction Rules for Sandy-Damaged Homes.” Toms River Patch, May 8, 2013.

19. FEMA: Leslie Kaufman. “Sandy’s Lessons Lost: Jersey Shore Rebuilds in Sea’s Inevitable Path.” Inside Climate News, October 26, 2016. Accessed February 20, 2017. https://insideclimatenews.org/news/25102016/hurricane-sandy-new-jersey-shore-rebuild-climate-change-rising-sea-chris-christie

20. $4.6 billion: State of New Jersey, Office of the State Comptroller. NJ Sandy Transparency funds tracker. Accessed March 9, 2017. http://nj.gov/comptroller/sandytransparency/funds/tracker/

The total projected spending for Sandy recovery in New Jersey is $9 billion, but so far, only $4.6 billion has been spent. According to Lisa Ryan, director of strategic communication for Sandy recovery, New Jersey Department of Community Affairs, 95 percent of that $4.6 billion has been federal funds. Personal communication, March 21, 2017.

21. $300 million in federal recovery funds: Personal communication with Mayor Tom Kelaher’s office, January 2017.

22. $30 million: Ibid.

23. 610 properties: “NY Rising 2012–2016: Fourth Anniversary Report.” Governor’s Office of Storm Recovery, 8. Accessed March 9, 2017. https://stormrecovery.ny.gov/sites/default/files/crp/community/documents/10292016_GOSR4thAnniversary.pdf

24. resettle twenty-three families: Coral Davenport and Campbell Robertson. “Resettling the First American ‘Climate Refugees.’” New York Times, May 2, 2016.

25. Coastal Master Plan: “Louisiana’s Comprehensive Master Plan for a Sustainable Coast.” Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana, 2017, 145. Accessed March 9, 2017. http://coastal.la.gov/wp content/uploads/2016/08/2017-MP-Book_Single_Combined_01.05.2017.pdf

26. Newtok: “Alaska Seeks Federal Money to Move a Village Threatened by Climate Change.” The Associated Press, October 3, 2015.

27. Flavelle: Christopher Flavelle. “The Toughest Question in Climate Change: Who Gets Saved?” Bloomberg View, August 29, 2016. Accessed March 8, 2017. https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2016-08-29/the-toughest-question-in-climate-change-who-gets-saved

28. Three Gorges: Jim Yardley. “Chinese Dam Projects Criticized for Their Human Costs.” New York Times, November 19, 2007.

29. Nijmegen: Mathieu Schouten. “Partnering a River.” My Liveable City, January–March 2016, 68–73. See also the Room for the River website: https://www.ruimtevoorderivier.nl/english/

30. Oakwood Beach: Jada Yuan. “Last Stand on Oakwood Beach.” New York, March 3, 2013.

31. common law: Peter J. Byrne. “The Cathedral Engulfed: Sea-Level Rise, Property Rights, and Time.” Louisiana Law Review 73, no. 12 (2012), 69–118.

32. Summer Haven: Sue Bjorkman. “Good Ole Summer Haven Time.” OldCityLife.com, September 29, 2016. http://www.oldcitylife.com/features/good-ole-summer-haven-time/

33. road washed out: Ken Lewis. “Great Location, Lovely View, but There’s No Road.” Florida Times-Union, August 16, 2005.

34. annual maintenance costs: Personal communication with St. Johns County attorney Patrick F. McCormack, January 26, 2017.

35. $950,000 in federal funds: Ibid.

36. sued the county: Robert and Linnie Jordan et al. v. St. Johns County, case no. CA05-694 (Florida Seventh Judicial Circuit, May 21, 2009).

37. after Hurricane Katrina: Edward P. Richards. “The Hurricane Katrina Levee Breach Litigation: Getting the First Geoengineering Liability Case Right.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2012, vol. 160, issue 1, article 13. Accessed March 12, 2017. http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/penn_law_review_online/vol160/iss1/13

38. “ravages of the ocean”: Cited in Thomas Ruppert and Carly Grimm. “Drowning in Place: Local Government Costs and Liabilities for Flooding Due to Sea-Level Rise.” Florida Bar Journal, November 2013, vol. 87, no. 9, 29–33.

39. district court: Robert and Linnie Jordan et al. v. St. Johns County, case no. 5D09-2183 (Florida Fifth District Court of Appeal, May 20, 2011).

40. voice on my radio: Ryan Kailath. “Louisiana Tries New Defense Against Floods: Move People to Higher Ground.” NPR, January 29, 2017. Accessed March 20, 2017. www.npr.org/2017/01/29/512271883/louisiana-tries-new-defense-against-floods-move-people-to-higher-ground

Epilogue

1. Denmark: Walter Alvarez. T. Rex and the Crater of Doom (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 70.

2. “It was clear…”: Ibid., 71.

3. “During the time…”: Ibid.

4. 100 percent renewables: “Renewable Energy.” Danish Ministry of Energy, Utilities, and Climate. Accessed March 2, 2017. http://old.efkm.dk/en/climate-energy-and-building-policy/denmark/energy-supply-and-efficiency/renewable-energy

5. TNT: Elizabeth Kolbert. The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2014), 75.

6. Louisiana: Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana, 13.

7. “managed realignment”: Nigel Pontee. “Factors Influencing the Long-Term Sustainability of Managed Realignment.” Managed Realignment: A Viable Long-Term Coastal Management Strategy? (New York: Springer Briefs in Environmental Science, 2014), 95–107.