Recording the music on a large scoring stage for the Paramount Pictures film Is Paris Burning?, made in 1965.
Whether originally used to hide the noise of the projector, to add life to a cold, two-dimensional screen, or whether simply inherited from the theatre, music has always played a role in the cinema. Pianists, organists, and even full theatre orchestras were employed in silent-film houses, playing mood music to complement the images on the screen. Source books of music were published, offering pieces suitable for a wide variety of action scenes, such as flying, train trips, and hunting.
Since the earliest days of cinema there has been a distinction made between commercial movies and “art films,” although occasionally a film in the latter category will enjoy unexpected box-office success. Similarly, film music can be divided between that written for mainstream films and that composed for art films. In the former, financial considerations are paramount, and such a film might, for example, include a potential hit single. Music created for art films, by contrast, is more, if not primarily, concerned with direct expression, rather than a supportive role.
Film music can be a passive, background element, supporting the action and dialogue in a subservient role, or it can be a more active and aggressive partner, on equal terms with the drama and cinematography. In the case of the latter, the film has parallels with opera in which the music is woven into the whole experience. Richard Wagner came up with the term Gesamtkunstwerk to describe a unified piece of work, even broader in scope than opera, combining drama, music, the human voice, poetry, and visual art. The intimate involvement of music in a film can be seen as a continuation of this concept.
The writer Claudia Gorbman used the terms “diegetic” and “non-diegetic” to distinguish between the two main categories of music heard on a film soundtrack. The diegetic is heard not just by the audience but also by the characters in the film. For example, in the torture scene in Reservoir Dogs (1991), Stealer’s Wheel’s “Stuck in the Middle with You” is heard not only by the viewer, but also by Mr. Blonde and his victim. The non-diegetic is heard only by the audience, although this does not necessarily classify it as background music. In Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (1973), for instance, Bob DYLAN’S song “Knocking on Heaven’s Door” is used as accompaniment to the death of the outlaw played by Slim Pickens. For the audience, it is central to the scene, even though it is not heard by the outlaw and his wife.
Narrative film usually follows a standard and fairly rigid structure, with music playing a role at each stage. First, there are the opening credits, during which the music establishes a basic mood. This is followed by an exposition, which sets the time, place, characters, and nature of the story. After this, there is a development section, where people and situations evolve, taking on new or changing meanings and relationships. As situations develop, the music continues to reflect the process. Then there is the denouement—the climax of the drama, the resolution of a conflict, and where situations are brought to a close. Finally, there are the closing credits, in which the music reinforces the intended mood. The use of music in the final credits is such standard practice that a lack of music, though now a familiar device, often has an eerie impact.
A film’s overall mood can be established and reinforced by the harmonic development of the music—just as a specific mood can be created in the opening bars. Within the structure of a film, music often oscillates between tension and relaxation to support the action. Loud, fast, and discordant music creates tension; soft, slow, and harmonious music induces calm. However, the composer and director may choose to toy with the audience’s expectations. In an Alfred Hitchcock thriller, for example, light, “romantic comedy” music is sometimes used as a scene-setter, which ironically has the effect of heightening the suspense. As a result, music can support the narrative (or the audience’s assumptions about it), can act in dramatic opposition to it, or can even seem to be unrelated to it.
Film music can get close to achieving Wagner’s concept of wholeness by giving a character, place or repeated situation its own musical motif—perhaps a melody fragment or chord progression to help unify the action. Music can also expose a character’s thoughts—for example, tense, urgent music used to accompany an actor’s bland, expressionless face will create an underlying menace. On a more pragmatic level, music can also assist the director and editor in moving from scene to scene seamlessly.
Film music can be classified under certain predominant styles, although many films make use of more than one. Broadly speaking, it may be divided into those that use classical music and those that resort to more contemporary, indigenous styles.
Some films make use of already existing classical music. In such cases, it is the audience’s recognition of the music that helps to define or reinforce the mood. Even if a particular piece is unfamiliar to the audience, its recognisable style, or genre, will have the required effect. Examples of classically oriented scores include: 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), A Clockwork Orange (1971), The Age of Innocence (1993), and Schindlers List (1993). Often, existing classical music is reworked to maximise its effect and tie it more closely into the drama. Drowning by Numbers (1988) and Dangerous Liaisons (1988) are notable examples.
The second category comprises scores commissioned for a specific film. These may be composed in any style, although there are four main subdivisions: post-romantic, post-impressionist, neoclassical, and contemporary. Examples of the post-romantic style are Gone with the Wind (1939), Greystoke(1984), and Once Upon a Time in America (1984). Post-impressionist scores include those for Orphée (I960) and Beauty and the Beast (1991). The neoclassical style is put to effective use in Psycho (I960), The Manchurian Candidate (1962), and The Piano (1993).
More contemporary scores include The Fifth Element (1997); Mishima (1985), in which Philip GLASS uses a minimalist approach involving nonstop, shifting patterns; and the music for Fantastic Voyage (1966) by Leonard Rosenman, which is atonal (not in any key) in style and therefore somewhat unsettling. The expansive scenes in Apocalypse Now (1979) owe much to the use of electronic music, while the futuristic atmosphere of Blade Runner (1982) is perfectly matched to its synthesized accompaniment.
Recording the music on a large scoring stage for the Paramount Pictures film Is Paris Burning?, made in 1965.
Just as existing classical music is used to suggest an overall mood, so the use of a particular contemporary style of music can help to establish a framework of time, place, and atmosphere. The Third Man (1949) and Black Orpheus (1958), for instance, draw on ethnic and folk music, while A Streetcar Named Desire (1951) and Anatomy of a Murder (1959) make use of especially commissioned jazz scores. Duke ELLINGTON, who wrote jazz with a classical sensibility, explored a number of styles in his film music, as in Paris Blues (1961). Many movies make use of existing pop and rock music, such as Forrest Gump (1994) and The Saint (1997). Other films, such as Runaway Train (1985), Angel Heart (1987), and Lost Highway (1997) create dramatic tension by combining contrasting musical styles in close proximity, just like a musical collage.
Since the dawn of cinema, many “serious” composers have written for film. One of the pioneers was Camille Saint-Saëns, who wrote music for The Assassination of the Duc de Guise (1908). In the early days of cinema, scores were created by Erik SATIE for Entr’acte (1924) and by Jean SIBELIUS for The Unknown Soldier (1926). Composers who wrote extensively for the medium included Darius MILHAUD, Heitor VILLA-LOBOS, Dimitri SHOSTAKOVICH, Ralph VAUGHAN WILLIAMS, Sergei PROKOFIEV, Aaron COPLAND, Sir William WALTON, Benjamin BRITTEN, and Gustav HOLST.
Although the cinema originated in Europe, it is largely seen as an American cultural form. It has attracted many immigrants from Europe—actors, directors, and above all composers—seeking career opportunities or freedom from persecution. American film music can be usefully divided into three categories: the Hollywood symphonists; the eclectics; and the new breed.
As “talkies,” or films using sound, appeared at the end of the 1920s, and continued to mushroom during the 1930s, immigrant composers from Europe moved to Hollywood and established a common style of composition that remained the norm until well after World War II. The “symphonists,” as they were called, adopted a style that had its roots in light opera. Featuring a large orchestra, the music was lush, romantic and often sentimental in character. It drew on more traditional, 19th-century ideas of harmony, and made the most out of popular, memorable melodies. Notable examples include the music for: Wuthering Heights (1939) by Alfred NEWMAN; Casablanca (1942) by Max STEINER; and Edge of Darkness (1943) by Franz WAXMAN.
Around 1950, jazz began to appear in the film scores of some composers, such as Alex North who wrote the score for A Streetcar Named Desire (1951). Their efforts helped open the doors for new and varied approaches to film music. Among the most important of the new generation was Bernard HERRMANN, whose often aggressive scores, as in Psycho (I960), drew on a wide variety of influences. Other experimenters include: Elmer BERNSTEIN, Henry MANCINI, André PREVIN, Jerry GOLDSMITH, John WILLIAMS, and Ennio MORRICONE.
By 1980, the dominant style had changed once more, this time toward a fusion of classical and popular music. Many of the composers were classically trained, but they also identified strongly with vernacular styles. Some examples of these were: Giorgio Moroder in Midnight Express (1978), James Horner in Gorky Park (1983), George Fenton in Dangerous Liaisons (1988), and Howard Shore in Silence of the Lambs 0991).
Richard Trombley
SEE ALSO:
ARRANGERS; FILM MUSICALS; ORCHESTRAL MUSIC
FURTHER READING
Lack, Russell. Twenty Four Frames Under: A Buried History of Film Music (London: Quartet Books, 1997);
Marmorstein, Gary. A Hollywood Rhapsody: Movie Music and Its Makers 1900–75 (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997);
Prendergast, Roy. Film Music: A Neglected Art (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977).
SUGGESTED LISTENING
Carmine Coppola: Apocalypse Now;
Philip Glass: Koyaanisqatsi;
Bernard Herrmann: Psycho;
Maurice Jarre: Jacob’s Ladder;
Alex North: Streetcar Named Desire;
Michael Nyman: Drowning by Numbers;
Max Steiner: Casablanca.