Over the course of Korea’s 5,000-year history, the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) has stood at the forefront of Korean culture, especially in terms of the brilliance of its royal culture. Indeed, the royal palaces of this era are among the country’s most cherished national treasures and cultural relics.
A palace is the king’s home. But the “palace” concept, as seen from the historical documents of the Joseon Dynasty, is much broader; it includes the places where the king resided, where he lived before he became king, and where he stayed while traveling the country, and even the shrine built for royal ancestors. There are five official Joseon palaces where the king resided and conducted formal business: Gyeongbokgung, Changdeokgung, Changgyeonggung, Gyeonghuigung, and Deoksugung (or Gyeongungung). But it was only for about a single decade that all five of these palaces existed at the same time.
Gyeongbokgung, Changdeokgung, and Changgyeonggung (an annex to Changdeokgung) served as the primary palaces prior to the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1952, while Changdeokgung, Changgyeonggung, and Gyeonghuigung became the main palaces thereafter. Deoksugung was not really a Joseon palace, but an expansion built in preparation for the proclamation of the Deahan Empire in 1897.
Although several Joseon Dynasty palaces remain intact, Gyeongbokgung is especially noteworthy. Originally built in 1395, it served as the first and primary palace of the Joseon Dynasty. The main gate faced the Yukjogeori (“Six Ministry Avenue,” today’s Sejong-ro), while to the rear of the palace stood Mt. Bugaksan and Mt. Inwangsan, making it an ideal site in terms of feng shui (pungsu in Korean) principles as well as its picturesque natural scenery. As the primary palace of the Joseon Dynasty, it stood as the foremost symbol of Joseon royal authority, while the name of each building reflects the founding spirit of the dynasty.
Gwanghwamun Gate, the front entrance to Gyeongbokgung Palace and a major Seoul landmark
Gyeongbokgung Palace seen from above
FOUNDATION OF THE JOSEON DYNASTY
After 475 years of history, the final curtain fell on the Goryeo Dynasty in the summer of 1392 with the founding of Joseon. The new dynasty was founded through an alliance between newly emerged literati, who adhered to Neo-Confucianism, and the military officer Yi Seong-gye. Among the decisions that needed to be made by the new leadership, Yi Seong-gye first sought to leave the Goryeo capital of Gaegyeong (today’s Gaeseong in North Korea) and find a new site for the capital. With the help of some of the finest feng shui experts in the land—including his friend and close advisor, the Buddhist monk Muhak—he set about finding a suitable location for the new city.
Many were opposed to the idea of relocating the capital, however. Even those who had played leading roles in founding the new nation did not approve of selecting a new capital, and the controversy lingered for about two years. In the end, the site selected for the capital of Joseon was Hanyang, which had been built as Goryeo’s southern capital in the early 12th century. Known today as Seoul, Hanyang was situated on the north bank of the Hangang River, in a basin ringed by mountains. With a river flowing east-west to the south and mountains surrounding it to the north, the location was ideal in feng shui terms.
Hanseongjeondo, a map of Seoul produced in the late 18th century
After deciding to relocate the capital, Yi Seong-gye hastened to make the move even before the requisite facilities could be built in Hanyang. The royal palace of Gyeongbokgung, the royal ancestral shrine of Jongmyo, and the national altar of Sajik were completed in 1395, about one year after the capital’s move, while other facilities were built in subsequent years. Due to this hasty relocation and construction of facilities, the general appearance of Hanyang (or Hanseong, as it was renamed the following year) came to resemble that of the Goryeo capital of Gaegyeong. The Gyeongbokgung site was situated at almost the same location as Goryeo’s southern capital, in front of Mt. Bugaksan: Gyeongbokgung was simply built a little farther south.
Traditionally, when the Korean dynasties of Goryeo and Joseon selected a capital site, geographical features such as the surrounding mountains were of the utmost importance. Sites were selected in which the mountains formed axes of the capital area, such that the city wall was built to take advantage of the natural topography. Because of this, most Korean cities are not as symmetrical in layout as those of China or Japan, where ancient fortress towns were built along a grid pattern. In those countries, it was typical for palaces to be located in the center of the city or slightly northward. In contrast, Joseon’s primary palace of Gyeongbokgung was situated in the western section of an irregularly shaped city at the base of Mt. Bugaksan. This outcome was the product of feng shui, a system of geomancy principles for identifying auspicious sites. In contrast with other Joseon palaces, however, Gyeongbokgung was built on flat terrain that enabled an orderly building layout within the grounds.
TAEJO, THE FIRST KING OF JOSEON
The founder of the Joseon Dynasty was born in 1335 as Yi Seong-gye in Hamheung, a coastal city in what is now North Korea. Yi, the son of a minor official, joined the army and went on to become a general, gaining a reputation as a capable military commander. As the Goryeo Dynasty neared its end, the kingdom was beset with raids and invasions by Japanese pirates and the Chinese Red Turbans. Yi and fellow general Choe Yeong proved effective in beating back these attacks, and their power and influence grew.
In 1368, the Ming finally overthrew the Mongol-dominated Yuan Dynasty in China. In 1388, the Ming demanded that Goguryeo transfer to China large parts of northern Korea; in retaliation, King U of Goryeo set in motion an invasion of parts of Manchuria claimed by his kingdom. Put in command of the invasion force, Yi marched his forces north. Just before crossing the border, however, Yi rebelled, leading his troops south to seize the royal capital of Gaeseong. After placing several puppet kings on the throne, Yi finally took the throne for himself in 1392, adopting the royal name King Taejo and bringing the Goryeo Dynasty to a close.
Allying himself with Confucian reformers like Jeong Do-jeon who wished to transform the kingdom along Confucian lines, Taejo and his court set about turning the new Joseon Dynasty into a model Confucian state, led by a king and a court composed of Confucian scholar-officials. He established a new capital where the new dynasty could develop free from the trappings of the old regime. Although Taejo reigned for only six years, the dynasty he founded lasted over five centuries.
SIGNIFICANCE OF GYEONGBOKGUNG
The Joseon Dynasty adopted the principles of Neo-Confucianism, which valued the overall good of humankind and its correspondence with ethical principles of nature. More importantly, Neo-Confucianism focused on spiritual matters such as the morality of humanity, rather than worrying about external appearances. The legitimacy of royal authority was based on the morality and fairness of the king’s rule, not on the power he possessed. As such, the palace where the king resided had to convey a sense of dignity; an overly ostentatious palace, however, would be undesirable since this might suggest the king was suppressing his people. To achieve an appropriate balance, the palaces of Joseon feature a more restrained appearance compared to those of other countries in the region—symbolizing the distinctive spirit and character of Joseon.
The site of Gyeongbokgung was selected by Jeong Do-jeon, a Neo-Confucian scholar and court official who also created names for the palace and each of its buildings to express the ideals that the Joseon rulers should pursue. The three primary buildings of Gyeongbokgung are Gangnyeongjeon, the king’s chamber; Sajeongjeon, the council hall; and Geunjeongjeon, the throne hall.
Reenactment of the royal inquiry meeting Every morning, the king would meet with major officials in front of the administrative hall of the main palace to discuss national affairs.
With the Gangnyeongjeon (康寧殿) chamber, where the king slept, Jeong Do-jeon sought to create an atmosphere that would allow the king to maintain a straightforward and peaceful state of mind. The name Gangnyeong (康寧) means “peace,” which is one of the five blessings. As such, Jeong hoped that the king would realize the five blessings through having a straightforward mind that would beget virtuous behavior. Because the king spent most of his time alone in the sleeping chamber, where it was easy for him to become distracted, it was all the more critical to assure that this environment would be conducive to a state of peacefulness.
“Faithfulness” and “a straightforward mind” are two of the eight principles outlined in the Confucian classic The Great Learning, along with “in-depth study and understanding of worldly matters,” “ethical cultivation,” “family harmony,” “proper governance of the nation,” and “promotion of peace.” If the king’s sleeping chamber helped him to attain faithfulness and a straightforward mind, the king applied his knowledge at the Sajeongjeon (思政殿) council hall, where he met with court officials and attended special lectures. Jeong Do-jeon came up with the name Sajeongjeon, which means “Hall of Thoughtful Rule,” as a way of encouraging the king to think deeply about difficult matters and to make decisions based on sound reasoning. After all, “thought (思)” is the essence of political governance and education.
If the king cultivated faithfulness and a straightforward mind at the Gangnyeongjeon and applied his knowledge at the Sajeongjeon, then he would be able to rule in a forthright manner. Based on a proper morality, the king would be able to rule the nation effectively and promote peace at the Geunjeongjeon (勤政殿) throne hall. The name means “Hall of Diligent Rule,” but this was not intended as an admonition for the king to pursue diligence without a sense of direction. In this case, Jeong Do-jeon believed that such diligence called for the king to appoint virtuous and capable officials, who would be entrusted with administrative responsibilities so that he did not have to worry about insignificant details.
TRIALS OF GYEONGBOKGUNG
Ultimately, Jeong Do-jeon selected the name Gyeongbokgung (景福宮), which means “Palace of Shining Blessing,” to express a plea for the king to be an honorable ruler and for the dynasty’s royal succession to continue unbroken. As it turned out, Gyeongbokgung’s prestige would be undermined not long after its completion. After two uprisings over the matter of royal succession, the capital was moved back to Gaegyeong and then later returned to Hanseong. Amid this turmoil, the new Changdeokgung was built to the east of Gyeongbokgung. Although Gyeongbokgung remained the official royal palace of Joseon, it was left unoccupied throughout the reign of King Taejong (r. 1400–1418), which eroded its previous stature.
During the reign of King Sejong (r. 1418–1450), a serious debate arose over the interpretation of feng shui principles. In particular, there were those who claimed that the primary mountain of Hanseong should be the mountain near Changdeokgung rather than Mt. Bugaksan. This controversy was not merely a matter of the capital’s layout, since the adoption of another primary mountain would alter the meridians that were used in the original feng shui calculations. Moreover, this would raise questions about whether Gyeongbokgung was situated on an auspicious site. Although the government suppressed debate on this matter during the rule of King Sejong, the controversy reemerged after the Japanese invasion in 1592.
FENG SHUI
Feng shui (風水, pungsu in Korean), which literally means “wind and water,” comes from the Chinese phrase zang feng de shui, or “block the wind and retain water.” In feng shui, an ideal site is surrounded by high and low mountains, with an entrance that opens south with a small stream in front of it—this principle is called bei shan lin shui, or “back to the mountain, facing the water.” Feng shui’s emphasis on natural geography is derived from people’s desire to be born into the richness of nature’s resources and to eventually return to nature for all eternity. Accordingly, in line with the etymology of feng shui, its principles are considered when selecting the site for a village, home, or grave.
After being introduced to Korea during the Three Kingdoms period, feng shui became prevalent from the late Silla period and continued through the Goryeo period as well as the Joseon period, when it coexisted with the state’s Confucian beliefs. Notable examples of its principles can be seen in the development of palace buildings and royal tombs.
That invasion, which broke out 200 years after the nation’s founding, was an unprecedented war of epic scale and destruction. Gyeongbokgung and all the other palaces of Hanseong were burned to the ground. What could have been the reason for this extensive destruction of the country? Around this time, people wondered about the feng shui controversy over Mt. Bugaksan being the capital’s primary mountain, and whether this meant that the Gyeongbokgung site was actually not auspicious. Could this “miscalculation” have somehow contributed to the war’s heavy toll?
After repelling the Japanese invaders, efforts were undertaken to restore the palaces of Hanseong during the reign of Gwanghaegun (r. 1608–1623). Gyeongbokgung, however, was left in ruins and not rebuilt, supposedly due to the questions about the site’s auspicious nature. It is believed that Gwanghaegun had intended to restore Gyeongbokgung, but that work never got under way.
After being reduced to ashes during the Japanese invasions, Gyeongbokgung remained in rubble for over 200 years until a reconstruction project began in 1860. In spite of this neglect, various ceremonies were held on the Gyeongbokgung grounds during the 18th century by the Joseon kings as a way of paying tribute to the dynasty’s founders, which served to revive the palace’s standing as a prominent symbol of the royal authority of Joseon and its founders.
When King Gojong assumed the throne, his father, the Prince Regent Heungseon Daewongun, initiated a grand plan to restore the dignity and authority of the royal throne in 1865, which had been eroded during the 19th century. Accordingly, Gyeongbokgung was restored during Gojong’s reign (r. 1863–1907). The original layout was retained in general, but the new palace was larger and included more buildings. Prior to Gojong’s declaration in 1870, under which he was designated the ruler of the nation (superseding his father’s regency), Gojong had built another complex, the Geoncheonggung, in the rear of the palace. But in 1895, while Gojong and his queen were residing at Geoncheonggung, Japanese agents assassinated the queen. In a flurry of events that would change the course of Korea’s political history, Gojong took refuge at the Russian Legation and proclaimed the founding of the Daehan Empire, thereby ending Gyeongbokgung’s role as the main Joseon palace.
Reenactment of the coronation of King Sejong the Great
Changing of the guard ceremony
After Korea became a colony of Japan (1910–1945), the Japanese authorities wrought serious damage to Gyeongbokgung in an effort to demonstrate their imperial power. Numerous buildings and features of the palace were demolished. The crowning blow came in 1920, when the office of the Japanese Government General was built directly in front of the Gyeongbokgung throne hall. Having long symbolized the royal authority of Joseon, Gyeongbokgung was now overshadowed.
After Korea’s liberation in 1945, there were calls for the removal of the former Government General Building, which served as a painful reminder of Japan’s colonial rule. Resolution would have to wait until the 1990s, however. During this time, a “Set History Right” movement took hold in Korea as an effort to enhance the people’s understanding of the Japanese colonial period and to bolster Korea’s national pride. Plans for the restoration of Gyeongbokgung were an integral aspect of these efforts.
But even the demolition of the Japanese Government General Building, which enabled the Gyeongbokgung restoration to get under way, was not free of controversy. In the end, however, calls to restore Gyeongbokgung to its former glory won out. The palace embodies the spirit of the Joseon founders and has stood for some 500 years as an enduring symbol of the Joseon Dynasty.
THE JAPANESE GOVERNMENT GENERAL BUILDING
For decades, one of the largest, most imposing buildings in Seoul was the Japanese Government General Building, a massive colonial edifice erected on the grounds of Gyeongbokgung between 1916 and 1926. To make way for the building, much of Gyeongbokgung was destroyed; so wanton was the destruction that it troubled even Japanese intellectuals. The building dwarfed its surroundings, blocking the view of Gyeongbokgung from downtown Seoul. As a symbol of colonial domination, it was unmatched.
After Korea’s liberation from Japanese colonial rule in 1945, the old Government General Building became Korea’s national parliament building. Later, a new parliament building was erected, and the building was renovated for use as the National Museum. In 1993, then-President Kim Young-sam ordered the building demolished.
From the outset, however, the matter of disposal of the former Government General Building remained. Opinions were split over whether it should be demolished or retained. One side argued that it should be demolished as a vestige of Japanese colonialism, while the other contended that in spite of Korea’s painful history of defeat and disgrace, it was an important historical structure that should be relocated and preserved. This controversy raged on until the government announced its decision to have the building dismantled.
On August 15, 1995, while the country was marking the 50th anniversary of Korea’s liberation from Japan, the government removed the spire that stood atop the building’s central dome—a symbolic gesture to close this dark chapter of Korea’s past. By December 1996, the Japanese Government General Building was fully demolished and forever lost to history.
