Abbreviations in notes
AWD—Allen Welsh Dulles
DBG—David Ben-Gurion
DDE—Dwight David Eisenhower
GAN—Gamal Abdel Nasser
JFD—John Foster Dulles
NSK—Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev
RAE—(Robert) Anthony Eden
ADLC—Archives Diplomatiques, La Courneuve, Paris, France
AWDP—Allen Welsh Dulles Papers, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
DDEP—Dwight D. Eisenhower Library Papers relating to John Foster Dulles, Public Policy Papers, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
FRUS—Foreign Relations of the United States; published as a series in hard copy or available online at http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/collections/FRUS
JFDP—John Foster Dulles Papers, Public Policy Papers, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
JFDOHP—John Foster Dulles Oral History Project, Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
USNA—United States National Archives, Archives II, College Park, Maryland
UKNA—United Kingdom National Archives, Kew
Prologue: “I Want Him Murdered”
1. In his 1967 memoir, No End of a Lesson, Nutting said Eden’s words were “I want him destroyed, can’t you understand?” The proofs for the book said “removed” rather than “destroyed”; see Philip Murphy, “Telling Tales Out of School: Nutting, Eden and the Attempted Suppression of No End of a Lesson,” in Smith, Reassessing Suez 1956, 208. In 1984, though, Nutting admitted that he had toned down Eden’s language. He told the makers of the Channel 4 documentary End of Empire that Eden had said “Can’t you understand that I want Nasser murdered?” “He actually used that word,” Nutting added, emphatically. Lapping, End of Empire, 262.
2. Anthony Nutting, No End of a Lesson (London: Constable, 1967), 33–35.
3. GAN, Mar. 10, 1953, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 1952–1970; in James, Nasser at War, 1.
4. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 100–1.
5. Lapping, End of Empire, 263–64.
6. Steve Morewood, “Prelude to the Suez Crisis: The Rise and Fall of British Dominance over the Suez Canal, 1869–1956,” in Smith, Reassessing Suez 1956, 14.
7. Ferdinand de Lesseps in Kyle, Suez, 15.
8. Lord Palmerston to Lord Cowley, quoted in Evelyn Baring, Modern Egypt (1910; Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 72n.
9. Yergin, Prize, 19–39.
10. Georges Clemenceau to Woodrow Wilson, Dec. 15, 1917, in Yergin, Prize, 161.
11. Admiral Sir Edmond Slade in Barr, Line in the Sand, 65.
12. RAE, House of Commons Debates, vol. 318, Nov. 24, 1936, col. 256.
13. Recommending the Anglo-Egyptian treaty to the House of Commons, RAE stated that “the United Kingdom is entitled under the Treaty to be assured that the Canal will be adequately protected by the alliance for all time.” RAE in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 318 (House of Commons), Nov. 24, 1936, col. 259.
14. Eden, Full Circle, 224.
15. Carlton, Eden, 129–30.
16. WSC in McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East, 15; original in British Documents on the End of Empire, series A, vol. 1, doc. 25.
17. WSC in McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East, 17–18.
18. See Carlton, Eden, 258.
19. Frank Pakenham, Earl of Longford, Eleven at No. 10: A Personal View of Prime Ministers 1931–1984 (London: Harrap, 1984), 83–84.
20. See Carlton, Eden, 11–12. The “uncontrolled rages” quote comes from Lord Moran, Winston Churchill’s doctor.
21. Kyle, Suez, 40; Neguib, Egypt’s Destiny, 94.
22. RAE in Kyle, Suez, 44.
23. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 431.
24. Copeland, Game of Nations, 68.
25. Conversation in Winn, Nasser, 51.
26. Chester Cooper and ex-king Farouk in Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 53. On Farouk’s luggage, see Fullick and Powell, Suez: The Double War, 2.
27. Mahgoub, Democracy on Trial, 73.
28. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 433.
29. Copeland, Game of Nations, 90.
30. “I think Jock Colville was deeply mistaken in suggesting that towards the end of his tenure WSC had felt ‘a cold hatred’ for his successor. It was more irritation at being under pressure to depart and grave doubts about the consequences.” Montague Browne, Long Sunset, 213.
31. Ibid., 132.
32. Carlton, Eden, 296.
33. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, 76.
34. See John S. D. Eisenhower, Soldiers and Statesmen: Reflections on Leadership (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2012), 17–19.
35. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe (1948; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 61–62.
36. Eden, Full Circle, 253.
37. Ibid., 256.
38. Cecil B. DeMille, The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille, ed. Donald Hayne (London: W. H. Allen, 1960), 386.
39. It would perhaps have been slightly less appropriate to note GAN’s resemblance to Wilcoxon when he appeared as Richard the Lionheart, enemy of the great Muslim hero Saladin, in DeMille’s The Crusades (1936)—though that film is surprisingly generous to Saladin.
40. For full details of this agreement, see Charles B. Selak Jr., “The Suez Canal Base Agreement of 1954: Its Background and Implications,” American Journal of International Law 49, no. 4 (Oct. 1955): 487–505.
41. GAN, 1953, in James, Nasser at War, 5.
42. See James, Nasser at War, 5–6.
43. Steve Morewood, “Prelude to the Suez Crisis: The Rise and Fall of British Dominance over the Suez Canal, 1869–1956,” in Smith, Reassessing Suez 1956, 30.
44. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Empire, 144.
45. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism, 190.
46. Eden, Full Circle, 500.
47. Mahgoub, Democracy on Trial, 23–24.
48. J. C. Hurewitz, “The Historical Context,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 20.
49. Kyle, Suez, 43. Kyle was explicitly told this by Julian Amery, a Conservative MP and member of the Suez Group in the 1950s.
50. Herbert Morrison, Sept. 27, 1951, in Kyle, Suez, 8.
51. Eden, Full Circle, 426.
52. Otto von Bismarck in R. W. Seton-Watson, Britain in Europe 1789–1914: A Survey of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1937), 553.
53. Eden, Full Circle, 313.
54. These comments are from, respectively, Rab Butler, Nigel Nicolson, and Lord Kilmuir. Carlton, Eden, 376. Carlton cautions against reading these accounts as fully representative of RAE’s leadership, but there are so many similar descriptions that they cannot be entirely discounted.
55. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 64.
56. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 17. Rhodes James, Eden, 431n; footnote disputes Nutting’s account of that night. Nutting claimed he stayed up half the night persuading RAE not to sever relations with Jordan; James claims RAE had no memory of such a meeting. RAE’s memory was not always reliable on Suez-related subjects, as his own memoirs repeatedly demonstrate.
57. Lawrence Tal, “Jordan,” in Sayigh and Shlaim, Cold War and the Middle East, 112; Shlaim, Lion of Jordan, 97–98.
58. John Bagot Glubb in Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 30.
59. Eden, Full Circle, 348.
60. Lawrence Tal, “Jordan,” in Sayigh & Shlaim, Cold War and the Middle East, 112. GAN sent Anwar Sadat and Abdel Hakim Amer.
61. GAN speaking to the BBC, in Moncrieff, Suez Ten Years After, 34. See also Heikal, Cairo Documents, 85–86.
62. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 71; see also Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 28.
63. Nigel Nicolson, “Diary of a Suez Rebel,” London Daily Telegraph, Oct. 27, 1996.
64. Lord Home in Hennessy, Muddling Through, 131.
65. Rhodes James, Eden, 457.
66. Aswan High Dam press release from US Department of State, July 19, 1956. Aswan Dam, 1956: JFDP, Box 100, Reel 38; Public Policy Papers.
67. JFD to Herbert Hoover & embassies, Sept. 27, 1955, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 14, doc. 314, p. 526.
68. JFD, Memorandum of a conversation at the Department of State, Oct. 3, 1955, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 14, doc. 323, p. 543.
69. RAE in Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 23.
70. Eden, Full Circle, 420.
71. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 95.
72. Ibid., 92.
73. Otto Passman in Burns, Economic Aid and American Policy Toward Egypt, 48–49.
74. JFD telephone call to AWD, 3:40 p.m. Memoranda of Telephone Conversation, General, DDEP, box 10.
75. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal, 187. DDE had suffered stomach problems for years, but the pain became acute on June 7, 1956, and he was admitted to Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, DC. Ileitis was diagnosed and he required an immediate operation. DDE had been expected to spend fifteen days in the hospital but, owing to a persistent infection after the surgery, he was not released until June 30 and was then sent to convalesce in his home in Gettysburg, PA.
76. Mohamed Heikal, informed apparently by Ahmed Hussein, denies that Hussein used this wording, in Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 115. Yet the well-informed CIA agent Wilbur Eveland confirms it in Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 194n. The substance of what was said chimes with the memorandum of the conversation written by William M. Rountree, assistant secretary of state. Rountree reports that Hussein said that the Soviets had made a “very generous offer” and warned that GAN might have to accept it if the US could not do a deal soon. See Burns, Economic Aid and American Policy Toward Egypt, 95.
77. JFD in Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 115.
78. In Mosley, Dulles, 403.
79. JFD news conference, Apr. 2, 1957. Aswan Dam, 1956: JFDP, Box 100, Reel 38.
80. JFD telephone call from Senator William F. Knowland, Thursday, July 19, 1956, 5:10 p.m. Memoranda of Telephone Conversation: General, DDEP, box 10.
81. William B. Macomber Jr., JFDOHP. When he gave this interview, Macomber was not absolutely sure whether he said “I hope so,” as reproduced here, or something similar along those lines.
82. Miles Copeland in Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 193.
83. RAE via William Clark in Lapping, End of Empire, 262. See also Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, June 20, 1956, p. 256: RAE had already decided Britain would pull out of funding the dam a month earlier, and Shuckburgh predicted the Soviets would finance it instead.
84. Copeland, Game Player, 200.
85. Ibid., 170.
86. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 114. The point about the grape juice seems coy: according to CIA agent Wilbur Eveland, GAN served whisky to his guests, and it is implied he took some himself. See Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 101–2. Perhaps this was evidence for a story Christian Pineau told: “To understand the Arabs, it must be remembered that the Quran always carries two interpretations. So my [Moroccan] interlocuters refused the wine with dinner but accepted whisky in the evening, for if the sacred text forbade consuming alcohol as a drink, it did not prohibit it as a medication for exhausted diplomats.” Pineau, 1956/Suez, 29.
87. Jawaharlal Nehru in Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 116; see also Heikal, Cairo Documents, 74.
88. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, xiii. See also Laura M. James, “When Did Nasser Expect War? The Suez Nationalization and Its Aftermath in Egypt,” in Smith, Reassessing Suez 1956, 149–55, on his reaction to JFD’s statement.
89. Conversation in Mosley, Dulles, 404. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 116, confirms that Nasser and Byroade talked and Byroade was upset, but does not detail the conversation.
90. The Indian historian Sarvepalli Gopal—who knew Nehru well—insisted that news of the nationalization came to Nehru “as an unpleasant surprise.” Mohamed Heikal agreed: “Nehru had necessarily not been told in advance about nationalization and was in consequence both hurt and angry.” Sarvepalli Gopal, “India and the Non-Aligned Nations,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 157; Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 134. Conversely, Trevelyan also believed that GAN had been planning to nationalize the Canal Company in the event of American withdrawal for at least a month. Trevelyan, Public and Private, 78. See also James, Nasser at War, 22–23 on the question, which cannot precisely be answered, of when exactly GAN decided to nationalize the Canal Company.
91. Humphrey Trevelyan in Robertson, Crisis, 69.
92. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 45.
93. GAN in Lapping, End of Empire, 264. See also Heikal, Cairo Documents, 94; and Sayyid Mar’i, Political Papers, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 360–61.
94. Lucas, Divided We Stand, 139; Aburish, Nasser, 107–8.
95. Eden, Full Circle, 190.
96. NSK in Khrushchev, Last Testament, 340.
97. Kilmuir, Political Adventure, 268. The Earl of Kilmuir was present that night and his account of the proceedings, though skimpy on political detail, is precise on matters of dress. There is a better eyewitness account of the political aspects of the evening by Hugh Gaitskell in Gaitskell, Diary, July 26, 1956, pp. 552–53.
98. Eden, Full Circle, 426.
99. Stock, Israel on the Road to Sinai, 191, 264n.
100. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 49–50. See Eden, Full Circle, 474–75 for his defense of his point of view.
101. Eden, Full Circle, 419.
102. Nuri es-Said as recalled by William Clark, in Lapping, End of Empire, 264. Similar version (without “hit him by yourself”) in Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 130.
103. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 47–48.
104. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 106.
105. Pineau, 1956/Suez, 175.
106. Memorandum of Conversation, July 27, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 3, pp. 5–7.
107. Herbert Hoover to JFD, July 28, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 14, p. 25.
108. Winston S. Churchill, Address at Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri, Mar. 5, 1946.
109. Butler, Art of the Possible, 189.
Chapter 1: “We Must Keep the Americans Really Frightened”
1. Evans, Algeria, 88.
2. Dictionary of African Biography, ed. Emmanuel K. Akyeampong and Henry Louis Gates Jr., 429–30.
3. Guy Mollet, radio broadcast, Feb. 9, 1956, in Evans, Algeria, 151.
4. Note, Relations franco-égyptiennes, Direction d’Afrique-Levant, June 13, 1956, ADLC: 213QONT/510/EG-Politique française vis-à-vis de l’Egypte.
5. C. Douglas Dillon, JFDOHP.
6. Christian Pineau, Aug. 1, 1956, in Maurice Vaïsse, “France and the Suez Crisis,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 137.
7. DBG, Diary, Oct. 23, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 310.
8. CIA NSC Briefing, Algeria, Aug. 28, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79R00890A000700080023–7.
9. CIA Office of National Estimates, “North African Reactions to Recent French Moves,” Staff Memorandum No. 88–56, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79T00937A000500020010–5.
10. New York Times, Oct. 24, 1956, 4.
11. Ibid., 1. Brady was released the next morning.
12. Ben Bella in Merle, Ahmed Ben Bella, 116–23.
13. Habib Bourguiba in “Rebel Chiefs Captured in Algeria,” London Times, Oct. 23, 1956, 10.
14. Pineau, 1956/Suez, 127.
15. Fullick and Powell, Suez: The Double War, 80.
16. See Trita Parsi, Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Dealings of Israel, Iran, and the United States (2007; New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), p. 23. Israeli leaders went to great lengths to keep the Tipline pumping after the Yom Kippur War of 1973, but the Iranians stopped its use altogether after the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
17. Gaitskell, Diary, July 30, 1956, 560.
18. Peres, Battling for Peace, 119.
19. Bar-Zohar, The Armed Prophet, 226–27; Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 194. DBG had presented a plan to capture the Straits of Tiran to the Israeli cabinet on Dec. 5, 1955.
20. DBG in Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 12.
21. H. H. Asquith in Barr, Line in the Sand, 35.
22. The story of the Sykes-Picot agreement and its influence on the Balfour Declaration is told brilliantly and in much more detail in Barr, Line in the Sand, 20–56.
23. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, 211.
24. Neville Chamberlain in Barr, Line in the Sand, 196.
25. DBG in The Jewish Plan for Palestine: Memoranda and Statements Presented by the Jewish Agency for Palestine to the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (Jerusalem: Jewish Agency for Palestine, Sept. 1947), 310.
26. Shlaim, Israel and Palestine, xi.
27. DBG in Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 172–73.
28. Kamal al-Din Hussein, in James, Nasser at War, 7.
29. David Tal, “The 1956 Sinai War: A Watershed in the History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” in Smith, Reassessing Suez 1956, 136.
30. The British ambassador to Egypt in 1956 actively encouraged GAN to emulate Mustapha Kemal, in terms of having no ambitions toward territorial expansion. GAN had apparently red Grey Wolf, a biography of Mustapha Kemal by Harold Courtenay Armstrong, seven times. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 73.
31. Author’s interview with Uri Avnery, Tel Aviv, Mar. 2015.
32. Moshe Sharett, diary entry for Mar. 12, 1956, in Black and Morris, Israel’s Secret Wars, 130.
33. Copeland, Game Player, 201.
34. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 14.
35. New York Times, Oct. 23, 1956, 7.
36. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 101.
37. Lloyd, Suez 1956, 4.
38. Kyle, Suez, 87.
39. Selwyn Lloyd’s Personal Diary, Oct. 22, 1956, UKNA: FO 800/716.
40. Sir Donald Logan in Chris Brady, “In the Company of Policy Makers: Sir Donald Logan, Assistant Private Secretary to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 146.
41. Mordechai Bar-On, “David Ben-Gurion and the Sèvres Collusion,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 157. Bar-On quotes his own diary from Oct. 22, 1956. He adds, “Having read, many years later, Lloyd’s most honest, humble, and humane memoirs, I have realized that those earlier impressions must have reflected either my Israeli prejudice or Lloyd’s own utmost embarrassment.”
42. Sir Donald Logan in Hennessy, Muddling Through, 141.
43. Pineau, 1956/Suez, 128.
44. Harold Beeley in Hennessy, Muddling Through, 140.
45. DDE, Diary, Jan. 6, 1953, in Bowie and Immerman, Waging Peace, 213.
46. DDE, Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, Jan. 5, 1956.
47. Montague Brown, Long Sunset, 126.
48. Unnamed US diplomat, 1954, in Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 62.
49. “Dulles Formulated and Conducted U.S. Foreign Policy for More Than Six Years,” New York Times, May 25, 1959.
50. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 95; see also Kinzer, Brothers, 16.
51. Charles E. Bohlen, JFDOHP.
52. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 95.
53. For a fuller version of the story of the Guatemala affair, see Tunzelmann, Red Heat, 56–59.
54. Charles E. Bohlen, JFDOHP.
55. JFD, May 8, 1953. Immerman, Empire of Liberty, 180.
56. Sir Roger Makins to FO, July 30, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1098.
57. Selwyn Lloyd to Sir Gladwyn Jebb in Paris, July 30, 1956, UKNA, PREM 11/1098.
58. DDE to RAE, July 31, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1098.
59. Eden, Full Circle, 436. See Rhodes James, Eden, 471–73.
60. Record of a meeting held in the Secretary of State’s room in the House of Commons on July 31 at 9:00 p.m., July 31, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1098.
61. Macmillan, Cabinet Years, Aug 1, 1956, 580.
62. Copeland, Game Player, 198.
63. DDE confirmed this personally; see Dwight D. Eisenhower, JFDOHP. See also Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 52–53.
64. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 63, 77 (see also Robert Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors, 468); and Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, 186. See also Lucas, Divided We Stand, 35–36.
65. Robert Murphy, JFDOHP.
66. JFD in Eden, Full Circle, 437.
67. Charles E. Bohlen, JFDOHP. See also William B. Macomber’s oral history in the same series.
68. Maurice Couve de Murville to Ministry for External Affairs, Aug. 4, 1956, ADLC: 213QONT/493/EG-xiv-1.
69. Eden, Full Circle, 437.
70. See Gladwyn Jebb in Kyle, Suez, 178.
71. Memorandum of a Conference with the President, July 31, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 34, p. 64.
72. Sir Alec Clutterbuck, high commissioner to India, in 1954. See Sunil Khilnani, “Nehru’s Evil Genius,” Outlook India, Mar. 19, 2007. RAE in Kyle, Suez, 277; see also 280.
73. JFD, Memorandum of a Conversation with the President, Aug. 8, 1956, FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 71, p. 164.
74. RAE in Butler, Art of the Possible, 188.
75. RAE to Jawaharlal Nehru, Aug. 12, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1094; RAE to DDE, Aug. 5, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1098.
76. Eden, Full Circle, 431.
77. Macmillan, Cabinet Years, July 27, 1956, 578.
78. C. Douglas Dillon in Paris to JFD, July 31, 1956, State Department Central Decimal Files, Suez Crisis, 974.7301/7–1056, USNA: RG 59/250/44/4/4. Echoing Mollet, RAE wrote about GAN’s “horrible little book called A Philosophy of Revolution [his Arabic was rusty: The Philosophy of the Revolution was the correct title], which is like a potted edition of Mein Kampf.” Eden, Full Circle, 483.
79. Christian Pineau in C. Douglas Dillon to JFD, July 27, 1956, State Department Central Decimal Files, Suez Crisis, 974.7301/7–1056, USNA: RG 59/250/44/4/4; see also Record of Meeting Held at 1 Carlton Gardens at 6 p.m. on Sunday, July 29, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1098; and Selwyn Lloyd in Top Secret Record of a Meeting Held in the Foreign Secretary’s Room, Foreign Office, at 12 noon on Wednesday, Aug. 1, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1098. Pineau later denied that he had made any comparison of GAN with Hitler and claimed that only Guy Mollet had done that—see Christian Pineau in Moncrieff, Suez Ten Years After, 35. Yet he is repeatedly on record in the US and UK archives making exactly that comparison. As a coda to all this, writing in 1995, Winston Churchill’s private secretary Anthony Montague Browne noted that “Nasser can be compared to a less bloodthirsty Saddam Hussein” (Montague Browne, Long Sunset, 162). Though the ultimate villainous touch points change over time, it seems GAN can always be compared to them.
80. Report by Allan Evans, Aug. 14, 1956, USNA: Subject files of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research (INR), 1945–1960, Lot 58D776, RG 59/250/62/4/3, box 11.
81. Butler, Art of the Possible, 188.
82. James, Nasser at War, 31. The man sent was Ali Sabri.
83. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 98.
84. Robert Menzies to RAE, Sept. 1956, in Eden, Full Circle, 471.
85. Sir Robert Menzies in Kyle, Suez, 221. See also Eden, Full Circle, 469, on RAE’s belief that this statement by DDE was decisive to GAN’s thinking.
86. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Empire, 144–45.
87. Ivone Kirkpatrick to Roger Makins, Sept. 10, 1956, in Lucas, Divided We Stand, 199.
88. Christian Pineau via Gladwyn Jebb, Sept. 9, 1956, in Kyle, Suez, 228.
89. Kyle, Suez, 254.
90. See Kyle, Suez, 224–25; also Eden, Full Circle, 479, on British and French lack of enthusiasm for SCUA.
91. Macmillan, Cabinet Years, Sept. 9, 1956, 595–96.
92. Copeland, Game Player, 207.
93. DDE, Sept. 11, 1956, in Kyle, Suez, 243–44.
94. Eden, Full Circle, 463. This was in response to DDE’s letter of Sept. 3, 1956, which again made his opposition to force clear.
95. Sir Roger Makins (Lord Shenfield) in Hennessy, Muddling Through, 136.
96. C. Douglas Dillon, JFDOHP.
97. Hansard, 5th series, vol. 558, House of Commons, Session 1955–56, Sept. 12, 1956, col. 11–12; see also Kyle, Suez, 244–45.
98. GAN, Sept. 15, 1956, in James, Nasser at War, 32.
99. Memorandum of a conversation, JFD to Sir Roger Makins, Sept. 11, 1956, 5:20 p.m., General: DDEP, box 10.
100. Kyle, Suez, 249–50. The British plan was known as Operation Pile-Up.
101. DDE, JFDOHP.
102. RAE to Iverach McDonald in Carlton, Eden, 427.
103. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 102.
104. UNSC Resolution 118 (1956), Oct. 13, 1956, S/3675.
105. DDE in Kyle, Suez, 288.
106. Telephone call from Henry Cabot Lodge to JFD, Oct. 22, 1956, 4:44 p.m., Memoranda of Telephone Conversation, General, DDEP, box 10.
107. JFD to American Embassy Paris, Oct. 22, 1956. Chronological—John Foster Dulles (1–3), Aug. 1956, DDEP, box 80.
108. DBG, Diary, Oct. 18, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, The Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 304.
109. DBG, Diary, Oct. 22, 1956, in ibid., 309.
Chapter 2: The Hammer and Sickle Torn Out
1. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 17; Gati, Failed Illusions, 9.
2. Some Hungarians continued to call the AVH by its pre-1948 name, the AVO (Államvédelmi Osztály, State Security Department), pronounced “AH-voe.” Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 28n. The House of Terror museum in Budapest records stories of state repression in Hungary under successive Fascist and Communist regimes.
3. Lendvai, Hungary, 43.
4. Gati, Failed Illusions, 133–34. Gati suggests that the proportion was 75 percent. He notes that estimating the number of Hungarians with Jewish backgrounds is difficult because their names were often “hungaricized.”
5. Georgy Malenkov and Lavrenty Beria in Gati, Failed Illusions, 30; see also Kramer, “Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” 179; and Molnár, Budapest 1956, 27.
6. Méray, Thirteen Days That Shook the Kremlin, 13.
7. Gati, Failed Illusions, 38.
8. Nikita Khrushchev in Gati, Failed Illusions, 122.
9. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 108–9.
10. Anna Akhmatova in Taubman, Khrushchev, 285.
11. Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 23, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59; Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2356.
12. See Lomax, Hungary 1956, 135.
13. JFD in New York Times, Oct. 22, 1956, 1.
14. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, 123–24.
15. Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 43. See New York Times, Oct. 22, 1956, 1, 6, for reports on Hungarian protests of Oct. 21, 1956.
16. Molnár, Budapest 1956, 111.
17. Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 23, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59; Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2356.
18. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 112.
19. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 101.
20. Ibid., 102.
21. TNA: CAB 128/30 CM (56) 72, confidential annex, Oct. 23, 1956; Hennessy, Prime Minister, 222–23.
22. Shimon Peres and DBG in Peres, Battling for Peace, 128.
23. Moshe Dayan in Sharon, Warrior, 142.
24. Gilbert, Israel, 310.
25. Sharon, Warrior, 144.
26. Peres, Battling for Peace, 129.
27. In Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956,” in Tal, The 1956 War, 128–29. For DBG and the oil, see 133.
28. Aburish, Nasser, 90.
29. Dorril, MI6, 602; Scott Lucas and Alistair Morey, “The Hidden ‘Alliance’: The CIA and MI6 Before and After Suez,” in Stafford and Jeffreys-Jones, American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 97–98.
30. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 97, 98n.
31. GAN in Jefferson Caffery to State Department, Mar. 23, 1954, FRUS 1952–54, vol. 9, doc. 1304, p. 2242.
32. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 101.
33. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 27.
34. The $3 million bribe is confirmed both by GAN’s confidant Mohamed Heikal and by CIA agent Wilbur Eveland, though Heikal thought it was offered to General Neguib and GAN intercepted it. Eveland does not give precise dates but tells the story so that the decision to provide the money was made under Neguib’s leadership; it was, though, handed over to GAN’s aide once GAN was leader of the country. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 91, 98, 98n; Heikal, Cairo Documents, 54–55; James, Nasser at War, 7. Lucas and Morey agree that the bribe was offered to GAN in Scott Lucas and Alistair Morey, “The Hidden ‘Alliance’: The CIA and MI6 Before and After Suez,” in Stafford & Jeffreys-Jones, American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 99–100; see also Lucas, Divided We Stand, 38.
35. Kermit Roosevelt to GAN, Dec. 23, 1954, in James, Nasser at War, 9–10.
36. The American ambassador Raymond Hare, who was director general of the Foreign Service at the time, thought Dulles actively worked against it. “We got word that Iran wanted to join the Baghdad Pact,” he remembered. “And that night a telegram was sent to the Ambassador in Tehran instructing him to dissuade Iran from joining the Baghdad Pact. I’ve never seen this any place. The message went, but the Ambassador never acted. I’ve forgotten now whether the timing wasn’t right—perhaps it wasn’t too welcome a task, on his part, anyway, but it was never acted on.” Raymond Hare, JFDOHP.
37. “En marge de la conference du Baghdad,” Dec. 1955, ADLC: 214QONT/537/PRO-iv-1.
38. “Note pour le président du conseil,” Mar. 9, 1956, ADLC: 214QONT/537/PRO-iv-1.
39. See Kyle, Suez, 56–60.
40. Heikal, Cairo Documents, 79.
41. GAN in James, Nasser at War, 10.
42. Heikal, Cairo Documents, 80.
43. Ibid., 81.
44. Ralph Murray and GAN in Lapping, End of Empire, 258, 259.
45. Chaim Herzog in Gilbert, Israel, 322.
46. Kyle, Suez, 63.
47. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 73.
48. Sharon, Warrior, 88, 90.
49. United Nations Security Council S/RES/101 (1953), S/3139/Rev. 2, Nov. 24, 1953. The resolution is known generally as Resolution 101. It was adopted by nine votes to zero with two abstentions (Lebanon and the USSR).
50. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 74.
51. Uri Avnery interview with the author, Mar. 2015.
52. DBG in Sharon, Warrior, 91.
53. At the time, some Israelis suspected he tacitly supported the fedayeen. Yet documents that the Israelis themselves captured from Egyptian military intelligence in October and November 1956 proved that the Egyptian military and government had been attempting to restrain Palestinians from infiltration into Israel. Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 188–89.
54. Black and Morris, Israel’s Secret Wars, 127–28.
55. Filiu, Gaza, 87.
56. Copeland, Game Player, 199.
57. Kyle, Suez, 65; Filiu, Gaza, 87.
58. Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 188.
59. CIA agent Miles Copeland argued that the Gaza raid was “perfect gameplay from the Israelis’ point of view.” In his analysis, the Israelis would rather have GAN in a fiercely anti-Israel position than a mild anti-Israel position, because it would decrease the chances of his allying with the United States. Copeland connected this to the Suez crisis and said it “played right into Israeli hands.” Copeland, Game Player, 199. There is little evidence that the Israelis actually intended this chain of events to proceed from the raid, though, and it is extremely questionable whether the 1956 war ultimately helped their case or harmed GAN’s internationally. It did result in some short-term gains, which are detailed in the epilogue to this book.
60. Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 188–89.
61. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 31, 36.
62. Embassy in Tel Aviv to Department of State, Apr. 5, 1955, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 14, doc. 66, p. 139; Kyle, Suez, 66. See also Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 189–90.
63. James, Nasser at War, 13.
64. Copeland, Game Player, 199; Lucas, Divided We Stand, 48.
65. Reported in Herbert Hoover to JFD, Sept. 19, 1955, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 14, doc. 284, p. 481.
66. Peres, Battling for Peace, 75–76.
67. Sir Harold Caccia, deputy undersecretary of state, on Evelyn Shuckburgh to Harold Macmillan, Sept. 23, 1955, FO 371/113674; Kyle, Suez, 75.
68. Copeland, Game of Nations, 134–35.
69. Heikal, Cairo Documents, 60.
70. Kermit Roosevelt to AWD, in Herbert Hoover to US mission at UN, Sept. 27, 1955, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 14, doc. 311, p. 521.
71. The letter from JFD to GAN (Sept. 27, 1955) is in FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 14, doc. 315, pp. 527–28.
72. Henry Byroade to State Department, Oct. 1, 1955, FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 14, doc. 321, pp. 538–39.
73. See Embassy in Egypt to State Department, Nov. 17, 1955, FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 14, doc. 416, p. 781.
74. Copeland, Game Player, 198.
75. Golda Meir speaking in New York, Dec. 18, 1955, in William Morris to Foreign Office, Jan. 6, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/121708, VR 1071/10.
76. Abba Eban, JFDOHP. Eban was obliged to defend Israel’s action in the United Nations despite his strong opposition to it.
77. Message to the CIA, Feb. 22, 1956, in FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 15, doc. 112, pp. 206–7.
78. GAN, June 19, 1956, in James, Nasser at War, 18–19.
79. Filiu, Gaza, 92–93; Morris, Israel’s Border Wars, 380–81.
80. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 195.
81. Copeland, Game Player, 200.
82. “Cairo Mission in Amman,” London Times, Oct. 24, 1956, 8.
83. “France Recalls Cairo Ambassador, London Times, Oct. 24, 1956, 10.
84. New York Times, Oct. 24, 1956, 1.
85. CIA Office of National Estimates, Staff Memorandum No. 88–56, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79T00937A000500020010–5.
86. United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 148–49; Molnár, Budapest 1956, 116.
87. Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 23, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59; Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2356.
88. Imre Nagy, spring 1957, in Rainer, Imre Nagy, 102.
89. Gati, Failed Illusions, 146.
90. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 117–18.
91. Josip Broz Tito in Molnár, Budapest 1956, 117.
92. The story of the Cuban revolution’s changing politics has been told at length in Tunzelmann, Red Heat.
93. Clement Voroshilov, Oct. 1956, in Taubman, Khrushchev, 295.
94. Gati, Failed Illusions, 5, 95, 166.
95. Kopácsi, In the Name of the Working Class, 122–23.
96. Lomax, Hungary 1956, 117–18; Molnár, Budapest 1956, 132–33.
97. Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 64–65.
98. Herman Phleger, JFDOHP.
99. JFD, speech, US News & World Report, Apr. 21, 1956, JFDP, Middle East, 1956, box 106, reel 41.
100. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 431.
101. Working notes of the CPSU presidium, Oct. 23, 1956, Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 120–21.
102. See picture in Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, vii. See also “Hour-by-Hour Chronicle from Budapest Radio,” London Times, Oct. 25, 1956, 10.
103. Stephen Vizinczey in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 119. See Kopácsi, In the Name of the Working Class, 127–29 for a memorable account of the statue falling.
104. Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 44–45.
105. Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 23, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59; Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2356.
106. United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 151.
107. Ernő Gerő and Imre Nagy in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 124–25. See also Molnár, Budapest 1956, 121.
108. Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 46.
109. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 125.
110. DDE to WSC, Apr. 27, 1956. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library: DDE’s Papers as President, DDE Diary Series, Box 14, Apr. 1956 Miscellaneous (1).
111. DDE in Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 203.
112. United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 49–50; Kopácsi, In the Name of the Working Class, 145.
Chapter 3: A Plan on a Cigarette Packet
1. Radio Kossuth, Oct. 24, 1956, in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 127.
2. Kopácsi, In the Name of the Working Class, 150.
3. Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956,” in Tal, 1956 War, 129–30; Kyle, Suez, 328.
4. Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 232; Peres, Battling for Peace, 129.
5. Moshe Dayan, 1976, translated in Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 181.
6. Nuri es-Said in Gaitskell, Diary, July 26, 1956, 554.
7. Moshe Sharett in Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 184–85.
8. Shlaim, “Conflicting Approches,” 182.
9. Ibid., 200.
10. Sharon, Warrior, 135.
11. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 78.
12. In Isaac Alteras, “Eisenhower and the Sinai Campaign of 1956: The First Major Crisis in US-Israeli Relations,” in Tal, 1956 War, 27.
13. Avnery, Israel Without Zionists, 113.
14. Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 187; Aburish, Nasser, 65–66.
15. Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 192–95.
16. Peres, Battling for Peace, 88.
17. See Shalom, Ben-Gurion’s Political Struggles, 23–35, for a full account of the scandal in the 1960s.
18. Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 187–88.
19. Uri Avnery, interview with the author, Mar. 2015.
20. DBG in Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 191.
21. GAN and Kermit Roosevelt in Burns, Economic Aid and American Policy, 61; Lucas, Divided We Stand, 87.
22. Peres, Battling for Peace, 117.
23. Shlaim, “Conflicting Approaches,” 198; Stock, Israel on the Road to Sinai, 184–85.
24. Uri Avnery, interview with the author, Mar. 2015.
25. Peres, Battling for Peace, 118.
26. Miklos Vásárhelyi in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 133.
27. Gati, Failed Illusions, 150.
28. Kopácsi, In the Name of the Working Class, 154–55.
29. Pál Kabelács in Csete, 1956 Budapest, 70.
30. “Insurrection in Budapest,” London Times, Oct. 25, 1956, 10; Réthly, Hungarian Revolution, 16.
31. Pál Maléter in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 130–31.
32. Report from Anastas Mikoyan and Mikhail Suslov to the CPSU presidium, out of sequence (Oct. 24, 1956); Archive of Foreign Policy, Russian Federation (AVP RF) F. 059a, Opis 4, Papka 6, Delo 5, Listy 1–7, translation by Johanna Granville, in Cold War International History Project Bulletin, no. 5, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington DC, Spring 1995. See also Méray, Thirteen Days That Shook the Kremlin, 104.
33. Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956,” in Tal, 1956 War, 131.
34. Moshe Dayan in Kyle, Suez, 328.
35. Peres, Battling for Peace, 130.
36. It is widely believed that Israel built its first nuclear weapon ten years later, in December 1966. Israel has never officially confirmed that it has a nuclear weapons program. On Suez and Israel’s nuclear industry, see Aronson, David Ben-Gurion and the Jewish Renaissance, 256–60.
37. Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956,” in Tal, 1956 War, 132.
38. Eden, A Memoir, 249.
39. Mordechai Bar-On, “David Ben-Gurion and the Sèvres Collusion,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 158.
40. Kyle, Suez, 330.
41. Rhodes James, Eden, 532.
42. Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956,” in Tal, 1956 War, 136.
43. CIA NSC Briefing, “French Coup in North Africa,” Oct. 25, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79R00890A000700100025–2.
44. CIA Office of National Estimates, “North African Reactions to Recent French Moves,” Staff Memorandum no. 88–56, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79T00937A000500020010–5. The figure for the dead in Morocco is from NSC Briefing, “French Coup in North Africa,” Oct. 25, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79R00890A000700100025–2.
45. Ben Bella in Merle, Ahmed Ben Bella, 116–23.
46. Pineau, 1956/Suez, 140–45.
47. Jerusalem Post, Oct. 25, 1956, 1.
48. Winthrop W. Aldrich to JFD, Oct. 23, 1956 (received Oct. 24, 1956), State Department Central Decimal Files, Suez Crisis, 974.7301/10–2356, USNA: RG 59/250/44/4/4.
49. JFD, Memorandum of a Conference with the President, Oct. 24, 1956, 11:30 a.m., United Kingdom—Misc. Paper—UK, 1956, 1960, DDEP, box 37.
50. Memorandum of a telephone call between JFD and Henry Cabot Lodge, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 25, doc. 104, p. 273.
51. Mr. Gomułka Acclaimed by Huge Warsaw Crowd,” London Times, Oct. 25, 1956, 10.
52. NSK in Zhu, 1956, 119.
53. Charles E. Bohlen in Moscow to Secretary of State, Oct. 24, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2456.
54. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 136–37.
55. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, 127.
Chapter 4: Bloody Thursday
1. James, Nasser at War, 38.
2. New York Times, Oct. 25, 1956, 5.
3. Kyle, Suez, 333.
4. “The chief danger, especially for us, was that the conflict [between Israel and Egypt] would spread,” RAE would claim in his 1959 memoir, which he wrote in denial of the reality of his collusion with Israel. “It is evident that [Anglo-French] intervention stopped it spreading.” Eden, Full Circle, 526–27.
5. Alexander Schnee for the ambassador to Department of State, Oct. 25, 1956, State Department Central Decimal Files, Suez Crisis, 974.7301/10–2356, USNA: RG 59/250/44/4/4.
6. Abba Eban in New York Times, Oct. 26, 1956, 1, 4.
7. Sharon, Warrior, 141.
8. Heath, Course of My Life, 169–70.
9. Cabinet Meeting, Oct. 25, 1956, 10 a.m., CM (56) 74th conclusions, UKNA: PREM 11/1103.
10. Barnett, Verdict of Peace, 491.
11. Gaitskell, Diary, Mar. 9, 1956, 465.
12. Memorandum for the Record on Meeting at Greenbrier, White Sulphur Springs, WV, Mar. 27, 1956. White House Memoranda, 1953–59, DDEP, box 22. For other contemporaries questioning RAE’s mental health and judgment at this point, see Trevelyan, Public and Private, 56; Dodds-Parker, Political Eunuch, 114; Richard Powell in Hennessy, Muddling Through, 142.
13. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 138.
14. Eden, Full Circle, 568; see also Rhodes James, Eden, 523–24. RAE and most of his biographers do not mention the reason Lady Eden was in the hospital. Randolph Churchill, The Rise and Fall of Sir Anthony Eden, 260, mentions that it was for a dental examination.
15. Carlton, Eden, 428.
16. Lucas, Divided We Stand, 55. The aide was William Clark.
17. Macmillan, Cabinet Years, Feb. 3, 1957, 612.
18. Horace, Lord Evans in Butler, The Art of the Possible, 194.
19. Eden, Full Circle, 549–50.
20. Anonymous bus driver in Eden, Full Circle, 546.
21. Selwyn Lloyd to Sir Norman Brook, Aug. 8, 1959, UKNA: FO 800/728.
22. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 104–8.
23. Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956,” in Tal, 1956 War, 136.
24. Radio Kossuth, Oct. 25, 1956, in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 138.
25. Anastas Mikoyan in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 140.
26. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 144.
27. Kopácsi, In the Name of the Working Class, 164.
28. Unsigned message from Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 25, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2556.
29. New York Times, Oct. 27, 1956, 2.
30. Gábor Jobbágyi, “Bloody Thursday, 1956: The Anatomy of the Kossuth Square Massacre,” trans. Andy Clark, Hungarian Review 5, no. 1, Jan. 15, 2014.
31. Gati, Failed Illusions, 159.
32. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 145.
33. Aldrich in London to Secretary of State, Oct. 26, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2656.
34. Imre Nagy in Rainer, Imre Nagy, 107.
35. Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956,” in Tal, 1956 War, 136.
36. “Fighting in Meknes,” London Times, Oct. 26, 1956, 10.
37. Anwar Sadat in al-Gomhuria, Oct. 25, 1956, quoted in Jerusalem Post, Oct. 26, 1956, 1.
38. Anonymous Moroccan source quoted in New York Times, Oct. 26, 1956, 5.
39. Eden, A Memoir, 250; Earl Mountbatten of Burma to RAE, Nov. 2, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1090.
40. Winthrop W. Aldrich to JFD, Oct. 26, 1956, State Department Central Decimal Files, Suez Crisis, 974.7301/10–2356, USNA: RG 59/250/44/4/4.
41. Notes on the 38th Meeting of the Special Committee on Soviet and Related Problems, Washington, Oct. 25, 1956, FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 25, doc. 107, p. 277.
42. Memorandum of a telephone conversation between the President in New York and the Secretary of State in Washington, Oct. 25, 1956, 5:02 p.m., Eisenhower Library, FRUS vol. 25 (Eastern Europe), doc. 111, pp. 290–91; see also footnote of AWD’s conversation with JFD.
43. New York Times, Oct. 26, 1956, 1, 18.
Chapter 5: The Two Musketeers
1. “Military Implications of Mounting Operation Musketeer,” Chiefs of Staff to Egypt Committee EC (56) 63, Top Secret Annex, Oct. 25, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1103.
2. Eden, Full Circle, 430.
3. DDE, JFDOHP.
4. William Dickson in Kyle, Suez, 88.
5. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, Mar. 2, 1956, 340.
6. Kyle, Suez, 90; Anthony Gorst, “‘A Modern Major General’: General Sir Gerald Templer, Chief of the Imperial General Staff,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 33.
7. Cloake, Templer, 342; Monroe, Britain’s Moment, 188.
8. DDE in Lucas, Divided We Stand, 76.
9. Gerald Templer in Ziegler, Mountbatten, 528.
10. “Egyptian Nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company,” Top Secret Report by the Joint Intelligence Committee, JIC (56) 80 (Final) (Revise), Aug. 3, 1956, UKNA: CAB 158/25.
11. Norman Brook in Keith Kyle, “The Mandarin’s Mandarin: Sir Norman Brook, Secretary of the Cabinet,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 70.
12. See Anthony Gorst, “‘A Modern Major General’: General Sir Gerald Templer, Chief of the Imperial General Staff,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 36; Kyle, Suez, 172–79 has a much more detailed account of the first stage of political wranglings.
13. Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 238 (House of Lords), Mar. 28, 1962, col. 1002–3.
14. See correspondence between Hugh Gaitskell and RAE in Gaitskell, Diary, 570–88.
15. Anwar Sadat in Keith Kyle, “Britain’s Slow March to Suez,” in Tal, 1956 War, 115n. See also pp. 95–96 on Gaitskell’s objection to British arms sales to Egypt.
16. Eden, Full Circle, 445.
17. Barnett, Verdict of Peace, 493.
18. Kyle, Suez, 202.
19. Interview with William B. Macomber Jr., Sept. 19, 1993, Library of Congress: Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mfdip.2004mac07.
20. Memorandum of a Conversation, Aug. 19, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 99, p. 235.
21. Macmillan, Cabinet Years, Aug. 24, 1956, 590.
22. Charles Keightley, Sept. 1956, in Kyle, Suez, 234.
23. Lord Hailsham in Kyle, Suez, 235.
24. Lord Mountbatten’s account, 1956, in Eric Grove and Sally Rohan, “The Limits of Opposition: Admiral Earl Mountbatten of Burma, First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 108. It is generally worth taking Lord Mountbatten’s accounts with a pinch of salt: they tend to place him more firmly at the righteous center of events than others around him remember. This account, though written very close to the time, is considerably more believable than his memories of various events later in life.
25. Hugh Stockwell, “Report on Operation Musketeer, August to December 1956,” UKNA: WO 288/77.
26. Top Secret Report by Air Marshal D.H.F. Barnett, Air Task Force Commander, on Operation Musketeer, Nov. 27, 1956, UNKA: AIR 20/10746.
27. David Lee in Hennessy, Muddling Through, 138.
28. Herman Phleger, JFDOHP.
29. CIA NSC Briefing, Consequences of UK-French Military Action (SNIE 30–4–56), Sept. 6, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79R00890A000700090002–9.
30. Aug. 24, 1956, in Keith Kyle, “Britain’s Slow March to Suez,” in Tal, 1956 War, 103.
31. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 207; see also Kyle, Suez, 303 on how little Keightley and the chiefs of staff knew.
32. See Motti Golani, “The Sinai War, 1956: Three Partners, Three Wars,” in Tal, 1956 War, 174.
33. Pineau, 1956/Suez, 162.
34. General Charles Keightley and Admiral Manley Power in Kyle, Suez, 341.
35. Foreign Office minutes, Aug. 3, 1956, in Christopher Goldsmith, “In the Know? Sir Gladwyn Jebb, Ambassador to France,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 83–84. See also “Egyptian Nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company,” Top Secret Report by the Joint Intelligence Committee, JIC (56) 80 (Final) (Revise), Aug. 3, 1956, UKNA: CAB 158/25: “Great resentment would undoubtedly be created by what would be interpreted as a plot between Israel and the West.”
36. See Macmillan, Cabinet Years, Aug. 3, 1956, 583, and Aug. 4, 1956, 584; Kyle, Suez, 170.
37. Sept. 25, 1956, in Keith Kyle, “The Mandarin’s Mandarin: Sir Norman Brook, Secretary of the Cabinet,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 73.
38. Kyle, Suez, 174.
39. Peres, Battling for Peace, 122; Shimon Peres, “The Road to Sèvres: Franco-Israeli Strategic Cooperation,” in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 142.
40. Peres, Battling for Peace, 118.
41. Tayekh, Origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine, 114.
42. Pineau, 1956/Suez, 132.
43. Eugene Gilbert to Christian Pineau, June 19, 1956, in Maurice Vaïsse, “France and the Suez Crisis,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 135. For more on the French administration’s affection for Israel at the time, see Shimon Peres, “The Road to Sèvres: Franco-Israeli Strategic Cooperation,” in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 143–44.
44. Eden, Full Circle, 476.
45. Kyle, Suez, 264–65.
46. Mr. Westlake in Tel Aviv to FO, Sept. 26, 1956, TNA: FO 371/121779.
47. R. M. Hadow to Mr. Westlake in Tel Aviv, Oct. 3, 1956, TNA: FO 371/121779.
48. Kyle, Suez, 293.
49. Sharon, Warrior, 137; Kyle, Suez, 293.
50. Anthony Gorst, “‘A Modern Major General’: General Sir Gerald Templer, Chief of the Imperial General Staff,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 41.
51. Kyle, Suez, 282.
52. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 90–96.
53. Moshe Dayan, Diary, Oct. 21, 1956, 61.
54. Eden, Full Circle, 511.
55. Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956,” in Tal, 1956 War, 122–23.
56. Shimon Peres in Mordechai Bar-On, “David Ben-Gurion and the Sèvres Collusion,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 148.
57. DBG, Diary, Oct. 17, 1956, in Mordechai Bar-On, “David Ben-Gurion and the Sèvres Collusion,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 149; Kyle, Suez, 299.
58. RAE in Kyle, Suez, 308–9. The UNSC debate was on Oct. 19, 1956.
59. Shimon Peres, “The Road to Sèvres: Franco-Israeli Strategic Cooperation,” in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 147.
60. Ferenc Donáth, István Pozsár, and unnamed student in Rainer, Imre Nagy, 108–11.
61. Imre Nagy and Ferenc Donáth in Gati, Failed Illusions, 153–54.
62. Anastas Mikoyan to Nikita Khrushchev, Oct. 26, 1956, in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 153.
63. Gergely Pongrácz, in National Security Archive Cold War Interviews, George Washington University, June 17, 1996.
64. Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 156–57; Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 74–82.
65. Memorandum of Discussion at the 301st meeting of the National Security Council, Washington, Oct. 26, 1956, 9:00–10:42 a.m., FRUS 25 (Eastern Europe), doc. 116, pp. 295–99.
66. FRUS 25 (Eastern Europe), docs. 119–121.
67. Gati, Failed Illusions, 72. The United States distributed food packages in East Germany after the uprising in 1953, which annoyed the Kremlin, but that seems to have been its only involvement.
68. Adams, First-Hand Report, 196.
69. Christian Pineau, JFDOHP.
70. NSK in Hayter, Kremlin and the Embassy, 138–39. See also Eden, Full Circle, 356–61; Richard Crossman, The Backbench Diaries of Richard Crossman, ed. Janet Morgan (London: Hamish Hamilton and Jonathan Cape, 1981), 491; Richard Crossman in Taubman, Khrushchev, 357.
71. JFD in Hoopes, Devil and John Foster Dulles, 131.
72. Memorandum of a Telephone Call, JFD to AWD, Oct. 15, 1956, 4:45 p.m., General, DDEP, box 10.
73. Kyle, Suez, 338.
74. JFD to American Embassy London, Oct. 26, 1956, Chronological—John Foster Dulles (1–3), 1956 August, DDEP, box 80.
75. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 110.
76. Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 234.
77. Mosley, Dulles, 413–14.
78. Kyle, Suez, 339; FRUS 1955–57, vol. 17, doc. 314, p. 593 and note.
79. General Charles Cabell, JFDOHP.
80. Christian Pineau, JFDOHP.
81. John Colville, The Fringes of Power: Downing Street Diaries 1939–1955, rev. ed (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004), 667.
82. Montague Browne, Long Sunset, 210.
83. Memorandum of a telephone call between DDE and JFD, Oct. 26, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 25, doc. 121, pp. 306–7.
84. JFD to American Embassy London, Oct. 26, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2656.
Chapter 6: The Omega Plan
1. Ariel Sharon and Moshe Dayan in Sharon, Warrior, 142.
2. Mordechai Bar-On, “David Ben-Gurion and the Sèvres Collusion,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 160.
3. Dodds-Parker, Political Eunuch, 103.
4. Dorril, MI6, 601; Scott Lucas and Alistair Morey, “The Hidden ‘Alliance’: The CIA and MI6 Before and After Suez,” in Stafford and Jeffreys-Jones, American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 98.
5. In Mitchell, Society of the Muslim Brothers, 8.
6. Mohammed al-Ghazali, in Mitchell, Society of Muslim Brothers, 241.
7. J. Heyworth-Dunne in Mitchell, Society of Muslim Brothers, 28n.
8. Gordon, Nasser, 20; Mitchell, Society of Muslim Brothers, 98. The officer who met Nasser was Mahmud Labib.
9. Mitchell, Society of Muslim Brothers, 46.
10. Ibid., 89.
11. Sir Ralph Stevenson to RAE, Jan. 1, 1952, UKNA: FO 371/96870, JE 1018/1.
12. Sir Ralph Stevenson to Foreign Office, Jan. 26, 1952, UKNA: FO 371/96872, JE 1018/55.
13. CIA intelligence memorandum, “Terrorism, a Threat to Near Eastern Stability,” July 26, 1951, USNA: CIA-RDP91T01172R000300290023–4.
14. Maurice Couve de Murville to Ministry for External Affairs, Aug. 28, 1954, ADLC: 213QONT/483/EG-v-6.
15. M. A. Hankey to Foreign Office, Aug. 31, 1953, UKNA: FO 371/102706, JE 1015/123.
16. Eden, Full Circle, 257.
17. Mitchell, Society of Muslim Brothers, 131.
18. GAN in Mitchell, Society of Muslim Brothers, 151.
19. See James, Nasser at War, 6–7.
20. Gordon, Nasser, 33–34.
21. Ian Black, “Osama bin Laden Was Blind in One Eye, Says al-Qaida Leader,” Manchester Guardian, Sept. 27, 2012.
22. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 103–4.
23. Copeland, Game Player, 201.
24. Sir Richard Hull in Dorril, MI6, 605.
25. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, Nov. 28, 1955, 305.
26. Harold Macmillan to Sir Humphrey Trevelyan, Nov. 26, 1955, UKNA: FO 371/113738, JE 1423/252G.
27. Harold Macmillan to JFD, Nov. 26, 1955, UKNA: FO 371/113738, JE 1423/252G.
28. Michael T. Thornhill, “Alternatives to Nasser: Humphrey Trevelyan, Ambassador to Egypt,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 23.
29. Copeland, Game Player, 201.
30. James, Nasser at War, 19; Dorril, MI6, 610. The paid French hitman in 1954 was Jean-Marie Pellay; he is said to have just missed his target.
31. See Dorril, MI6, 613.
32. Herbert Hoover in Sir Roger Makins to Foreign Office, Nov. 27, 1955, UKNA: FO 371/113738, JE 1423/253G.
33. Foreign Office to Washington, Nov. 28, 1955, UKNA: FO 371/113738, JE 1423/253G.
34. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, Mar. 8, 1956, 345.
35. RAE in Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, Mar. 12, 1956, 346.
36. George Young to BBC, 1985; in Dorril, MI6, 609; see also Kyle, Suez, 150–51.
37. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 169–71. According to Eveland, George Young later joined the Society for Individual Freedom, which argued that white Europeans were inherently superior to Jews, Arabs, Asians, and Africans.
38. Memorandum from the Secretary of State to the President, Mar. 28, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 15, doc. 223, pp. 419–21.
39. CIA Briefing, “Egypt’s Role in the Muslim World,” n.d. (c. 1955–56), USNA: CIA-RDP78–02771R000500030002–9.
40. CIA NSC Briefing: Middle East Update, Mar. 20, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79R00890A000700030022–3.
41. Memorandum from the Secretary of State to the President, Mar. 28, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 15, doc. 223, pp. 419–21.
42. See Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 132–38, 143–51.
43. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 182. See also 198–201 for more on American plotting against the Syrian government.
44. See Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 104–5; Lucas, Divided We Stand, 118.
45. Dorril, MI6, 631; West, Friends, 141.
46. Macmillan, Cabinet Years, Aug. 29, 1956, 592.
47. Hennessy, Prime Minister, 216.
48. Wright, Spycatcher, 160–61.
49. London Times, June 19, 1975, 1, 6; Scott Lucas and Alistair Morey, “The Hidden ‘Alliance’: The CIA and MI6 Before and After Suez,” in Stafford and Jeffreys-Jones, American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 106 and note.
50. Dorril, MI6, 639.
51. Ibid., 632; Bower, Perfect English Spy, 192.
52. Scott Lucas and Alistair Morey, “The Hidden ‘Alliance’: The CIA and MI6 Before and After Suez,” in Stafford and Jeffreys-Jones, American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 107; Kyle, Suez, 211; Lucas, Divided We Stand, 101, 193–94.
53. Memorandum of Conversation, Sept. 22, 1965, USNA: State Department Central Decimal Files, 774.11/9–2256.
54. Fisher Howe to the Under Secretary, Sept. 28, 1956, USNA: State Department Central Decimal Files, 774.11/9–2856.
55. DDE in Dorril, MI6, 636.
56. Memorandum of Conference, Oct. 6, 1956, DDE, Staff Notes, Oct. 1956; Ambrose and Immerman, Ike’s Spies, 240.
57. Laurent Rucker, “The Soviet Union and the Suez Crisis,” in Tal, 1956 War, 77; Andrew and Mitrokhin, Mitrokhin Archive, vol. 2, p. 148. Rucker dates the dispatch of the KGB agents to around Oct. 1, 1956. The KGB agent, Vadim Kirpichenko, dates it to the end of July.
58. See Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 202–4 and 218–23 for more on Ilyan’s financial request and plotting; Lucas, Divided We Stand, 140.
59. William Blum, Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II (2003; London: Zed Books, 2004), 86–87; Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 225. Blum gives the delayed date as October 30, but Eveland, who was on the ground, says it was October 29.
60. Jerusalem Post, Oct. 28, 1956, 1.
61. “Tunisians Clash with French Troops,” London Times, Oct. 29, 1956, 7.
62. Christian Pineau, Jerusalem Post, Oct. 28, 1956, 3.
63. In CIA intelligence report, Oct. 31, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP81–00280R001300040086–1.
64. Rainer, Imre Nagy, 111.
65. Molnár, Budapest 1956, 155.
66. Rainer, Imre Nagy, 111–13.
67. Mosley, Dulles, 415; Kyle, Suez, 339. Mosley’s source for this story was Amory; Kyle’s was a rival CIA agent, James Jesus Angleton.
68. Mosley, Dulles, 417.
69. Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 211.
70. Henriques, One Hundred Hours to Suez, 47.
71. Address by the Secretary of State Before the Dallas Council on World Affairs, Oct. 27, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 25, doc. 128, pp. 317–18.
Chapter 7: No Picnic
1. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 158–59.
2. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 109.
3. Ben Bella in Merle, Ahmed Ben Bella, 123.
4. Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury in Pineau, 1956/Suez, 133.
5. “State of Emergency in Aleppo,” London Times, Oct. 29, 1956, 7; Jerusalem Post, Oct. 29, 1956, 1.
6. CIA Office of National Estimates, Staff Memorandum No. 88–56, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79T00937A000500020010–5.
7. Gati, Failed Illusions, 162.
8. Imre Nagy in Rainer, Imre Nagy, 113; Anastas Mikoyan in Gati, Failed Illusions, 173–74.
9. Gati, Failed Illusions, 167. The tapes of RFE’s broadcasts were made available only in the 1990s. For more on the impact of these broadcasts, see also pp. 183–86.
10. Vyacheslav Molotov and Kliment Voroshilov, Oct. 28, 1956, in Kramer, “Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” 186.
11. NSK in Laurent Rucker, “The Soviet Union and the Suez Crisis,” in Tal, 1956 War, 84.
12. Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 235.
13. DBG in Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 239.
14. Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 212–13.
15. Hungary and Suez Crisis; 1955–1956, JFDP, State Department records, box 1, folder 1.
16. Telephone calls, Oct. 28, 1956, from DDE to JFD, 7:00 p.m.; from JFD to DDE, 9:00 p.m.; and from JFD to DDE, 5:35 p.m., Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16.
Chapter 8: “Sandstorms in the Desert”
1. DDE to DBG, Oct. 28, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 394, p. 801.
2. Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 237.
3. Kyle, Suez, 348.
4. Uri Avnery, interview with the author, Mar. 2015.
5. Dayan, Diary, Oct. 29, 1956, 74–75.
6. United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 23–24.
7. Ibid., 55.
8. Imre Nagy in Rainer, Imre Nagy, 116.
9. “Resurgence,” London Times, Oct. 29, 1956, 9.
10. “New Offer to Algerians,” London Times, Oct. 30, 1956, 6.
11. GAN via Amin Howeidy in James, Nasser at War, 40; see also Kyle, Suez, 350.
12. James, Nasser at War, 39–40; Moshe Shemesh, “Egypt: From Military Defeat to Political Victory,” in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 153.
13. Henriques, One Hundred Hours to Suez, 137–38.
14. GAN, in Nutting, Nasser, 75.
15. Clark, From Three Worlds, 197.
16. Robinson, Shira, Citizen Strangers: Palestinians and the Birth of Israel’s Liberal Settler State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013), 160–1.
17. Blumenthal, Goliath, 125–27.
18. Eyal Kafkafi, “Segregation or Integration of the Israeli Arabs: Two Concepts in Mapai,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 30, no. 3 (Aug. 1998): 366n.
19. Kyle, Suez, 348–49; “Israel Explores Dark Pages of Its Past,” Washington Post, Oct. 31, 1999; “Rivlin Condemns ‘Terrible Crime’ of Kafr Kassem Massacre,” Times of Israel, Oct. 26, 2014.
20. Sharon, Warrior, 144.
21. Ibid., 145.
22. Kyle, Suez, 350.
23. GAN in Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 177.
24. Status Report on the Near East Given by the Director [AWD] at the White House to a Bipartisan Congressional Group, Nov. 9, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP80B01676R004200050014–8.
25. Etienne Dennery, ambassador to Switzerland, to the Minister for Foreign Affairs in Paris, Oct. 15, 1956, ADLC: 213QONT/480/EG-iv-5.
26. “Report on the World Today: Washington,” Atlantic Monthly, Aug. 1956.
27. Telephone call, JFD to Sherman Adams, Oct. 29, 1956, 11:28 a.m., Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16.
28. C. Douglas Dillon to JFD, Oct. 29, 1956, State Department Central Decimal Files, Suez Crisis, 974.7301/10–2356, USNA: RG 59/250/44/4/4.
29. Kyle, Suez, 351; Eliezer Cohen, Israel’s Best Defense: The First Full Story of the Israeli Air Force, trans. Jonathan Cordis (Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife, 1994), 107–8; Ehud Yonay, No Margin for Error: The Making of the Israeli Air Force (New York: Pantheon, 1993), 161–63.
30. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 177–78.
31. JFD to American Embassies in Paris and London, Oct. 29, 1956, Top Secret, Chronological—John Foster Dulles (1–3), Aug. 1956, DDEP, box 80.
32. Immerman, Empire of Liberty, 169–70.
33. JFD in Kinzer, Brothers, 49; Immerman, Empire of Liberty, 175.
34. AWD in Kinder, Brothers, 48.
35. Kinder, Brothers, 53–4; Preussen, John Foster Dulles, 125.
36. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 63.
37. Abba Eban, JFDOHP. See also, in the same collection, James Hagerty’s interview.
38. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, Dec. 16, 1954, 243.
39. Raymond Hare, JFDOHP.
40. See Judah Nadich, Eisenhower and the Jews (New York: Twayne, New York, 1953) for rabbinical approval of DDE (Nadich was a rabbi). On George Patton’s antisemitism and his attitude to displaced persons camps, see Richard Cohen, “What Bill O’Reilly Ignored About George Patton,” Washington Post, Sept. 29, 2014.
41. Uri Avnery, interview with the author, Mar. 2015.
42. DDE, Address at Byrd Field, Richmond, VA, Oct. 29, 1956.
43. Clark, From Three Worlds, 197.
44. Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 29, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2956.
45. Kyle, Suez, 399; Shlaim, Lion of Jordan, 118–19.
46. Memorandum of a Conference with the President by Andrew Goodpaster, Oct. 29, 1956, 7:15 p.m., United Kingdom—Misc. Paper—UK, 1956, 1960, DDEP, box 37.
47. DDE (according to his own recollection) in Love, Suez, 503.
48. Baeyens, Un coup d’épée, 18.
49. “United States Ready to Honour Middle East Pledge,” London Times, Oct. 30, 1956, 8.
50. Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 214.
51. Memorandum of a Conference with the President, Oct. 29, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 412, p. 840.
52. Kyle, Suez, 354–55.
Chapter 9: Ultimatum
1. Michail Bey Ilyan in Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 227.
2. Dorril, MI6, 642, 646–47. Ilyan eventually ended up in exile in Britain.
3. JFD and AWD in Dorril, MI6, 642; Kyle, Suez, 367.
4. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 179.
5. Oct. 31, 1956, Adams, Suez and After, 82.
6. Trevelyan, Middle East in Revolution, 116; Michael T. Thornhill, “Alternatives to Nasser: Humphrey Trevelyan, Ambassador to Egypt,” in Kelly and Gorst, Whitehall and the Suez Crisis, 11.
7. Jerusalem Post, Oct. 30, 1956, 1.
8. “Aims of the Drive,” London Times, Oct. 30, 1956, 8.
9. Stock, Israel on the Road to Sinai, 191.
10. Winthrop W. Aldrich to JFD, Oct. 30, 1956, State Department Central Decimal Files, Suez Crisis, 974.7301/10–2356, USNA: RG 59/250/44/4/4. In 1967, Aldrich published an account of his meeting in which he claimed that Lloyd had said Britain would name Israel as the aggressor before the Security Council. If true, this would have been a flat-out lie. Yet Aldrich’s 1967 account is contradicted by his own cable of October 30 and by the British Foreign Office account of the meeting. See Kyle, Suez, 355.
11. Cabinet meeting CM (56) 75th Conclusions, Minute 1, UKNA: CAB 128/30/299.
12. Dodds-Parker, Political Eunuch, 105.
13. Kyle, Suez, 369.
14. Ibid., 373.
15. Jerusalem Post, Oct. 31, 1956, 1.
16. For instance, GAN complained to the British ambassador in Bahrain in March 1956 that “the Saudis had embarrassed him” by giving £50,000 to the Muslim Brotherhood and heaping rewards on Egyptian paratroopers training in Saudi Arabia. Sir B. Burrows to Foreign Office, Mar. 3, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1448.
17. See Anthony Cave Brown, Treason in the Blood (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994); James Craig, “Philby, Harry St. John Bridger (1885–1960),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004).
18. As of 2015, the United States Energy Information Administration estimated Saudi reserves at 268 billion barrels.
19. Franklin D. Roosevelt in Morton, Buraimi, 65.
20. Al-Rasheed, History of Saudi Arabia, 89–114.
21. The politician was former Egyptian prime minister Hussein Sirri Pasha. Report from G. Lewis Jones, Chargé in Cairo to Deparment of State, Feb. 23, 1955, USNA: State Department Central Decimal Files, Gamal Abdel Nasser, 774.11/2–2355, USNA: RG 59/250/43/5/5.
22. Harold Macmillan to RAE, Nov. 25, 1955, UKNA: PREM 11/1448.
23. Copeland, Game of Nations, 58–59; Citino, From Arab Nationalism to OPEC, 96–98.
24. Eden, Full Circle, 331–32; see also 334.
25. RAE to DDE, Jan. 16, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1448.
26. For a much more detailed account of the Buraimi dispute, see Morton, Buraimi.
27. JFD to DDE, July 7, 1953; WSC, FO memoir of conversation with Winthrop Aldrich, May 22, 1953; both quoted in Petersen, “Anglo-American Rivalry,” 76.
28. RAE in Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, 187.
29. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 42.
30. Telephone call JFD to DDE in Augusta, Wed., Apr. 11, 1956, 1:10 p.m., Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16.
31. RAE, “The Economic Situation,” Jan. 5, 1957, TNA: CAB 129/84, CP (57) 8, cited in Simon C. Smith, Introduction, in Smith, Reassessing Suez 1956, 6.
32. Quoted in Simon C. Smith, Introduction, in Smith, Reassessing Suez 1956, 8.
33. Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 215.
34. Memorandum of a Conference with the President, Oct. 30, 1956, United Kingdom—Misc. Paper—UK, 1956, 1960, DDEP, box 37.
35. Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 30, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–3056.
36. Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 30, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–2556.
37. Mao Tse-tung in Taubman, Khrushchev, 297; see also Zhu, 1956, 160.
38. Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev, Oct. 30, 1956, in Gati, Failed Illusions, 179.
39. Kramer, “Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” 188.
40. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, 129–30.
41. Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Oct. 30, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–3056.
42. Imre Nagy in Rainer, Imre Nagy, 119–20.
43. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 116.
44. Shuckburgh, Descent to Suez, Nov. 1, 1956, 362.
45. Reported in Verrier, Through the Looking Glass, 154. The swear word is blanked out in the original.
46. RAE in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1281.
47. Denis Healey and RAE in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1290–91.
48. Oct. 30, 1956, Benn, Years of Hope, 193.
49. James Reston in Isaac Alteras, “Eisenhower and the Sinai Campaign of 1956: The First Major Crisis in US-Israeli Relations,” in Tal, 1956 War, 30.
50. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 167. The aide appears to have been William Clark, who also remembered the story. See Rhodes James, Eden, 568.
51. RAE to DDE, Oct. 30, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 421, pp. 856–57.
52. Telephone call from JFD to DDE, 11:37 a.m., Oct. 30, 1956, Memoranda of Telephone Conversations White House, DDEP, box 16.
53. DDE to RAE, Oct. 30, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 424, pp. 860–61.
54. Hayter, Kremlin and the Embassy, 142.
55. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 430.
56. Heikal, Sphinx and Commissar, 70–71. Heikal retells this story in Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 192–93, and Cairo Documents, 111. DDE agreed, telling his advisers, “Look at the map. . . . Geography makes effective Soviet intervention in Egypt difficult, if not impossible.” Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors, 476.
57. Khrushchev, Last Testament, 342. See also Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 443.
58. Charles E. Bohlen to Secretary of State, Oct. 31, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–3156.
59. Charles E. Bohlen in Moscow to Secretary of State, Oct. 20, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files, 684A.86/10–3056. See also FRUS 1955–57, vol. 25, doc. 145, p. 347, n. 3.
60. Sir William Hayter to FO, Oct. 30, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1170.
61. Sergei Khrushchev, Khrushchev on Khrushchev: An Inside Account of the Man and His Era, tr. William Taubman (Boston: Little, Brown, 1990), 57.
62. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 179. See also Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 115–16.
63. GAN in Heikal, Cairo Documents, 108.
64. In James, Nasser at War, 41; see also Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Oct. 30, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 338.
65. GAN in Moncrieff, Suez Ten Years After, 48.
66. Jerusalem Post, Oct. 31, 1956, 1.
67. Moshe Dayan’s (unpublished) Diary, Oct. 30, 1956, in Motti Golani, “The Sinai War, 1956: Three Partners, Three Wars,” in Tal, 1956 War, 172–73.
68. Telephone call between DDE and JFD, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 427, p. 863.
69. Telephone call from JFD to DDE, 2:53 p.m., Oct. 30, 1956, Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16. For DDE’s letter to RAE and Guy Mollet, see FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 430, p. 866.
70. Paris Match, Oct. 29, 1966, 84. There is an atmospheric firsthand account of this event by Pedrazzini’s colleague Paul Mathias in the same edition of Paris-Match, 74–77.
71. Réthly, Hungarian Revolution, 28; Gati, Failed Illusions, 177; Kopácsi, In the Name of the Working Class, 196.
72. Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 63–64; see also Méray, Thirteen Days That Shook the Kremlin, 153–54.
73. Gati, Failed Illusions, 177n.
74. Hugh Gaitskell in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1347–48.
75. Alfred Robens in ibid., col. 1371.
76. Selwyn Lloyd in ibid., col. 1375, 1378.
77. In Lucas, Divided We Stand, 263.
78. Sharon, Warrior, 146.
79. JFD telephone call to Lester Pearson in Ottawa, Oct. 30, 1956, 3:00 p.m., Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, General, DDEP, box 10.
80. RAE to DDE, Oct. 30, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 434, pp. 871–72.
81. Telephone calls from DDE to JFD 3;40 p.m., JFD to DDE 3:50 p.m., Oct. 30, 1956, Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16.
82. Memorandum of a Conversation with the President, Oct. 31, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 435, pp. 873–74.
83. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Empire, 167.
84. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 169.
85. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 121.
86. Eden, Full Circle, 530; Kyle, Suez, 364–65; Pineau, 1956/Suez, 163.
87. See FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 439, pp. 881–82.
88. DDE draft (unsent), Oct. 30, 1956, DDEP, box 16.
89. Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 216–17.
90. Telephone calls from DDE to JFD, 4:54 p.m., and JFD to DDE, 5:23 p.m., Oct. 30, 1956, Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16.
91. Adlai Stevenson in New York Times, Oct. 31, 1956, 1, 24.
92. DDE and John Eisenhower in Eisenhower, Strictly Personal, 189–90.
93. Kyle, Suez, 376–77.
Chapter 10: Perfidious Albion
1. “Egyptian Warship Captured,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 10; Fullick and Powell, Suez: The Double War, 90; Gilbert, Israel, 321; Baeyens, Un coup d’épée, 63.
2. Gerald Templer in Cloake, Templer, 352.
3. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 170.
4. Sharon, Warrior, 146.
5. Rechavam Ze’evi in Sharon, Warrior, 147.
6. Sharon, Warrior, 148.
7. Ibid., 149.
8. Gen. Sir Charles Keightley to Chiefs of Staff, Oct. 31, 1956, in Keith Kyle, “Britain and the Crisis, 1955–1956,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 128.
9. Secret Staff Summaries, State Dept., Nov. 1, 1956, Hungary and Suez Crisis, 1955–1956, JFDP, State Department Records, box 1, folder 1; Raymond Hare, JFDOHP; Current Intelligence Bulletin, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79T00975A002800120001–7.
10. Barnes to Budapest, Oct. 31, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/10–3156.
11. “Budapest Reported Free of Soviet Troops,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 8.
12. NSK in Taubman, Khrushchev, 296; see Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 418.
13. Kramer, “Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” 189–90.
14. Zhu, 1956, 168–77, has a much more detailed account of the complicated changing positions of Chinese policy on Hungary over the last few days in October.
15. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, 130.
16. NSK in Laurent Rucker, “The Soviet Union and the Suez Crisis,” in Tal, 1956 War, 84.
17. Maksim Saburov in Kramer, “Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” 190.
18. Réthly, Hungarian Revolution, 30.
19. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 173.
20. Secret Staff Summaries, State Dept., Nov. 1, 1956, Hungary and Suez Crisis, 1955–1956, JFDP State Department Records, box 1, folder 1.
21. JFD to Richard Nixon, telephone call, Oct. 31, 1956, in Kunz, Economic Diplomacy, 125.
22. “India Condemns Anglo-French Action,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 9.
23. Moshe Sharett in “India Condemns Anglo-French Action,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 9.
24. “Menace to France,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 9.
25. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 122–23. RAE denied having any memory of this meeting. See Rhodes James, Eden, 570. James believes RAE’s denial; the present author is inclined not to on the grounds, first, that RAE’s memories are often unreliable, and second, that Nutting’s account is specific in its detail and captures the authentic ring of RAE’s speech.
26. Dodds-Parker, Political Eunuch, 106.
27. Oct. 31, 1956. Benn, Years of Hope, p 193.
28. Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 218–19. Present at the meeting were Sherman Adams, Wilton Persons, James Hagerty, Andrew Goodpaster, Gabriel Hauge, and Emmet Hughes.
29. Memorandum of a telephone conversation between Abba Eban and Mr. Burdett, Oct. 31, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 448, p. 894.
30. “Cutting Off Gaza Strip,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 10.
31. Imre Nagy in Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 63.
32. János Kádár and Imre Nagy in Gough, Good Comrade, 87.
33. RAE in Eden, Full Circle, 532.
34. Hugh Gaitskell in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1454, 1459.
35. William Yates himself told this story in 1996. Keith Kyle, “Britain’s Slow March to Suez,” in Tal, The 1956 War, 108–9.
36. Nigel Nicolson, “Diary of a Suez Rebel,” London Daily Telegraph, Oct. 27, 1996.
37. DBG to Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury, 5:00 p.m., Oct. 31, 1956, in Kyle, Suez, 382.
38. Mosley, Dulles, 418.
39. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 180.
40. Kyle, Suez, 383.
41. Flight-Lieutenant John Slater in London Daily Mirror, Nov. 1, 1956, 24.
42. New York Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 6.
43. Kyle, Suez, 384.
44. Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Oct. 30, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 340.
45. Richard M. Bissell, JFDOHP.
46. In Mosley, Dulles, 148. Though Mosley does not attribute this to a specific interviewee, his sources included high-up CIA agents like Richard Bissell, who would certainly have had access to this information.
47. Sharon, Warrior, 150.
48. DDE in Robertson, Crisis, 171.
49. “Washington Charge of Collusion with Israel,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 10.
50. Harry S. Truman and Adlai Stevenson in Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 175.
51. DDE to Senator William Knowland, in Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2, p. 361.
52. “U.N. Assembly to Meet To-day,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 10.
53. Winthrop Aldrich in “U.S. Envoy on ‘Very Grave Anxiety,’” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 9.
54. “Over the Brink,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 11.
55. Mordecai Bar-On in Motti Golani, “The Sinai War, 1956: Three Partners, Three Wars,” in Tal, 1956 War, 180.
56. Dayan, Diary, Nov. 3, 1956, 127.
57. DDE in “Washington Charge of Collusion with Israel,” London Times, Nov. 1, 1956, 10.
58. Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 219–22.
Chapter 11: “There Is Something the Matter with Him”
1. NSK and Anastas Mikoyan in Taubman, Khrushchev, 298.
2. Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Nov. 1, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 340.
3. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 128.
4. Keith Kyle, “Britain’s Slow March to Suez,” in Tal, 1956 War, 110.
5. Egyptian Gazette, Nov. 1, 1956, in Kyle, Suez, 380.
6. Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Nov. 1, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 340.
7. GAN announcement and quote in London Times, Nov. 2, 1956, 8.
8. Heikal, Cairo Documents, 111.
9. Ali Abu Nuwar in Shlaim, Lion of Jordan, 120.
10. Sir C. Duke to Foreign Office, Nov. 3, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/121786, VR 1091/508.
11. New York Times, Nov. 2, 1956, 3.
12. Kyle, Suez, 399–400; Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 188.
13. Sir William Hayter to Foreign Office, Nov. 1, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1170.
14. Anastas Mikoyan and Mikhail Suslov in Gati, Failed Illusions, 190.
15. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 176.
16. London Times, Nov. 2, 1956, 8.
17. RAE to Guy Mollet, Nov. 1, 1956, UKNA: FO 800/727.
18. Luard, History of the United Nations, vol. 1, pp. 6–8.
19. Clark, From Three Worlds, 203.
20. Henry Durant in Moncrieff, Suez Ten Years After, 19.
21. Pineau, 1956/Suez, 163.
22. Top Secret Staff Summaries, State Dept., Nov. 2, 1956, Hungary and Suez Crisis, 1955–1956, JFDP State Department Records, box 1, folder 1.
23. These bulletins can be read in TNA: PREM 11/1163.
24. Lord Charteris and a confidential interviewee in Ben Pimlott, The Queen: Elizabeth II and the Monarchy (1996; HarperCollins, London, 2002), 253–55.
25. Lord Charteris in Ben Pimlott, The Queen: Elizabeth II and the Monarchy (1996; HarperCollins, London, 2002), 253–55.
26. Lord Mountbatten, tour diaries, June 13, 1976, in Ziegler, Mountbatten, 546.
27. Lord Charteris in Ben Pimlott, The Queen: Elizabeth II and the Monarchy (1996; HarperCollins, London, 2002), 255.
28. UK High Commission in India to UK delegation at the UN in New York via Foreign Office, Nov. 1, 1956; UK High Commission in India to Commonwealth Relations Office, Nov. 1, 1956; UK High Commission in Pakistan to Commonwealth Relations Office, Nov. 1, 1956; all in UKNA: FO 371/118904.
29. King Hussein of Jordan in London Times, Nov. 2, 1956, 6.
30. Clark, From Three Worlds, 203.
31. Jerusalem Post, Nov. 2, 1956, 4.
32. The story of how Yuri Andropov deliberately deceived Nagy is told in Andrew and Gordievsky, KGB, 355–56, and in Andrew and Mitrokhin, Mitrokhin Archive, vol. 1, p. 327.
33. Jenő Szell in Gough, Good Comrade, 88. It has often been repeated at this point that János Kádár voiced his intent to fight the Soviets in the streets with his bare hands, but other evidence contradicts this; see Gough, Good Comrade, 90, for a debunking.
34. Molnár, Budapest 1956, 182.
35. Todor Zhivkov in Kramer, “Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” 204.
36. Minutes of the Egypt Committee, EC (56) 36th meeting, Nov. 1, 1956, TNA: CAB 134/1216.
37. Clark, From Three Worlds, 203.
38. London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 5 (report delayed from Nov. 1).
39. JFD telephone call to DDE, 8:40 a.m., Nov. 1, 1956, Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16.
40. Imre Nagy in United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 25.
41. London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 5 (report delayed from Nov. 1).
42. National Security Council meeting, Washington DC, Nov. 1, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 455, p. 906.
43. Telephone call from DDE to JFD, Thur., Nov. 1, 1956, 12:25 p.m., Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16.
44. JFD telephone call to DDE, 11:05 a.m., Nov. 1, 1956, Memoranda of Telephone Conversations, White House, DDEP, box 16.
45. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 177.
46. Vice-Admiral Robin Durnford-Slater, Oct. 31, 1956, and Nov. 1, 1956, in Kyle, Suez, 411.
47. General Sir Charles Keightley in Kyle, Suez, 412.
48. Top Secret Staff Summaries, State Dept., Nov. 2, 1956, Hungary and Suez Crisis, 1955–56, JFDP State Department Records, box 1, folder 1.
49. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 128–29; Kilmuir, Political Adventure, 273–74; journalist Iverach McDonald in Kyle, Suez, 388.
50. Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1625.
51. Clarissa Eden and Dora Gaitskell in Lucas, Divided We Stand, 274.
52. RAE in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1627.
53. Rhodes James, Eden, 558–59.
54. Aneurin Bevan in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), Nov. 1, 1956, col. 1710.
55. George Craddock MP (Bradford South, Labour) and Edwin Leather MP (North Somerset, Conservative), in London Times, Nov. 2, 1956, 5.
56. New York Times, Nov. 2, 1956, 9.
57. London Times, Nov. 2, 1956, 8. There is a photograph of the protest in London on p. 16.
58. Michael G. Fry, “Canada, the North Atlantic, and the UN,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 307.
59. Luard, History of the United Nations, vol. 2, p. 33.
60. JFD Statement in the UN General Assembly, Nov. 1, 1956, and US Draft Resolution (UN doc. A/3256) in Department of State Bulletin, Nov. 12, 1956, in vol. July–Dec.1956, 751–55.
61. JFD in Carlton, Eden, 447. See also William B. Macomber Jr., JFDOHP: “And he [JFD] told me later—it was the next day that he was taken sick—that if he had died that next day that he would have been content to have that speech as his last words.”
62. Lester Pearson in Luard, History of the United Nations, vol. 2, p. 34.
63. Herman Phleger, JFDOHP.
Chapter 12: “Love to Nasty”
1. Henriques, One Hundred Hours to Suez, 186.
2. Sir M. Wright to Foreign Office, Nov. 2, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/121786, VR 1091/509.
3. London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 7.
4. Heikal, Cairo Documents, 112.
5. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 132–33. AWD confirmed that the British had sunk the blockship in a meeting of the NSC on Nov. 1. National Security Council meeting, Washington DC, Nov. 1, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 455, p. 914.
6. Lapping, End of Empire, 274; Bulletin for HM the Queen, Nov. 4, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1163.
7. Copeland, Game Player, 203.
8. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 179–80.
9. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 134.
10. Pineau, 1956/Suez, 162.
11. General Keightley to Chiefs of Staff, Nov. 2, 1956, in Keith Kyle, “Britain and the Crisis, 1955–1956,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 128.
12. Lord Mountbatten of Burma to RAE, Nov. 2, 1956, TNA: PREM 11/1090.
13. Bertrand Russell in Manchester Guardian, Nov. 2, 1956, 8.
14. Gerald Templer in Cloake, Templer, 355.
15. Arleigh Burke, JFDOHP.
16. Richard M. Bissell, JFDOHP.
17. James Hagerty, JFDOHP.
18. János Kádár in Gough, Good Comrade, 94.
19. Réthly, Hungarian Revolution, 34.
20. Current Intelligence Bulletin, Nov. 3, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79T00975A002800130001–6.
21. RAE in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1754.
22. London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 4.
23. Adams, Tony Benn, 122.
24. Eden, Full Circle, 541.
25. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 135–36.
26. Eden, Full Circle, 540.
27. Ibid., 459.
28. London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 5.
29. Richard Nixon in Eden, Full Circle, 541–42.
30. DDE to Alfred Gruenther, Nov. 2, 1956, in Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2, p. 365; Kyle, Suez, 427.
31. Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Nov. 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 342–43. This conversation is also reported with a couple of key differences in Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 180. Heikal does not report the suicide threat. He also says Salah Salem asked GAN to surrender individually to the British embassy rather than suggesting a collective surrender for the entire Egyptian leadership. Baghdadi’s account has been preferred here because it appears to have been a diary written at the time, even if it was subsequently edited.
32. Heikal, Cairo Documents, 110–11.
33. GAN via Mahmoud Hammroush in Aburish, Nasser, 119.
34. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 181.
35. New York Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 2.
36. Sir C. Duke to Foreign Office, Nov. 2, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/121786, VR 1091/494.
37. CIA Office of National Estimates, “North African Reactions to Recent French Moves,” Staff Memorandum No. 88–56, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79T00937A000500020010–5.
38. London Times, Nov. 6, 1956, 8.
39. Top Secret Staff Summaries, State Dept., Nov. 2, 1956, Hungary and Suez Crisis, 1955–1956, JFDP State Department Records, box 1, folder 1.
40. Henriques, One Hundred Hours to Suez, 180–81; Kyle, Suez, 414.
41. Dayan, Diary, Nov. 3, 1956 (incident is Nov. 2), 117.
42. Voice of Britain in Kyle, Suez, 416–17.
43. Lucas, Divided We Stand, 272.
44. GAN in Moncrieff, Suez Ten Years After, 48.
45. GAN in Kyle, Suez, 418.
46. Heikal, Cutting the Lion’s Tail, 200n.
47, Heikal, Sphinx and Commissar, 71.
48. JFD in London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 6.
49. Memorandum of a telephone conversation between the Secretary of State in Washington and the Representative at the United Nations (Lodge) in New York, Nov. 2, 1956, 4:11 p.m., FRUS vol. 25 (Eastern Europe), doc. 156, p. 365.
50. Study Prepared for U.S. Army Intelligence, “Hungary: Resistance Activities and Potentials,” Jan. 1956, National Security Archive, George Washington University, http://nsar chive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc1.pdf.
51. Appendix to NSC 5608/1, July 18, 1956, Supplementary Statement of Policy by the National Security Council on US Policy Toward the Soviet Satellites in Eastern Europe. This document was not included in the relevant FRUS volume but has since been declassified. It can be viewed online at the National Security Archive, George Washington University, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc4.pdf.
52. Minutes of 290th NSC meeting, July 12, 1956. These quotes were not included in the FRUS account of the meeting. They can be viewed online at the National Security Archive, George Washington University, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc2.pdf.
53. Top Secret Staff Summaries, State Department, Nov. 2, 1956, Hungary and Suez Crisis, 1955–1956, JFDP: State Department Records, box 1, folder 1, Public Policy Papers. See also: Barnes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Nov. 1, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–156.
54. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 421.
55. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, 131; on Malenkov’s cold embrace, 144.
56. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 421.
57. On János Kádár’s alleged Titoism, see CIA information report, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP80T00246A031800590001–4.
58. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, 132–40.
59. United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 56.
60. Charles E. Bohlen to Secretary of State, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–256.
61. Harold Watkinson and Harold Macmillan in London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 6.
62. London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 6.
63. DDE in London Times, Nov. 3, 1956, 6.
64. Henry Cabot Lodge to Secretary of State, Nov. 2, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–256.
65. William B. Macomber Jr., JFDOHP.
Chapter 13: “Help the Burglar, Shoot the Householder”
1. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, 140–41.
2. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 181–82.
3. Abba Eban, JFDOHP.
4. Scott Lucas and Alistair Morey, “The Hidden ‘Alliance’: The CIA and MI6 Before and After Suez,” in Stafford and Jeffreys-Jones, American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 110.
5. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 182.
6. Ibid., 182–83.
7. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 228.
8. Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick, minute to Africa Dept., FO, Nov. 3, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/118904.
9. Carlton, Eden, 450.
10. Ministry of Defence, London, to GHQ, Middle East Land Forces, Nov. 3, 1956, UKNA: AIR 8/1940.
11. General Keightley to Chiefs of Staff, Nov. 3, 1956, UKNA: AIR 8/1940.
12. Quoted in Kyle, Suez, 434–35.
13. Montague Browne, Long Sunset, 212. Montague Browne quotes from Winston Churchill’s and RAE’s letters.
14. Réthly, Hungarian Revolution, 36.
15. Current Intelligence Bulletin, Nov 3, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP79T00975A002800130001–6.
16. Jerusalem Post, Nov. 4, 1956, 3.
17. Special Report of the Director of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, Covering the Period 1 November 1956 to mid-December 1956 (New York: United Nations, 1957), UN General Assembly: Official Records, 11th Session, Suppl. 14A (A/3212/Add.1); see also Filiu, Gaza, 96–97; Sayigh, Armed Struggle, 65.
18. Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi in Joe Sacco, Footnotes in Gaza (London: Jonathan Cape, 2009), xi. Sacco’s illustrated re-creation of the events of November 1956 in the Gaza Strip is one of the best available historical accounts.
19. Eden, Full Circle, 542.
20. RAE and Hugh Gaitskell in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1866.
21. Denis Healey in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1905.
22. London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 7.
23. Foreign Office to Ralph Murray at AFHQ, Nov. 4, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/118904.
24. “A Foreign Office spokesman said last night that a British frigate, operating in the Gulf of Suez, had shot down an Israeli aircraft ‘which interfered with her patrol.’” In “Navy Shoot Down Israeli Aircraft,” London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 8.
25. Sir M. Wright to Foreign Office, Nov. 3, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/121786, VR 1091/515.
26. London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 7.
27. Luard, History of the United Nations, vol. 2, pp. 34–35.
28. Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Nov. 3, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 345.
29. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 137–38.
30. Memorandum of conversation between DDE, Herbert Hoover and Herman Phleger, Nov. 3, 1956, 11:10 a.m., Eisenhower Library, FRUS 25 (Eastern Europe), doc. 158, p. 369, footnote 11.
31. Charles E. Bohlen to Secretary of State, Nov. 3, 1956, USNA: Records of the State Department, RG 59, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–356.
32. Réthly, Hungarian Revolution, 36.
33. Hennessy, Prime Minister, 247; RAE’s lines taken from London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 4; Louis St. Laurent’s words from London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 6. Footage of the broadcast is available at the British Pathé archive.
34. Andrew and Mitrokhin, Mitrokhin Archive, vol. 1, p. 324.
35. UN General Assembly Resolution 998 (ES-1).
36. Keith Kyle, “Britain’s Slow March to Suez,” in Tal, 1956 War, 113; Kyle, Suez, 437.
37. Abba Eban and Ceylonese ambassador in Kyle, Suez, 437.
38. Sir Pierson Dixon to Foreign Office, Nov. 4, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1105 ff 185–6.
Chapter 14: Reaping the Whirlwind
1. Andrews and Gordievsky, KGB, 356.
2. Imre Nagy in Rainer, Imre Nagy, 134.
3. Imre Nagy in Moncrieff, Suez Ten Years After, 15–16.
4. János Kádár in United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 37.
5. Mindszenty, Memoirs, 212.
6. Bibó, Art of Peacemaking, 356.
7. The witness was the wife of Zoltán Vas. Imre Nagy in Rainer, Imre Nagy, 138.
8. Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Nov. 4, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 347.
9. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 141–43.
10. Baeyens, Un coup d’épée, 82–87; Kyle, Suez, 435.
11. Baeyens, Un coup d’épée, 92: “il faut aller aussi vite et aussi loin que possible, saisir des gages.”
12. Unnamed Hungarian combatant in Sebestyen, Twelve Days, 2–3; also in London Daily Mirror, Nov. 5, 1956, 2.
13. Julius Hay in Molnár, Budapest 1956, 198; see also United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 26.
14. “Eden,” London Observer, Nov. 4, 1956.
15. Anthony Greenwood in London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 4; Aneurin Bevan in Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 187.
16. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 188.
17. Winston Churchill in Montague Browne, Long Sunset, 212.
18. Lord Mountbatten of Burma to Lord Hailsham, Nov. 4, 1956; Lord Hailsham to RAE, Nov. 5, 1956; Lord Hailsham to Lord Mountbatten of Burma, Nov. 5, 1956; all TNA: PREM 11/1090.
19. Kyle, Suez, 432–33.
20. Hugh Gaitskell, Nov. 4, 1956, in Gaitskell, Diary, 619–22.
21. Clark, From Three Worlds, 208–9.
22. Sir M. Wright to Foreign Office, Nov. 4, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/121786, VR 1091/523. The British ambassador to Lebanon agreed with him: “Unless it is soon made abundantly clear that Her Majesty’s Government will apply the same severe criteria in judging Israeli aggression as have been used against Egyptian policy in the Canal issue, we shall inevitably forfeit both friendship and respect.” Mr. Middleton to Foreign Office, Nov. 4, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/121786, VR 1091/524.
23. Harold Macmillan in Lloyd, Suez 1956, 206.
24. Eden, Full Circle, 551.
25. Carlton, Eden, 450.
26. Manchester Guardian, Nov. 5, 1956, 1.
27. Eden, Course of My Life, 173.
28. Butler, Art of the Possible, 193. RAE took issue with Butler’s retelling of the story, in which Butler claimed RAE told the whole cabinet he was thinking of resigning, but it would appear to be in essence correct that he did bring this subject up even if not with the whole cabinet. According to Lady Eden, who was defensive of her husband’s role and reputation, RAE took Butler, Macmillan, and Salisbury aside and said he would have to resign if the three of them would not support him. Rhodes James, Eden, 567.
29. Eden, Memoir, 253–54. See also the accounts in Carlton, Eden, 450–51; Kyle, Suez, 442.
30. Lloyd, Suez 1956, 207.
31. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 182.
32. DDE to Bulganin, Nov. 4, 1956, quoted in Mr. Coulson (Washington) to Foreign Office, Nov. 6, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1170.
33. Christian Pineau, London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 6.
34. Manchester Guardian, Nov. 5, 1956, 6.
35. Herman Phleger, JFDOHP.
36. Ibid.
37. Thompson in Vienna to Secretary of State, Nov. 4, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–456.
38. Rabenold in Zagreb to Secretary of State, Nov. 5, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–556.
39. Clare Booth Luce, Eyes Only the President, in C. Douglas Dillon to Secretary of State, Nov. 4, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–456.
40. Robert Murphy, JFDOHP.
41. Mosley, Dulles, 421.
42. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 229.
43. Averell Harriman, JFDOHP.
44. DDE in Gati, Failed Illusions, 19.
45. Gati, Failed Illusions, 112.
46. Luard, History of the United Nations, vol. 2, pp. 36–37.
47. Arkady Sobolev and Henry Cabot Lodge in London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 8.
48. London Times, Nov. 5, 1956, 8.
49. Kyle, Suez, 445.
50. Heikal, Cairo Documents, 113.
51. Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Nov. 5, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 348.
Chapter 15: “Hit ’Em with Everything in the Bucket”
1. Peter Woods in London Daily Mirror, Nov. 7, 1956, 9.
2. Leulliette, St. Michael and the Dragon, 198.
3. It would have been more correct, though not more polite, to say “shuftini kushik”—“show me your cunt.” The author is indebted to Thomas Small for these Arabic translations.
4. Jerusalem Post, Nov. 6, 1956, 3.
5. Sir J. Nicholls to Foreign Office, Nov. 4, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1105 f 171.
6. Sir Pierson Dixon to Foreign Office, Nov. 5, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1105 f 123.
7. Ibid., ff 118–20. Dixon was at this point considering whether to resign himself, according to Hennessy, Prime Minister, 243.
8. Fullick and Powell, Suez: The Double War, 98; Kyle, Suez, 446–47.
9. Clark, Suez Touchdown, 79–80.
10. Dodds-Parker, Political Eunuch, 112.
11. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Empire, 179.
12. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 191.
13. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Empire, 175.
14. “Perhaps it is too Machiavellian to see Macmillan’s role in Suez as a bid to oust Eden but it was Macmillan who became Prime Minister in 1957.” Lewis Johnman, “The Economics of the Suez Crisis,” in Gorst, Johnman, and Lucas, Post-War Britain, 179.
15. Keith Kyle, “Britain’s Slow March to Suez,” in Tal, 1956 War, 114. See Lucas, Divided We Stand, 91–92, on RAE’s clashes with Macmillan.
16. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 133.
17. RAE to DDE, Nov. 5, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 499, pp. 984–86. RAE’s extraordinary claims about GAN’s ambitions seem to have come from MI6’s faulty intelligence reports based on the fantastical stories of “Lucky Break.” See Lucas, Divided We Stand, 109.
18. Quoted in United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 38.
19. Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 82.
20. United Nations, Problem of Hungary, 38; see also Hayter, Kremlin and the Embassy, 145. Peter Fryer also alleged that some of the rank-and-file Soviet troops had no idea they were in Hungary, but suggested they had been told a different story: “They thought at first they were in Berlin, fighting German fascists.” Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 82.
21. Stephen Vizinczey in Lomax, Hungary 1956, 121.
22. USARMA Budapest to Secretary of State, Nov. 5, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–556.
23. Conant in Bonn to Secretary of State, Nov. 5, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–556.
24. Wailes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Nov. 5, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–556.
25. Violet Bonham Carter in London Times, Nov. 6, 1956, 11.
26. Memorandum of a conference with the President, White House Memoranda, 1953–1959, DDEP, box 22.
27. C. Douglas Dillon to JFD, Nov. 5, 1956, State Department Central Decimal Files, Suez Crisis, 974.7301/11–156, USNA: RG 59/250/44/4/4.
28. Hare in Cairo to JFD, Nov. 6, 1956, State Department Central Decimal Files, Gamal Abdel Nasser, 774.11/11–656, USNA: RG 59/250/43/5/5.
29. C. Douglas Dillon to Secretary of State, Nov. 5, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–556.
30. Selwyn Lloyd in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1958.
31. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 142–43.
32. Aneurin Bevan in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1965.
33. Victor Collins in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 558 (House of Commons), col. 1951.
34. Kyle, Suez, 450–52.
35. Taubman, Khrushchev, 359. Taubman notes that NSK was jealous of the international attention this letter and his others brought Bulganin.
36. Bulganin to RAE, Nov. 6, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1170.
37. Harold Macmillan in Memorandum of a Conversation with JFD, Aug. 1, 1956, FRUS, 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 46, p. 108.
38. Nikolai Bulganin to RAE, Sept. 11, 1956, in Thomas, Suez Affair, 186–87.
39. Sir William Hayter to Foreign Office, Nov. 6, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1170.
40. Nikolai Bulganin to DBG, Nov. 5, 1956, in Laurent Rucker, “The Soviet Union and the Suez Crisis,” in Tal, 1956 War, 80.
41. DBG, Diary, Nov. 7, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 318.
42. Kyle, Suez, 454–55.
43. Nikolai Bulganin, in London Times, Nov. 6, 1956, 10.
44. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 434.
45. NSK in Taubman, Khrushchev, 359.
46. Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 222–24; Memorandum of a Conference with the President, Nov. 5, 1956, White House Memoranda, 1953–59, DDEP, box 22.
Chapter 16: Back Down
1. Wright, Spycatcher, 85–86.
2. Sergei Khrushchev in James G. Blight, Bruce J. Allyn, and David A. Welch, Cuba on the Brink: Castro, the Missile Crisis, and the Soviet Collapse (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 130.
3. See evidence of John Erickson in Moncrieff, Suez Ten Years After, 23.
4. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 197.
5. C. Douglas Dillon, JFDOHP; see also Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 194.
6. Ralph Murray at AFHQ to Foreign Office, Nov. 6, 1956, UKNA: FO 371/118904.
7. Leulliette, St. Michael and the Dragon, 203.
8. Kyle, Suez, 463.
9. Allied Forces Headqarters to Ministry of Defence, Nov. 6, 1956; Chiefs of Staff to General Keightley, Nov. 6, 1956; both UKNA: AIR 8/1940.
10. Allied Forces Headquarters to Commander in Chief Mediterranean et al., Nov. 6, 1956, UKNA: AIR 8/1940.
11. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 199–200.
12. Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors, 476.
13. Heikal, Sphinx and Commissar, 72.
14. Verrier, Through the Looking Glass, 156–57.
15. Brendan Bracken in Carlton, Eden, 458.
16. Eden, Full Circle, 557.
17. Kunz, Economic Diplomacy, 133.
18. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 148.
19. Alec Home in Hennessy, Prime Minister, 236.
20. HM the Queen in London Times, Nov. 6, 1956, 5.
21. Conversation in Kyle, Suez, 467. Kyle took the phrasing of this conversation from a BBC television interview with Christian Pineau. There is a similar account of it in Pineau, 1956/Suez, 176 but, as Kyle points out, Pineau seems to have confused some parts of it in his book with another conversation later that day.
22. Copeland, Game Player, 203.
23. Konrad Adenaur in Pineau, 1956/Suez, 191.
24. Clark, From Three Worlds, 211.
25. Dayan, Diary, Nov. 6, 1956, 179.
26. DBG in Bar-Zohar, Armed Prophet, 249.
27. Memorandum of a conference with the president, Nov. 6, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 518, p. 1014.
28. Status Report on the Near East Given by the Director [AWD] at the White House to a Bipartisan Congressional Group, Nov. 9, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP80B01676R004200050014–8.
29. Status Report on the Near East Given by the Director [AWD] at the White House to a Bipartisan Congressional Group, Nov. 9, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP80B01676R004200050014–8.
30. Anonymous secretary in Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 225.
31. DDE and RAE in Transcript of a Telephone Conversation, Nov. 6, 1956, 12:55 p.m., FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 525, pp. 1025–27.
32. Clark, From Three Worlds, 212; Eden, Full Circle, 561.
33. London Times, Nov. 7, 1956, 10.
34. Rhodes James, Eden, 576.
35. Sir Gerald Templer in Cloake, Templer, 355.
36. London Times, Nov. 7, 1956, 10.
37. Kenneth Darling in Hennessy, Muddling Through, 146.
38. Leulliette, St. Michael and the Dragon, 207–8.
39. General Keightley to Chiefs of Staff, Nov. 6, 1956 (KEYCOS 49 & 51), UKNA: AIR 8/1940.
40. Clark, Suez Touchdown, 103–4.
41. Washington correspondent and James Reston in London Times, Nov. 6, 1956, 10.
42. London Times, Nov. 7, 1956, 10.
43. Wailes in Budapest to Secretary of State, Nov. 6, 1956, USNA: RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Central Decimal Files: 764.00/11–656.
44. Jerusalem Post, Nov. 7, 1956, 1.
45. Béla Lucza in Csete, 1956 Budapest, 102.
46. Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy, 12.
47. Mićunović, Moscow Diary, 144–45.
48. Ibid., 148
49. Sergei Khrushchev, NSK and Taubman in Taubman, Khrushchev, 359–60.
50. Abd al-Latif al-Bughdadi, Diary, Nov. 6–18, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 350–54.
51. E.L.M. Burns in Stephens, Nasser, 239.
52. New York Times, Nov. 8, 1956, 3.
53. RAE to Guy Mollet, Nov. 6, 1956, UKNA: PREM 11/1105, f 71.
54. Thomas, Suez Affair, 164.
55. DDE in Hughes, Ordeal of Power, 224–29.
Epilogue: “The Curse of the Pharaohs”
1. Heikal, Sphinx and Commissar, 73–4.
2. Status Report on the Near East Given by the Director [AWD] at the White House to a Bipartisan Congressional Group, Nov. 9, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP80B01676R004200050014–8.
3. Heikal, Sphinx and Commissar, 73–74.
4. Lucas, Divided We Stand, 305.
5. Eden, Memoir, 256.
6. Adams, First-Hand Report, 209.
7. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 215.
8. William B. Macomber Jr., JFDOHP.
9. DBG Nov. 7, 1956, in Isaac Alteras, “Eisenhower and the Sinai Campaign of 1956: The First Major Crisis in US-Israeli Relations,” in Tal, 1956 War, 34–35.
10. DDE to DBG, Nov. 7, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 550, 1064.
11. In Henriques, One Hundred Hours to Suez, 252.
12. DBG to DDE, Nov. 8, 1956, FRUS 1955–57, vol. 16, doc. 560, p. 1095.
13. Sharon, Warrior, 155–56.
14. Mahgoub, Democracy on Trial, 87.
15. Moshe Shemesh, “Egypt: From Military Defeat to Political Victory,” in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 158.
16. Sir Richard Powell in Hennessy, Muddling Through, 134.
17. Arleigh Burke, JFDOHP.
18. Andrew Goodpaster, JFDOHP.
19. DDE, JFDOHP.
20. Denis Healey quoted in Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 147.
21. Nigel Nicolson, “Diary of a Suez Rebel,” London Daily Telegraph, Oct. 27, 1996. The chief whip was Edward Heath.
22. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 148.
23. Peter Thorneycroft in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 560 (House of Commons), col. 402.
24. Status Report on the Near East Given by the Director [AWD] at the White House to a Bipartisan Congressional Group, Nov. 9, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP80B01676R004200050014–8.
25. Coulon, Soldiers of Diplomacy, 24.
26.Pineau, 1956/Suez, 93.
27. C. Douglas Dillon, JFDOHP.
28. Montague Browne, Long Sunset, 209.
29. Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors, 478–79.
30. Dwight D. Eisenhower, JFDOHP.
31. Winthrop Aldrich in Carlton, Eden, 456. No communications passed between the American government and RAE between November 7 and 23, when RAE left for his vacation, except for a short exchange on November 11 about a summit. Lucas, Divided We Stand, 300.
32. Krozewski, Money and the End of Empire, 155.
33. Farnie, East and West of Suez, 734.
34. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Empire, 167, 184–85.
35. RAE in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 562 (House of Commons), Dec. 20, 1956, col. 1493; Denis Healey in Hennessy, Prime Minister, 207.
36. Copeland, Game Player, 203.
37. Lloyd, Suez 1956, 219. Lloyd’s memory is corroborated to some extent by a telegram he sent to Eden after this meeting. Then, he wrote that JFD “had no complaint about our objectives in our recent operations. In fact they were the same as those of the United States but he still did not think that our methods of achieving them were the right ones. Even so, he deplored that we had not managed to bring down Nasser.” Selwyn Lloyd to RAE, in Rhodes James, Eden, 577n. Christian Pineau also told a self-aggrandizing story alleging that JFD regretted his Suez stance, in Pineau, 1956/Suez, 195.
38. Douglas MacArthur II to Herbert Hoover [Jr.], Nov. 20, 1956, USNA: State Department Central Decimal Files, 774.11/11–2056.
39. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 270.
40. Status Report on the Near East Given by the Director [AWD] at the White House to a Bipartisan Congressional Group, Nov. 9, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP80B01676R004200050014–8.
41. Eden, Full Circle, 559.
42. Douglas MacArthur II to Herbert Hoover [Jr.], Nov. 20, 1956, USNA: State Department Central Decimal Files, 774.11/11–2056.
43. See Clea Lutz Bunch, “Supporting the Brave Young King: The Suez Crisis and Eisenhower’s New Approach to Jordan, 1953–1958,” in Smith, Reassessing Suez 1956, 107–21.
44. DBG, Diary, Dec. 13, 1956, in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 326.
45. On the repairing of the special relationship in 1957, see G. Wyn Rees, “Brothers in Arms: Anglo-American Defence Co-operation in 1957,” in Gorst, Johnman, and Lucas, Post-War Britain, 203–20.
46. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 269.
47. Mária Tamáska and colleagues in Gough, Good Comrade, 102–3.
48. Kramer, “Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” 211.
49. Csaba Varró in Csete, 1956 Budapest, 166.
50. Kramer, “Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” 196–98. There were also protests from students at the Moscow Institute of Railroad Engineering and the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography.
51. NSK in Taubman, Khrushchev, 300.
52. Mao Tse-tung in Taubman, Khrushchev, 339.
53. CIA Information Report, Nov. 9, 1956, USNA: CIA-RDP80T00246A031800590001–4.
54. Laurent Rucker, “The Soviet Union and the Suez Crisis,” in Tal, 1956 War, 84.
55. Ann Fleming in Parker, Goldeneye, 213.
56. See Rhodes James, Eden, 587–89.
57. Eden, Memoir, 259.
58. Ian Fleming to Sir William Stephenson, in Parker, Goldeneye, 212.
59. RAE in Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, vol. 562 (House of Commons), Dec. 20, 1956, col. 1493; Denis Healey in Hennessy, Prime Minister, 207.
60. Kilmuir, Political Adventure, 278.
61. Heath, Course of My Life, 177.
62. Guy Mollet in Jean-Paul Cointet, “Guy Mollet, the French Government and the SFIO,” in Troen and Shemesh, Suez-Sinai Crisis 1956, 138.
63. Christian Pineau, JFDOHP.
64. Maurice Vaïsse, “Post-Suez France,” in Louis and Owen, Suez 1956, 339. Charles de Gaulle was believed to have discreetly approved of the Suez intervention but was unhappy with the British commanding it instead of the French.
65. Cooper, Lion’s Last Roar, 233.
66. Le Monde, Nov. 8, 1956, 8.
67. Mohamed Heikal and GAN in Heikal, Cairo Documents, 117–18.
68. GAN in Lacouture, Nasser, 181. He was speaking to Kennett Love.
69. Copeland, Game Player, 204.
70. Eveland, Ropes of Sand, 240–41.
71. Copeland, Game Player, 204.
72. Amin Howeidy in James, Nasser at War, 46.
73. JFD in Kunz, Economic Diplomacy, 159.
74. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Empire, 194.
75. Copeland, Game Player, 204–5.
Fates
1. Eden, Full Circle, 423.
2. Shlaim, Lion of Jordan, 160.
3. Scott Lucas and Alistair Morey, “The Hidden ‘Alliance’: The CIA and MI6 Before and After Suez,” in Stafford and Jeffreys-Jones, American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 112–13; Andrew and Mitrokhin, Mitrokhin Archive, vol. 2, p. 196.
4. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 423. There is a full account of Nagy’s arrest in Méray, Thirteen Days That Shook the Kremlin, 252–54.
5. Andrew and Gordievsky, KGB, 357.
6. Sharon, Warrior, 151.
7. McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East, 1, 7n.
8. Nutting, No End of a Lesson, 159.
9. See Macmillan, Cabinet Years, 607n.