Chapter 5: Modifiers

Modifiers are words that describe. They come in various forms (word, phrase, clause) and they can change the shape of anything you write, defining and refining it to the degree you want.

 

Example, no modifier:

David moved.

Example, a few modifiers:

David, my dear brother, moved to Timbuktu, where he has many friends.

Example, several modifiers:

After doing a lot of serious thinking about his life, my dear brother, David, who had lived comfortably in San Francisco for many years, recently moved to Timbuktu, a well-known word but a little-known town.

The first example doesn’t tell you much because it contains only subject and verb.

 

The second example tells you something about David (he is a brother), about brother (this brother is dear and he belongs to me), about moved (where he moved), and about Timbuktu (he has many friends there).

 

The third example tells you more about David (he did some thinking, he is my brother, and he had lived in San Francisco); about the kind of thinking he did (it was a lot, it was serious, and it was about his life); about brother (he is dear and he is mine); about how, when, and where he had lived (comfortably, for many years, and in San Francisco); about when and where he moved (recently and to Timbuktu); about Timbuktu (it is a word and a town); about word (it is well known); and about town (it is little known).

 

Some of the modifiers in the third example are simple adjectives (words describing nouns) and adverbs (words describing verbs) that are easy to recognize and easy to handle. No one would have any difficulty, for example, with serious thinking, my dear brother, lived comfortably, or recently moved. The adjectives are one word each and they appear directly before the nouns they describe; the adverbs end in ly (as well-behaved adverbs do) and they appear before or after the actions they describe, sounding fine in either spot.

 

Other modifiers in the third example are not as easy to recognize and handle. When a modifier shows up as a compound unit, as a phrase, or as a clause, it raises issues about punctuation and placement. This chapter discusses those issues, as well as some common errors related to modifier forms.

Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is two or more words acting as one unit to describe someone or something. The unit is hyphenated when it appears to the left of the noun it describes.

 

Examples:

well-prepared attorney

flea-ridden blanket

three-year-old child

odd-numbered rooms

paid-for vacation

on-the-spot decision

up-to-date report

first-come-first-served basis

left- and right-handed players

first- and second-grade teachers

Those modifiers are hyphenated because none of the descriptive words is acting on its own; it requires the other word(s) to create the intended meaning. Specifically, the first example is not referring to a “well attorney” or simply a “prepared attorney” the second example is not referring to a “flea blanket” or a “ridden blanket” the third example is not referring to a “three child,” a “year child,” or an “old child” and so forth.

 

The last two examples contain hyphens after left and first because those two words will eventually hook up with handed and grade. The spaces after left- and first- tell the reader that it will take a moment before the second half of the modifier appears. If we didn’t have this technique, we’d have to repeat handed and grade:

left-handed and right-handed players

first-grade and second-grade teachers

The repetition isn’t wrong, but it’s clunky. Why repeat when you don’t have to?

 

Now you know to hyphenate when descriptive words to the left of a noun depend on each other for meaning. What if the same descriptive words appear to the right of a noun? In that case, don’t hyphenate.

 

Examples:

The attorney is well prepared.

The child is three years old.

The vacation is paid for.

The decision was made on the spot.

The report is up to date.

The basis is first come, first served.

Once you understand this concept, the only word that can trip you up is an adverb ending in ly. If the first word in a string of modifiers is one of those ly tricksters, do not hyphenate.

 

Examples:

highly regarded staff

quickly written document

hastily planned vacation

minimally achieved success

lightly tossed salad

rarely used word

barely audible voice

slowly cooked rice

significantly higher rates

Adjective Phrases

A phrase (a group of words with no subject and verb) serves as an adjective when it describes somebody or something. There are two kinds of phrases that provide this service: prepositional and verbal. Most prepositional phrases don’t create a problem; the only ones that pose a challenge are those beginning with as. Verbal phrases, however, are widely mishandled because people don’t know what they are.

Phrases beginning with as

When a phrase begins with the preposition as (meaning “in the capacity of”), that phrase is describing someone or something—i.e., it is doing the job of an adjective. Therefore, it must be placed next to whatever it’s describing.

 

Examples:

As a world traveler, David will easily adapt to a new environment.

His Timbuktu friends fear that David, as a newcomer to their city, won’t understand their customs.

In both examples, the as phrase is placed next to David, the person it describes. It doesn’t matter whether David appears before or after the phrase, as long as he’s next to it. The common error occurs when people do not realize that an as phrase is an adjective and they place it next to the wrong noun or pronoun.

 

Examples:

As a world traveler, I think that David will easily adapt to a new environment.

(means that I am the world traveler)

As a newcomer to their city, David’s friends fear that he won’t understand their customs.

(means that David’s friends are the newcomer)

While a reader will probably understand the second example (logic tells us that David’s friends are not the newcomer to their own city), it doesn’t feel right—something seems wrong as soon as we read David’s friends.

 

The first example is troublesome because it makes a connection that could be true—that I am a world traveler. How can a reader know what the writer is thinking?

 

The point is this: whenever you write a phrase beginning with as, you have an adjective on the page. Be careful to place it next to the person or thing you want it to describe.

Phrases containing verbals

First of all, what is a verbal? It’s a word that comes from a verb but isn’t doing the job of a verb. You met one of them earlier in this book (the gerund, an action word ending in ing that does the job of a noun). Now it’s time to meet the rest of the verbal family:

• Present participles—action words ending in ing. Examples: planning, anticipating, getting, arriving
• Past participles—action words ending in ed (if they’re regular) or in various other ways (if they’re irregular). Examples: bored, excited, known, understood
• Infinitives—action words preceded by to. Examples: to prepare, to adapt, to welcome, to accommodate

On their own (when they’re not preceded by am, is, was, were, etc.) participles serve as adjectives. And when placed next to somebody or something, infinitives also serve as adjectives. Take a look at the following sentences.

The planning document is in the drawer.

(planning describes document)

Planning a trip to Timbuktu, David is understandably nervous.

(Planning describes David)

His bored demeanor camouflages his true feelings.

(bored describes demeanor)

Bored with life in San Francisco, David looks forward to

Timbuktu.

(Bored describes David)

To prepare for his trip, David bought many new suitcases.

(To prepare describes David)

To prepare for his arrival in Timbuktu, David’s friends cooked up a feast.

(To prepare describes David’s friends)

In the first and third examples, the verbals planning and bored are serving as simple adjectives to describe document and demeanor. This should be easy for you to see. But in all the rest of the examples, the verbals are not so easy to see as adjectives because they are part of introductory phrases. The purpose of those phrases is to describe someone or something. That makes each phrase an adjective. And adjectives must be placed next to whatever they are describing.

 

This is where the common error comes in: people write sentences that open with verbal phrases, but they don’t follow them with appropriate subjects. Look what can happen when you don’t know you’re dealing with an adjective:

Anticipating a new adventure, all the suitcases were fully packed.

Excited about beginning a new life, David’s friends tried their best to be helpful.

To accommodate his initial needs, some sacrifices were required.

All of those sentences open with adjective phrases, yet none of them contains an appropriate subject:

• The first sentence says that all the suitcases are anticipating a new adventure. Now, this could be true in a children’s story that attributes human characteristics to things. But we’re talking about a dear brother who’s moving to Timbuktu, remember?
• The second sentence says that David’s friends are excited about beginning a new life. This could also be true, since their lives will change once David arrives in their city. But that’s probably not what the writer meant to convey.
• The third sentence says that some sacrifices tried to accommodate David’s initial needs, which is quite a stretch. Either David tried to accommodate his own needs by making sacrifices, or his friends tried to accommodate his needs by making sacrifices. Who knows? The meaning of the sentence is up for grabs.

You can avoid all this trouble by

• remembering what participles and infinitives look like
• remembering that they are doing the job of adjectives
• placing them next to whatever you want them to describe.

Adjective Clauses

A clause (a group of words containing a subject and verb) can also serve as an adjective. Anytime you mention somebody or something, no matter where it occurs in your sentence, you can always add some description to it by creating an adjective clause. Adjective clauses begin with the words who, whom, whose, which, that, where, and when.

 

Examples:

David, who recently moved to Timbuktu, is now looking for a job there.

(who clause describes David)

He has recommendations from his friends, whom he is staying with until he gets a job.

(whom clause describes friends)

His friends, whose apartments are small, are praying that David finds employment soon.

(whose clause describes friends)

David is seeking a position whose responsibilities are few.

(whose clause describes a position)

The job he interviewed for yesterday, which doesn’t pay very much, is located outside Timbuktu.

(which clause describes the job he interviewed for yesterday)

David prefers a job that he can walk to.

(that clause describes a job)

He’d like to work in a restaurant, where he can have a free meal now and then.

(where clause describes a restaurant)

Ideally, his shift will end at 7:00 p.m., when he is ready for dinner.

(when clause describes 7:00 p.m.)

At first reading, you shouldn’t notice anything unusual about those examples. Upon closer inspection, you may have a few questions:

• How can whose describe a position? Doesn’t whose always refer to people?
  Whose refers to people and things. It’s the only possessive word in the bunch.
• Why are some adjective clauses set off by commas and others are not?
  It all depends on the word being described—i.e., the noun or pronoun to the left of the adjective clause. How specific is that word? If it is already specific (for example, David or his friends), then there’s a comma after it, to indicate that the upcoming adjective clause gives extra information. If the noun is not specific (for example, a position or a job), there’s no comma after it because the upcoming adjective clause is now necessary, to make that noun specific. This guideline for using commas applies to all adjective clauses, except those beginning with which or that.
• What’s the story with which and that?
  Which and that are designated drivers, so to speak. Which must drive a clause that gives extra information (because the noun before it is already specific). That must drive a clause that gives essential information (because the noun before it is general). So which clauses are set off by commas, while that clauses are not.

Examples:

David’s job search, which continued for eight months, wore him out.

A job search that lasts for eight months can wear anybody out.

There’s one more point to make about a that clause: don’t use it to describe people. Use a who or whom clause instead.

 

Typical error:

The man that finally hired David is pleased to have a trustworthy new employee.

David is the kind of worker that employers can depend on.

Corrections:

The man who finally hired David is pleased to have a trustworthy new employee.

David is the kind of worker whom employers can depend on.

Modifier Forms

There are several modifiers that people tend to form incorrectly—they make them plural when they should be singular; they use adverb form when they need adjective form; they type them as one word when they should be two; and they confuse them with words that have similar spellings but different meanings. Following are some prevalent examples.

in regards to	The s is wrong. The expression is in regard to. (If you want be more concise, you can use regarding.)
more importantly	Drop the ly. What you’re trying to say is that your upcoming point is more important than your preceding point.
I feel badly	Badly is incorrect. What you feel is bad. You wouldn’t say, “I feel goodly,” would you?
good vs. well	Good is always an adjective (as in good car). Well is usually an adverb, describing an action (as in the car runs well). The only time that either word fits in the same slot is after a verb coming from to be or to feel: I am good, I am well; I feel good, I feel well. (The difference is in meaning—well refers to health.) In all other situations, use good to describe people, places, and things; use well to describe actions.
a vs. an	Use a or an, depending on the sound of the upcoming word. If the word sounds as if it begins with a consonant (young, university), use a before it. If it sounds as if it begins with a vowel (egg, MBA), use an.
less vs. fewer	Less is correct before a mass noun (less money, less love). Fewer is correct before a countable noun (fewer items, fewer expenses).
due to vs. because of	Due to means “caused by” (the accident was due to reckless driving). If caused because of by doesn’t fit, use (I was late because of heavy traffic).
complimentary vs. Complementary	Complimentary means “free/no charge,” as in complimentary tickets. It complementary also means “flattering” or “favorable,” as in complimentary reviews. Complementary refers to the second half of a whole—a remaining part that completes what’s missing, as in complementary angles.
everyday vs. every day	Everyday is an adjective that should appear to the left of a noun—as in everyday activity. People tend to misuse this one-word form in situations calling for two words. Every day is an adverb telling when an action takes place—as in I swim every day.
alot vs. a lot	This expression is always two words. The one-word version doesn’t exist, except as an error.
sometime sometimes sometimes	Sometime translates into “a day in the future” (I’ll see you sometime). Sometimes means “every now and then” (I swim sometimes). Sometime means “a block of time” (I need some time with you).

Only

This versatile modifier deserves to be discussed separately because it is unusual and because people don’t understand how important its placement is.

 

The unusual thing about only is that it can—and will—modify any noun, verb, phrase, or clause that comes after it. It changes in a flash from an adjective to an adverb and back again, altering the meaning of a sentence every time it moves. Take a look at these examples:

Only David is visiting Timbuktu in July because the days are warm then.

(no one else is visiting Timbuktu)

David is only visiting Timbuktu in July because the days are warm then.

(he’s just visiting—not staying forever)

David is visiting only Timbuktu in July because the days are warm then.

(Timbuktu is the sole place he’s visiting in July)

David is visiting Timbuktu only in July because the days are warm then.

(he’s visiting in no month except July)

David is visiting Timbuktu in July only because the days are warm then.

(he has one reason for visiting)

David is visiting Timbuktu in July because only the days are warm then.

(the days are warm—not the nights)

David is visiting Timbuktu in July because the days are only warm then.

(the days are merely warm—not hot)

David is visiting Timbuktu in July because the days are warm only then.

(there’s no other month when the days are warm)

Isn’t it amazing how the meaning changes every time only hops to the right? (Now, that’s the kind of modifier I’d like to marry—it has no problem relocating, it finds a new job immediately, and it loves the one it’s with.)

 

The problem with only is that people tend to throw it into their sentences too soon, rather than waiting for the precise word(s) they want to highlight. They need to understand that only influences whatever comes next. It sheds light to the right, singling out what follows, altering its meaning. When only is misplaced, the focus is fuzzy; when only is in the right spot, the focus is sharp.

 

What if someone writes, for example,

You should only get married if the right modifier comes along.

Do you understand what that means? Of course you do. Is the sentence correct? No. It should read,

You should get married only if the right modifier comes along.

What that sentence is trying to say is that there is only one condition under which you should tie the knot: if the right modifier comes along. So only needs to appear directly before the if clause, not one word sooner. Placing it earlier doesn’t cause misunderstanding, but putting it in the right spot creates exactly the right emphasis.

 

Are there any other modifiers like only? Yes. Words like primarily, merely, specifically, just, and mainly are similar in that they belong directly to the left of what you want them to affect.

 

For example, don’t write

I am primarily interested in meeting a rich, eligible modifier

if what you mean is

I am interested primarily in meeting a rich, eligible modifier.

If you want a bright future with modifiers, you have to treat them right: get to know what they look like, what jobs they can do, where to place them, and how to punctuate them. In return, they’ll enhance every sentence you ever write.

 

QUIZ ON MODIFIERS

Below is a letter to David from his new employer in Timbuktu. Your job is to edit the letter for modifiers. How are they formed, placed, and punctuated? If the modifiers are correct, leave them alone; if they’re not, fix them.

Dear David:

1	After searching for quite sometime, it is my pleasure to have you as the new server at my restaurant. I was getting tired of handling all the tables myself. A man like me who is no spring rooster shouldn’t be running around after all the hens, if you know what I mean.
2	I want to warn you that our long-term customers are often short-tempered. If you bring them a dish which they did not order, they may scream at you. Don’t feel badly if this happens; bear in mind that you are new and can only handle a few things at a time. In regards to tips, don’t worry—I’ll give you some cash if I ever run into any.
3	While your job primarily involves serving, you may be asked to cook some times. You mentioned that you know how to prepare certain foods, like rice, beans, and corn. While preparing these delicacies, what ingredients are involved? Do I need to procure any exotic-American spices? I already have an abundant supply of salt and pepper, which may come in handy.
4	As a one man team, your job may sometimes feel overwhelming. If this happens, we can consider shortening your shifts to half hour increments. For example, breakfast can be from 8:00 to 8:30, lunch from 12:00 to 12:30, and dinner from 3:00 to 3:30. That schedule will most likely discourage many of our customers from eating here and you will have more time to relax.
5	I want you to feel welcome in Timbuktu where the people are friendly, the weather is warm, and the salt and pepper are plentiful. More importantly, I hope you decide to make this your permanent home. We need people, who are willing to work in various capacities and in half hour shifts.
6	I look forward to seeing you everyday.

Your new employer

 

ANSWERS TO MODIFIERS QUIZ

• Paragraph 1 contains three errors. In the first sentence, sometime should be two words; the subject of the clause should be I, not it (the opening verbal phrase, After searching…, is an adjective that must be followed by the person it describes). In the third sentence, there should be commas around the who clause because that clause provides extra information.
• Paragraph 2 contains five errors. In the first sentence, short-tempered should not be hyphenated because it follows the noun it describes. In the second sentence, which should be that because it introduces an essential clause (the noun before it, a dish, is general). In the third sentence, badly should be bad; only should appear before a few things, not before handles. In the fourth sentence, regards should be regard.
• Paragraph 3 contains four errors. In the first sentence, primarily should appear before serving, not before involves; some times should be sometimes. In the third sentence, the subject following the opening descriptive phrase should be you, not ingredients (While preparing… describes a person, not ingredients). In the fifth sentence, there should be no hyphen in exotic-American.
• Paragraph 4 contains three errors. In the first sentence, one man should be hyphenated; the subject of the clause should be you, not your job (the As phrase describes a person, not a job). In the second sentence, half hour should be hyphenated.
• Paragraph 5 contains four errors. In the first sentence, there should be a comma after Timbuktu (the where clause is extra, not essential, after the specific noun Timbuktu). In the second sentence, more importantly should be more important. In the third sentence, there should be no comma after people (the who clause is necessary after the generic word people); half hour should be hyphenated.
• Paragraph 6 contains one error. The last word should be two words: every day, not everyday.