So far, you’ve learned a few things about people, places, and things (nouns and pronouns); about actions (verbs); and about descriptions (modifiers). What’s left? Glue and road signs. To hold ideas together, we use words that can join (glue). To show where a discussion is headed next, we use words that indicate a change in direction (road signs). All of these words are referred to, in general, as connectives. Specifically, they are prepositions, conjunctions, and adverbs.
Prepositions
Prepositions are usually small words that indicate position (in, on, under, over) or relationship (of, for, to, from).
If your native tongue is not English, prepositions are a major challenge since their use is as various as the words they accompany. It’s not easy, for example, to remember that the noun discussion is followed by the preposition about (we had a discussion about bananas), yet the verb discuss requires no preposition (we discussed bananas); similarly, the noun request is followed by the preposition for (we submitted a request for bananas), yet the verb request requires no preposition (we requested bananas). It’s also not easy to understand why we get on a bus, on a train, on a plane, yet in a car. Or why we are on a team and on a committee but in a group. Often there’s no logic behind our use of prepositions; there’s only the use itself to take note of.
If your native tongue is English, you manage most prepositions correctly without thinking about it. Your ear is your guide, and typically it’s a good one. There are a few things, however, that your ear may need to hear about.
Like I said
People handle like correctly when it’s a verb (as in I like bananas or I would like a banana). They don’t always use it correctly as a connective.
Common error:
Like I said, bananas are popular around the world.
Correct:
As I said, bananas are popular around the world.
You need to use as when a subject and verb are coming up. Like is a preposition; prepositions introduce phrases. As, in this case, is a conjunction; conjunctions introduce clauses. Here are some more sentences, to help you understand the difference between like and as.
Examples:
Eating fruits like pomegranates requires time and patience.
Like many a primate, I prefer bananas.
As any monkey knows, bananas are quite agreeable.
Pomegranates, as I told you, are demanding.
Considered as
Whenever you’re saying that someone or something is considered a certain way, don’t use as.
Common error:
She is considered as honest.
The Taj Mahal is considered as an architectural wonder.
Correct:
She is considered honest.
The Taj Mahal is considered an architectural wonder.
Different than
The connective to use after different is from, not than. Than is correct after a comparative word—for example, taller than, younger than, more complicated than, less expensive than. Different is not a comparative word. When you’re classifying something as different, you’re not saying it is more than or less than; you’re saying simply that it is not the same. So one thing is always different from another.
Fascinated but afraid of
Sometimes two words in a sentence need to be followed by two different prepositions. When that happens, be sure to include them both.
Common error:
The child was fascinated but afraid of lizards.
Correct:
The child was fascinated by but afraid of lizards.
Something else about which to talk
Contrary to what a well-meaning teacher may have told you in elementary school, there is nothing wrong with ending a sentence in a preposition. Furthermore, there never has been anything wrong with doing so. If a sentence ends in a word that requires a preposition after it, use that preposition. Don’t look for some other way to say it; what you wind up with may sound stuffy.
Stuffy:
We need to find something else about which to talk.
Natural:
We need to find something else to talk about.
Look forward to see, committed to keep, prone to forget, on my way to buy
Many people misunderstand the grammar of these four expressions: they treat to as if it were the beginning of an infinitive (to see, to keep, to forget, to buy). It isn’t. It’s a preposition that must be followed by an object—i.e., a noun or a gerund. No one makes a mistake when they need a noun (I look forward to lunch or I am committed to monogamy); they err when they need a gerund—an action word ending in ing.
Common error:
I look forward to see you.
I am committed to keep my promise.
I am prone to forget what I say.
I am on my way to buy roses for you.
Correct:
I look forward to seeing you.
I am committed to keeping my promise.
I am prone to forgetting what I say.
I am on my way to buying roses for you.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words with glue on them, meaning that they have the capacity to join. There are three types of conjunctions—coordinating, subordinating, and correlative. Even though they all do the job of gluing sentence parts together, their roles and their effects vary. So do the problems that people have with them.
Coordinating conjunctions
These are the most common and versatile glue words in our language, the ones you first learned to use: and, but, yet, so, nor, or, and for. (For, in this instance, means “because,” as in I was late to work, for there was a lot of traffic.)
Coordinating conjunctions can join anything—words, phrases, or clauses. Whatever they join, the result is a list—items in a series. When you write items in a series, you need to make sure they match each other in terms of form. This is the rule of parallel structure.
Common error:
I like bananas because they are delicious, nutritious, and they help me fall asleep.
You can buy bananas at the supermarket, the farmers’ market, or from roadside vendors.
Bananas taste good, they are good for you, but won’t help you stay awake.
Correct:
I like bananas because they are delicious, nutritious, and conducive to sleep.
You can buy bananas at the supermarket, at the farmers’ market, or from roadside vendors.
Bananas taste good, they are good for you, but they won’t help you stay awake.
It doesn’t matter how many items are involved or what part of speech they are; it also doesn’t matter whether the items are marching across the page or down the page. What matters is that they are parallel—all the same kind of word, the same kind of phrase, the same kind of clause. Once you understand this rule, your ear can help you write items in a series that sound alike.
Another issue that crops up here is punctuation. How do you punctuate items joined by coordinating conjunctions? The answer depends on the number and the type of items.
If the number is two and the items are not independent clauses, you do not punctuate.
Examples:
After eating several bananas, I feel happy and drowsy.
Bananas are good at home or at the office.
If you’re working, you may want to avoid a fruit that tastes good but puts you to sleep.
If the number is three or more, you place a comma after each item in the series, even the item before the conjunction.
Examples:
After eating several bananas, I feel happy, drowsy, and full.
Bananas are good at home, at the office, or at the beach.
If you’re working, you may want to avoid a fruit that tastes good, fills you up, but puts you to sleep.
If a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, you have four punctuation options.
Examples:
I eat a lot of bananas and I’ve recommended them to my friends.
My friends like bananas, but they can live without them.
Bananas won’t disagree with your stomach; nor will they talk back.
I never met a banana I didn’t like. Yet some are rather spoiled, I must admit.
The last two punctuation options are possible because a coordinating conjunction doesn’t affect the independence of a clause. That is, independent clauses that begin with coordinating conjunctions are still independent, which means that they can take a semicolon or period to the left of them.
Why would you want to punctuate like that? For effect. You may want to convey that the upcoming clause is the second half of a two-part story. Or you may want to give it maximum attention by making it a new sentence.
Why, then, would you need the conjunction? For meaning. Conjunctions carry meaning as well as glue. They tell how the upcoming clause is related to the previous clause. (When a reader sees yet, for example, he knows that contrast will follow; when he sees so, he knows that a result is coming; when he sees or, he gets ready for an alternative; and so forth.)
The way you punctuate depends on how you want your second clause to be perceived:
Subordinating conjunctions
There are many more subordinating conjunctions in English than there are coordinating. Here are the most common: although, even though, whereas, while, because, since, as, in that, in order that, as long as, if, unless, provided that, once, until, when, whenever, before, after, as if, as though.
Because they are conjunctions, subordinators carry glue. What they most often glue together are clauses. When they do this job, the result is one major clause and one minor clause—that is, one independent clause and one dependent clause. The dependent clause is the one beginning with the subordinating conjunction.
Examples:
I’m still writing about bananas, even though they’re starting to bore me.
My mind is stuck on bananas as if there were no other topic.
If I change topics now, you may miss the bananas.
You’ll notice that, besides making one clause dependent on the other, subordinating conjunctions differ from coordinating in terms of positioning: they can join two clauses by showing up in the middle of them or by appearing at the beginning of a sentence.
You’ll also notice that, when a subordinate clause is involved, your punctuation options are limited. If you look back at the last three examples, you’ll see either a comma or no punctuation. (You won’t see a semicolon or period because there aren’t two independent clauses.)
Correlative conjunctions
Despite their fancy name, these word pairs are quite familiar to you. They are the two-part conjunctions you use when you want special emphasis as well as glue:
either…or
neither…nor
not only…but also
not…but
The only problem that people have when using these connectives is that they don’t place them in the right spot for parallel structure. Each double conjunction can join any two elements within a sentence (words, phrases, or clauses); but the elements being joined must match each other. (This is the same rule that pertains to items in a series joined by coordinating conjunctions.)
Common error:
Chiquita either eats bananas at home or on the road.
Neither are they her favorite food nor part of the low-carb diet she should be following.
She not only eats them because they are convenient but also free.
Chiquita is not interested in the weight she should lose but in the money she can save.
Correct:
Chiquita eats bananas either at home or on the road.
They are neither her favorite food nor part of the low-carb diet she should be following.
She eats them because they are not only convenient but also free.
Chiquita is interested not in the weight she should lose but in the money she can save.
In all of those examples (erroneous and correct), the words following each conjunction are underlined. If you compare the underlined items in the first set of sentences, you’ll see that they don’t match:
eats and on the road
are they her favorite food and part
eats and free
interested and in the money.
If you compare the underlined items in the second set of sentences, you’ll see that they do match:
at home and on the road
food and part
convenient and free
in the weight and in the money.
The issue here is placement, rather than form. When using double conjunctions, people usually form their items correctly but don’t know where to put the connectives. The connectives must appear directly to the left of the items they’re meant to join. You can’t toss them in before your sentence is ready for them.
When Shakespeare wrote, “Ripeness is all,” he must have been thinking about correlative conjunctions. Or maybe he was thinking about bananas.
Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are very common—you see them all the time and you use them frequently. Here’s what they look like:
however, nevertheless, rather, instead,
otherwise, on the other hand, alternatively
furthermore, moreover, besides, additionally,
similarly
therefore, thus, consequently, hence
previously, now, initially, presently, then,
next, still, meanwhile, subsequently, finally,
afterward
indeed, in fact, of course, accordingly, anyhow,
anyway, frankly, certainly
Several of these words end in ly, reminding you that they belong to the adverb family. But how can you remember that all of these words are adverbs? And why should you?
Actually, it’s not important what you call these words as long as you know they are not conjunctions—i.e., they have no glue on them and therefore can’t join anything with anything. They are transition words that show how ideas are related. They serve as road signs. They offer helpful information and add fluency to your discussion. But they don’t join.
So if your sentence contains two independent clauses and the second one begins with an adverb, you still need a joining technique. A comma cannot do that job. What you need is a semicolon.
Common error:
Chiquita wears a hat filled with bananas, however, she manages to keep her balance.
Correct:
Chiquita wears a hat filled with bananas; however, she manages to keep her balance.
(You may also place a period between those clauses, but then you won’t be joining them.)
Besides carrying no glue, adverbs differ from conjunctions in two other ways:
Examples:
Chiquita is usually well mannered; however, sometimes she eats out of her hat.
Chiquita is usually well mannered; sometimes, however, she eats out of her hat.
Chiquita is usually well mannered; sometimes she eats out of her hat, however.
Connectives Leading to Examples or Explanations
To tell your reader that you’re about to give an example or a full explanation, you offer road signs: like, such as, including, for instance, for example (e.g.), that is (i.e.), namely, specifically.
The problems people have with these connectives relate to punctuation and usage.
Punctuation
The first three expressions—like, such as, and including—may be preceded by commas (if the upcoming example isn’t essential), but they are never followed by commas.
Common error:
I enjoy snacks like, bananas.
I enjoy snacks such as, bananas.
I enjoy a variety of snacks including, bananas.
Correct:
I enjoy snacks like bananas.
I enjoy snacks such as bananas.
I enjoy a variety of snacks, including bananas.
The last five expressions—for instance, for example, that is, namely, and specifically—are always followed by commas, no matter what punctuation sets them apart from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
There are some strange things in Chiquita’s hat—for instance, bananas.
From her hat Chiquita retrieves a snack (for example, bananas).
There is something fruity about Chiquita’s hat—that is, bananas.
The contents of Chiquita’s hat (namely, bananas) are curious.
They’re wondering what they are doing in such a strange place—specifically, a hat.
Usage
People often use the abbreviation i.e. without knowing what it means. I.e. stands for id est, Latin words meaning “that is.” That is must lead to a full explanation. The error occurs when people use i.e. to mean “for example.”
The abbreviation that means “for example” is e.g. It stands for the Latin words exempli gratia.
Finally, both of these abbreviations need to be punctuated correctly. Each letter is followed by a period, and the second period is followed by a comma. The periods indicate that the expression is an abbreviation; the comma indicates that the expression is introductory.
Examples:
Chiquita’s hat serves a practical purpose—i.e., it contains her lunch.
Chiquita’s hat serves many purposes—e.g., it keeps her head straight while everyone else is thinking about bananas.
Confusing Pairs
If vs. whether
If introduces a condition; whether introduces a choice. The common error is that people use if when they mean whether—for example, We need to determine if Chiquita’s hat is affecting banana sales versus We need to determine whether Chiquita’s hat is affecting banana sales.
One way to test your use of if is to say “or not” after it. If your sentence makes sense when you insert or not, the connective you need is whether. (You needn’t keep or not in your sentence—it’s implied by whether.)
Here are some verbs that typically lead to whether: determine, decide, know, wonder, find out, investigate, discern, learn, discover, understand, question, see, ask, check.
Then vs. than
Then refers to time, as in now and then; than is for comparisons, as in more than or less than.
Redundancies
Etc. after such as
If you introduce some examples with such as, don’t use etc. at the end of the list. Such as means that your list contains examples, not the full story. Etc. means the same.
Nor in the same clause as no or not
If you use no or not, don’t use nor within the same clause. Use or, instead.
Incorrect:
I don’t want a pomegranate nor a banana.
Correct:
I don’t want a pomegranate or a banana.
The reason why is because
Don’t follow reason with why or because—that’s saying the same thing three times. Drop why; use that instead of because.
Incorrect:
The reason why I am late is because I paused to eat a pomegranate.
Correct:
The reason I am late is that I paused to eat a pomegranate.
As you’ve seen, using connectives correctly is often tricky business. It calls for awareness of many rules related to usage, form, grammar, and punctuation. Is it worth it? Why not avoid all those troublesome glue words and write only simple, elementary sentences?
The answer is that your sentences will wind up being, well…simple and elementary. They’ll deliver main points but they won’t show relationships, indicate chronology, or signal changes in direction. Your reader will have to guess at the connections that you failed to provide.
Take a look at a group of related sentences written without connectives:
Chiquita wears a hat. The hat is filled. The filling is fruit. The hat is heavy. It is difficult to balance. She can’t remove the hat. She needs relief. She must unload the fruit. Wearing the hat is not her preference. She must continue to wear it. She wants to keep her job.
Those sentences should, of course, be combined—to avoid repetition of key words and to show how the ideas relate to one another. For example,
Chiquita’s hat is heavy and difficult to balance because it is filled with fruit. She can’t remove it, to gain some relief, without first unloading the fruit. Although wearing the hat is not her preference, she must continue to do so if she wants to keep her job.
Now, that paragraph won’t win any literary prize, but it’s a lot easier to read than the original string of isolated sentences. The increased fluency comes largely from adding five garden-variety connectives: and, because, without, although, and if.
Connectives go a long way in enhancing the meaning and flow of your text. They’re well worth including, with all their special effects and idiosyncrasies.
QUIZ ON CONNECTIVES
Below is a letter from Chiquita to her employer, the banana boss. Your job is to edit the letter for connectives—words that serve as glue or as road signs. Are they the right words? Are the sentences punctuated correctly? If so, leave the text as it is; if not, fix it.
Dear Top Banana:
|
1 |
Because I have been representing the company for so many years people think of me as a bunch of bananas. I had thought it wasn’t bothering me until I began to see bananas whenever I looked into a mirror. |
|
2 |
Recently I saw a psychologist to find out who I really am—i.e., a person or a logo. Surely you can understand my confusion: my name is on every banana you sell, in every commercial you make and every truck that transports your product. Furthermore, when people see me they don’t look at my face nor my outfit; they stare only at my hat. The reason why, of course, is the bananas. I am considered as nothing more than a one-dimensional fruit. While this is an understandable consequence of pervasive marketing; I’m having trouble with it. But, like I said, I’m working on the problem with my therapist as I’m committed to solve it. |
|
3 |
I’m writing to suggest that either you add someone else’s name to your product or add some other fruits to my hat. You could call the product “Chiquita and Jean-Paul” for example, which may bring you increased business in France. Or, you could throw a few kumquats into my hat, to show that I’m more then just bananas. |
|
4 |
Any change will take time to implement, however, the result will be worth it. Your customers will have something new to focus and talk about. And I may be able to see my own face in the mirror again. |
|
5 |
The problem I’m having is different than any I’ve ever known. It bothers me not only during the day but also keeps me awake at night. (Please don’t advise me to eat a banana before bedtime.) |
Chiquita
ANSWERS TO CONNECTIVES QUIZ