1. Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia de todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1968).
2. Douglas Grant, The Fortunate Slave: An Illustration of African Slavery in the Early Eighteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968); Terry Alford, Prince among Slaves: The True Story of an African Prince Sold into Slavery in the American South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Allan D. Austin, African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook (New York: Garland, 1984).
3. Timothy W. Marr, “Review: Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas,” William and Mary Quarterly, third series, 57, 3 (July 2000): 690–92.
4. John Hunwick, “‘I Wish to Be Seen in Our Land Called Afrika’: Umar B. Sayyid’s Appeal to Be Released from Slavery (1819),” Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies 5 (2003–2004): 62–77.
5. Nikolay Dobronravin, “Literary Quotations in the Arabic Documents of Brazilian Muslim Slaves,” in Russia and the Arab World: Past and Modernity (St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Press, 2006), vol. 2, 81–90.
6. Paul E. Lovejoy, “Review of Books: Servants of Allah: African Enslaved in the Americas,” International History Review 21, 4 (December 1999): 993.
7. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro (New York: Henry Holt, 1915), 164.
8. Joseph H. Greenberg, “The Decipherment of the ‘Ben-Ali Diary’: A Preliminary Statement,” Journal of Negro History 25, 3 (July 1940): 372–75; Lorenzo Dow Turner, Africanism in the Gullah Dialect (1949; reprint, New York: Arno Press / New York Times, 1969); Philip D. Curtin, ed., Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967); Grant, The Fortunate Slave; Newbell N. Puckett, Black Names in America: Origins and Usage (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1975).
9. Alford, Prince among Slaves, 194. An abbreviated edition of Allan D. Austin’s 1984 book came out in 1997 under the title African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles (New York: Routledge).
10. Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon (New York: New American Library, 1977), 307.
11. Richard Madden, The Island of Cuba: Its Resources, Progress, and Prospects (London: Gilpin, 1849), 237.
12. Ala Alryyes, ed., A Muslim American Slave: The Life of Omar ibn Said (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011); a thirtieth anniversary edition of Terry Alford’s Prince among Slaves was published in 2007; Michael Gomez, Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); James H. Johnson, From Slave Ship to Harvard: Yarrow Mamout and the History of an African American Family (New York: Fordham University Press, 2012); Moustapha Bayoumi, “Moving Beliefs,” Interventions 5, 1 (2003): 58–81; Nada Elia, “‘Kum Buba Yali Kum Buba Tambe, Ameen, Ameen, Amenen’: Did Some Flying Africans Bow to Allah?,” Callaloo 26, 1 (Winter 2003): 182–202; Florence Marfo, “African Muslims in African American Literature,” Callaloo 32, 4 (Fall 2009): 1213–22; Thomas B. Klein, “Sounds in Gullah Geechee and on Middle Caicos,” Black Scholar 41, 1 (Spring 2011): 22–31.
13. João José Reis, Rebelião escrava no Brasil: A história do levante dos malêsem em 1835 (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2003); João José Reis and Beatriz Gallotti Mamigonian, “Nagô and Mina: The Yoruba Diaspora in Brazil,” in The Yoruba Diaspora in the Atlantic World, ed. Toyin Falola and Matt D. Childs (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 77–110.
14. José Cairus, “Instrumentum vocale, mallams e alufás: O paradoxo islâmico da erudiçãona diáspora africana no Atlântico,” Topoi 4 (March 2003): 128–64.
15. João José Reis, Flávio dos Santos Gomes, and Marcus J. M. de Carvalho, O alufá Rufino: Tráfico, escravidão e liberdade no Atlântico Negro (c. 1822–c. 1853) (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2010). A short version was published as “Rufino José Maria (1820s–1850s): A Muslim in the Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Slave Trade Circuit,” in The Human Tradition in the Black Atlantic, 1500–2000, ed. B. Mamigonian and K. Racine (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010), 65–75.
16. Reis, Gomes, and Carvalho, “Rufino José Maria,” 75.
17. Lisa Earl Castillo, “The Exodus of 1835: Aguda Life Stories and Social Networks,” in Panafricanism and the Integration of Continental Africa and Diaspora Africa, ed. Tunde Babawale et al. (Lagos: Center for Black and African Arts and Civilization, 2011), vol. 2, 27–51.
18. Nikolay Dobronravin, “Escritos multilíngües em caracteres árabes: Novas fontes de Trinidad e Brasil no século XIX,” Afro-Ásia 31 (2004): 297–326; Dobronravin, “Literacy among Muslims in Nineteenth-Century Trinidad and Brazil,” in Slavery, Islam and Diaspora, ed. Behnaz A. Mirzai, Ismael Musah Montana, and Paul E. Lovejoy (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World, 2009), 217–36.
19. Nikolay Dobronravin, “Ajami and the ‘Nago War’: A Letter to Malam Sani,” in African Collection, ed. V. Vydrin (St. Petersburg: MAE, 2009), 417–25; Dobronravin, “Creolization and the Muslim Calendar: Days and Months in the Manuscript of Joaquim, a ‘Nago’ from Bahia,” 12th Russian Conference of Africanists, Abstracts (Moscow: Africa Institute, 2011): 158–59; Dobronravin, “Afro-Brazilian Islam Yesterday and Today: The ‘Male’ Uprising (1835) and Its Modern Reinterpretation,” Latinskaia Amerika 3 (2011): 56–61. All articles are in Russian.
20. Dobronravin, “Literacy among Muslims.” The manuscript is held at Trinity College in Ireland.
21. A summary appeared in Trubner’s American and Oriental Literary Record 75 (October 31, 1871): 55. The name of the author was recorded as Abdurrahman Effendi and the title as “A Journey to Brazil.” The text—in a Turkish translation from the Arabic—was also referenced as “Voyage to Brazil” by Sheikh Abdurrahman Effendi, in American Literary Gazette (October 1871, 316). A transcription of the original document with a German translation was published by Rosemarie Quiring-Zoche: “Bei den Malein Brasilien: Das Reisebuch des Abdarrahman al-Bagdadi,” Die Welt des Islams 40, 2 (2000): 196–273. For an English translation by Yacine Daddi Addoun and Renée Soulodre-La France, see The Foreigner’s Amusement by Wonderful Things, Nigerian Hinterland Project, York University, http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/shadd/baghdadi.pdf (accessed 10/9/2012).
22. Ray Crook, “Bilali—The Old Man of Sapelo Island: Between Africa and Georgia,” Wadabagei 10, 2 (Spring–Summer 2007): 40–57.
23. Yacine Daddi Addoun and Paul Lovejoy, “Muhammad Kaba Sagnanugu and the Muslim Community of Jamaica,” in Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 2004), 199–218, another version of the article, titled “The Arabic Manuscript of Muhammad Kaba Saghanughu of Jamaica, c. 1823” and followed by a translation of the original, is available at http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/shadd/kaba/index.asp (accessed 10/9/2012).
24. Grace Turner, “In His Own Words: Abul Keli, a Liberated African Apprentice,” Journal of the Bahamas Historical Society 29 (October 2007): 27–31; Bayoumi, “Moving Beliefs.”
25. African Origins Project, http://slavevoyages.org/tast/about/origins.faces (accessed 9/19/2012).
1. Nehemia Levtzion, “Islam in the Bilad al-sudan to 1800,” in The History of Islam in Africa, ed. Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000), 63–85.
2. Joseph Dupuis, Journal of a Residence in Ashantee (London: Henry Colburn, 1824), part 2, chap. 8, p. xiv.
3. John O. Hunwick, “The Influence of Arabic in West Africa,” Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana (1964): 24.
4. Theophilus Conneau, A Slaver’s Log Book or Twenty Years’ Residence in Africa (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976), 141.
5. Theodore Dwight, “Condition and Character of Negroes in Africa,” in The People of Africa: A Series of Papers on Their Character, Condition, and Future Prospects, ed. Henry Schieffelin (New York: A. D. F. Randolph, 1871), 52–53.
6. Ibid.
7. Jean Boyd, The Caliph’s Sister: Nana Asma’u (1793–1865), Teacher, Poet, and Islamic Leader (London: Frank Cass, 1989); Roberta Ann Dunbar, “Muslim Women in African History,” in Levtzion and Pouwels, eds., History of Islam in Africa, 397–417.
8. Michael Crowder, The Story of Nigeria (London: Faber & Faber, 1973), 106–7.
9. Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa (London: John Murray, 1816–17), vol. 1, 60; Gaspard T. Mollien, Voyage dans l’interieur de l’Afrique (Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1822), vol. 1, 360.
10. Joseph Cuoq, Histoire de l’islamisation de l’Afrique de l’Ouest des origines a la fin du XVIe siècle (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1984), 124–27; Stefan Reichmuth, “Islamic Education and Scholarship in Sub-Saharan Africa,” in Levtzion and Pouwels, eds., History of Islam in Africa, 419–40.
11. Jean Baptiste Léonard Durand, Voyage au Sénégal fait dans les années 1785 et 1786 (Paris: Dentu, 1807), vol. 1, 123.
12. Baron Roger, Kélédor, histoire africaine (Paris: Nepveu, 1828), xi.
13. Oskar Lenz, Tombouctou, voyage au Maroc, au Sahara et au Soudan (Paris: Hachette, 1887), vol. 2, 119.
14. Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims in West African Pluralism (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), 148.
15. Mollien, Voyage, vol. 1, 149.
16. Francis Moore, Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa (London: E. Cave, 1738), 30.
17. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 87–88.
18. Moore, Travels, 30.
19. Ibid., 50.
20. Ibid.
21. Conneau, Slaver’s Log Book, 69.
22. Carl Bernhard Wadstrom, An Essay on Colonization, particularly applied to the Western Coast of Africa (London: Darton & Harvey, 1794), part 2, 111.
23. Durand, Voyage au Sénégal, 125.
24. Paul Lovejoy, “Background to Rebellion: The Origins of Muslim Slaves in Bahia,” Slavery and Abolition 15, 2 (August 1994): 164.
25. Culled from P. E. H. Hair, “The Enslavement of Koelle Informants,” Journal of African History 6, 2 (1965): 199.
26. Sylviane A. Diouf, “The Last Resort: Redeeming Family and Friends,” in Fighting The Slave Trade: West African Strategies, ed. Sylviane A. Diouf (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003), 81–100.
27. Thomas Bluett, Some Memoirs of the Life of Job, the Son of Solomon, the High Priest of Boonda in Africa (London: Richard Ford, 1736); Philip Curtin, “Ayuba Suleiman Diallo of Bondu,” in Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip Curtin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 40.
28. Wadstrom, Essay on Colonization, part 2, 91.
29. Allan Fisher, ed., Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa: The Institution in Saharan and Sudanic Africa and the Trans-Saharan Trade (London: C. Hurst, 1970), 24–25.
30. Dixon Denham, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa, in the Years 1822, 1823, and 1824 (London: John Murray, 1826), 149.
31. Theophilus Conneau, A Slaver’s Log Book or Twenty Years’ Residence in Africa (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1976), 68.
32. Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 278–88.
33. Bernard Lewis, “The African Diaspora and the Civilization of Islam,” in The African Diaspora: Interpretative Essays, ed. Martin Kilson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976); Akbar Muhammad, “The Image of Africans in Arabic Literature: Some Unpublished Manuscripts,” in Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa, ed. John Ralph Willis (London: Frank Cass, 1985), vol. 1.
34. Paul Edwards, ed., Equiano’s Travels (1789; reprint, London: Heinemann, 1969), 126.
35. René Luc Moreau, Africains musulmans (Paris: Présence Africaine, 1982), 127.
36. Ibid., 128–29.
37. Frédérique Verrier, ed., Voyages en Afrique noire d’Alvise Ca’ da Mosto (1455 et 1456) (Paris: Unesco-Chandeigne, 2005), 51, 102, 103.
38. Ruth Mazo Karras, Slavery and Society in Medieval Scandinavia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 14–15.
39. Nize Isabel de Moraes, A la découverte de la Petite Côte au XVIIe siècle (Dakar: Université Cheikh Anta Diop, 1995), vol. 1, 111, 115, 117, 119.
40. Ibid., vol. 2, 358.
41. Ibid., vol. 2, 365.
42. As are 85 percent of the Guineans, 70 percent of the Malians, 60 percent of the Sierra Leoneans, and 50 percent of the Nigerians.
43. de Moraes, A la découverte de la Petite Côte, vol. 2, 358.
44. Jean Boulègue, Le Grand Jolof XIIIe–XVIe siècles (Blois: Edition Façades, 1987), 136.
45. Max Portugal Ortiz, La esclavitud negra en las épocas colonial y nacional de Bolivia (La Paz: Instituto Boliviano de Cultura, 1977), 14–15.
46. It is an unpardonable sin in Islam to worship any being but God. Muhammad, being not divine but only a simple mortal, cannot be the object of devotional worship.
47. Rolando Mellafe, La introducción de la esclavitud negra en Chile (Santiago: Editorial Universitaria, 1984), 158–59.
48. Boubacar Barry, Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 42–45.
49. Nicolas del Castillo Mathieu, Esclavos negros en Cartagena y sus aportes lexicos (Bogota: Instituto Caro y Cuerno, 1982), 159.
50. Jaime Borja, “Barbarización y redes de indoctrinamiento en los negros cartageno XVII y XVIII,” in Contribución africana a la cultura de las Americas (Bogota: Instituto Colombiano de antropología Colcutura, 1993), 249.
51. C. I. Ritchie, “Deux textes sur le Sénégal, 1763–1767,” Bulletin de l’IFAN 30, 1 (January 1968): 339; Sylviane A. Diouf, “‘God Does Not Allow Kings to Enslave Their People’: Islamic Reformists and the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” in A Muslim American Slave: The Life of Omar ibn Said, ed. Ala Alryyes (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011).
52. Ritchie, “Deux textes sur le Sénégal,” 352.
53. Ibid., 155.
54. Le Sieur Lemaire, Les voyages du Sieur Lemaire aux îles Canaries, Cap-Vert, Sénégal et Gambie (Paris, 1695), 100–101.
55. P. E. H. Hair, Barbot on Guinea (London: Hakluyt Society, 1992), 131.
56. Ibid., 107.
57. Moore, Travels; Bluett, Some Memoirs; Douglas Grant, The Fortunate Slave (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968).
58. Wadstrom, Essay on Colonization, part 2, 77.
59. Ibid., 112.
60. Charles Becker and Victor Martin, “Kayor et Baol: Royaumes sénégalais et traite des esclaves au XVIIIe siècle,” in La Traite des Noirs par l’Atlantique: Nouvelles approches (Paris: Société française d’outre-mer, 1976), 285.
61. Ibid., 289.
62. Ibid., 286.
63. Pruneau de Pommegorge, Description de la Nigritie (Amsterdam: Maradan, 1789), 102–3.
64. Barry, Senegambia, 95–102.
65. Wadstrom, Essay on Colonization, part 2, 112.
66. Conneau, Slaver’s Log Book, 69.
67. Ibid., 70.
68. Barry, Senegambia, 101.
69. Cyrus Griffin, “Abduhl Rahahman, the Unfortunate Moorish Prince,” African Repository (February 1828): 79–80.
70. Barry, Senegambia, 121–25.
71. James Searing, West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce: The Senegal River Valley, 1700–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 93.
72. Barry, Senegambia, 108–12.
73. David Robinson, “Revolutions in the Western Sudan,” in Levtzion and Pouwels, eds., History of Islam in Africa, 132–37.
74. Boubacar Barry, Le royaume du Waalo, le Sénégal avant la conquête (Paris: François Maspero, 1972), 216.
75. George Truman, A Visit to the West Indies (Philadelphia: Merrihew & Thompson, 1844), 109.
76. Roger, Kélédor, 66–67.
77. Ibid., 93–97.
78. Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, Performed in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1816–1817).
79. “Autobiography of Omar ibn Said, Slave in North Carolina, 1831,” American Historical Review 30 (October 1924): 787–95; George Callcott, “Omar ibn Seid, a Slave Who Wrote an Autobiography in Arabic,” Journal of Negro History 39 (January 1954): 58–63; Diouf, “God Does Not Allow.”
80. Dupuis, Journal of a Residence, 245.
81. Richard Robert Madden, A Twelve Months’ Residence in the West Indies (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1835), 126–30.
82. A. Bivar, “The Wathiqat ahl al-Sudan: A Manifesto of the Fulani Jihad,” Journal of African History 4, 2 (1961): 235.
83. Robinson, “Revolutions,” 137–39.
84. Denham, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries, 170.
85. H. F. C. Smith, D. M. Last, and G. Gubio, “Ali Gazirmabe of Bornu,” in Curtin, ed., Africa Remembered, 212.
86. Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia de todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1968), 329.
87. Wadstrom, Essay on Colonization, part 2, 85.
88. Bryan Edwards, The History, Civil and Commercial of the British Colonies in the West Indies (Philadelphia: James Humphreys, 1806), vol. 2, 264.
89. Francis de Castelnau, Renseignements sur l’Afrique Centrale (Paris: Chez P. Bertrand, 1851), 46–47, 43.
90. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 126–30.
91. Richard Jobson, The Golden Trade (1623; reprint, Devonshire: E. Speight and Walpole, 1904), 97.
92. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 135.
93. Ibid., 126.
94. William Brown Hodgson, Notes on Northern Africa, the Sahara and the Soudan (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1844), 74.
95. Colonel Malenfant, Des colonies et particulièrement de celle de St Domingue (Paris: Audibert, 1814), 215.
96. Captain J. Washington, “Some Account of Mohammedu Sisei: A Mandingo of Nyani-Maru on the Gambia,” Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, no. 8 (1838): 449–54.
97. Jobson, Golden Trade, 98.
98. Nicholas Said, “A Native of Bornoo,” Atlantic Monthly 20 (October 1867): 485–95.
99. Wadstrom, Essay on Colonization, part 2, 114.
100. Ibid., 77.
101. Carl Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath and the Free Mandingos in Trinidad: The Question of Their Repatriation to Africa 1831–38,” Journal of African Studies 2, 4 (1975–1976): 467–95.
102. Truman, Visit to the West Indies, 108.
103. João Jose Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
104. Joseph Sturge and Thomas Harvey, The West Indies in 1837 (1838; reprint, London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968), 287.
105. Thomas Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti (1847; reprint, Port-au-Prince: Les Editions Fardin, 1981).
106. Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath,” 486.
107. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 102.
108. Ibid., 126–36.
109. Park, Travels, 467–68.
110. “Autobiography of Omar ibn Said” (October 1924): 792–95; Dwight, “Condition and Character,” 50.
111. Lovejoy, “Background to Rebellion,” 161–62.
112. Rev. Schön, Grammar of the Hausa Language (London: Church Missionary House, 1862), 234.
113. Roger, Kélédor, 86.
114. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 129.
115. Charles Ball, Fifty Years in Chains (1837; reprint, New York: Dover, 1970), 183–84.
116. de Pommegorge, Description de la Nigritie, 76.
117. Ball, Fifty Years in Chains; Park, Travels; Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence; Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua (Detroit: Pomeroy, 1854).
118. Baquaqua, Biography, 41.
119. Paul Erdmann Isert, Letters on West Africa and the Slave Trade: Paul Erdmann Isert’s Journey to Guinea and the Caribbean Islands in Columbia (1788; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 175.
120. Ball, Fifty Years, 184.
121. Conneau, Slaver’s Log Book, 82.
122. Baquaqua, Biography, 35.
123. Ibid., 42; Smith, Last, and Gubio, “Gazirmabe,” 213; Sylviane A. Diouf, Dreams of Africa in Alabama: The Slave Ship Clotilda and the Story of the Last Africans Brought to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 60–61.
124. Isert, Letters on West Africa, 176.
125. Roger, Kélédor, 96.
126. Baquaqua, Biography, 38.
127. Paul Lovejoy, “The African Diaspora: Revisionist Interpretations of Ethnicity, Culture and Religion under Slavery,” Studies in the World History of Slavery, Abolition and Emancipation 2, 1 (1997).
128. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, http://www.slavevoyages.org (accessed 10/10/2012).
129. Edward Blyden, “Mohammedanism in Western Africa,” in The People of Africa, ed. Schieffelin, 76.
1. Thomas Bluett, Some Memoirs of the Life of Job, the Son of Solomon, the High Priest of Boonda in Africa (London: Richard Ford, 1736), 21.
2. Ala Alryyes, introduction to A Muslim American Slave: The Life of Omar ibn Said, ed. Ala Alryyes (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011), 23.
3. Lydia Parrish, Slave Songs of the Georgia Sea Islands (1942; reprint, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992); Works Progress Administration (WPA), Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986).
4. John Richard Slattery and Bertrand Gabriel Fleuriau, eds., The Life of St. Peter Claver, S.J.: The Apostle of the Negroes (Philadelphia: H. L. Kilner, 1893), 140.
5. Gabriel Debien, Les esclaves aux Antilles françaises XVIIe–XVIIIe siècles (Pointe-à-Pitre: Société d’Histoire de la Guadeloupe, 1974), 254. “Gorée”—a slave depot off the coast of Senegal—must probably be read “Guinea.” Guinea, during slavery, often referred to a vast territory that extended from present-day Guinea to as far south as Angola.
6. Jean-Baptiste Dutertre, Histoire générale des Antilles habitées par les François (1667; reprint, Saint-Pierre, Martinique: Durieu et Leyritz, 1868–1869), 106.
7. Jean-Baptiste Labat, Voyage aux îles de l’Amérique 1693–1705 (1722; reprint, Paris: Seghers, 1979), 203.
8. Debien, Les esclaves aux Antilles françaises, 266.
9. Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua (Detroit: Pomeroy, 1854), 32.
10. Edwin A. Wallbridge, The Demerara Martyr: Memoirs of the Rev. John Smith, Missionary to Demerara (1848; reprint, New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 17.
11. C. B. Franklin, “After Many Days”: A Memoir; Being a Sketch of the Life and Labours of Rev. Alexander Kennedy, First Presbyterian Missionary to Trinidad (Port-of-Spain: Franklin’s Electric Printery, 1910), 76–77.
12. Georges Raeders, Le comte de Gobineau au Brésil (Paris: Les Nouvelles Editions Latines, 1934), 75.
13. James Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians, Portrayed in Historical and Descriptive Sketches (Boston: Little, Brown, 1866), 136.
14. Richard Robert Madden, A Twelve Months’ Residence in the West Indies (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1835), 102.
15. Benjamin Fawcett, A Compassionate Address to the Christian Negroes in Virginia, and Other British Colonies in North-America (Salop: Printed by F. Eddowes and F. Cotton, 1756), 8.
16. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, Classified Digest of the Records of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701–1892 (London: Society’s Office, 1898), 223.
17. Charles Williams, The Missionary Gazetteer (London: Frederick Wesley, 1828), 25.
18. Rev. John Holmes, Historical Sketches of the Missions of the United Brethren (London: Printed for the Author, 1827), 316.
19. Ibid., 336.
20. Letter from Benjamin Angell, October 7, 1835, in Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, vol. 2, 35.
21. J. H. Buchner, The Moravians in Jamaica (London: Longman, Brown, 1854), 50–53.
22. Yacine Daddi Addoun and Paul Lovejoy, “Muhammad Kaba Saghanughu and the Muslim Community of Jamaica,” in Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 2004): 199–218.
23. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 136.
24. Ibid., 133.
25. Ibid., 133–34.
26. Ibid., 101.
27. He was a witness for the defense during the trial of the Africans who revolted on the Amistad.
28. Ralph Gurley, “Secretary’s Report,” African Repository (July 1837): 203.
29. Omar ibn Said, “The Life of Omar ibn Said, Written by Himself,” trans. Alay Alryyes, in Alryyes, ed., A Muslim American Slave, 51.
30. Austin, African Muslims, 41.
31. Charles Colcock Jones, The Religious Instruction of the Negroes in the Southern States (Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1847), 51.
32. Joseph Sturge and Thomas Harvey, The West Indies in 1837 (1838; reprint, London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968), 287–88.
33. Harrison Hough, “Grégoire’s Sketch of Angelo Solimann,” Journal of Negro History 4, 3 (July 1919): 288.
34. Baron Roger, Kélédor, histoire africaine (Paris: Nepveu, 1828), 266.
35. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 135–36.
36. Ivor Wilks, “Abu Bakr al-Siddiq of Timbuktu,” in Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip Curtin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 163–64n.
37. Roger, Kélédor, 136.
38. Douglas Grant, The Fortunate Slave (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 82.
39. Charles C. Sellers, “Charles Willson Peale and Yarrow Mamout,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 71, 2 (April 1947): 99–102.
40. Joseph Le Conte, Autobiography (New York: D. Appleton, 1903), 29–30.
41. Charles Ball, Fifty Years in Chains (1837; reprint, New York: Dover, 1970), 167.
42. WPA, Drums and Shadows, 121.
43. Ibid., 76.
44. Ibid., 141.
45. Ibid., 144.
46. Parrish, Slave Songs, 28.
47. Manoel Querino, Costumes africanos no Brasil (1938; reprint, São Paulo: Editora Massangana, 1988), 66.
48. Abd al-Rahman al-Baghdadi, The Amusement of the Foreigner, trans. Yacine Daddi Addoun and Renée Soulodre-La France, 11, 16, 22, http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/shadd/baghdadi.pdf (accessed 10/9/2012).
49. Ball, Fifty Years in Chains, 22.
50. WPA, Drums and Shadows, 179.
51. Ibid., 161. “Hakabara” is a deformation of akbar (“great” in Arabic). The complete sentence must have been Allahu akbar Muhammadu rasul-ullah—“God is Great and Muhammad is his Messenger.”
52. Ibid., 166.
53. Ibid., 165.
54. Gilberto Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 317.
55. Arthur Ramos, As culturas negras no novo mundo (1937; reprint, São Paulo: Companhia Editorial Nacional, 1979), 221
56. WPA, Drums and Shadows, 162, 194.
57. Melville Herskovits and Frances Herskovits, Trinidad Village (New York: A. Knopf, 1947), 88, 152.
58. WPA, Drums and Shadows, 162.
59. Ibid., 167.
60. Médéric Louis Elie Moreau de Saint Mery, Voyage aux Etats-Unis de l’Amérique (1798; reprint, New York: Doubleday, 1947), 307.
61. William Brown Hodgson, Notes on Northern Africa, the Sahara and the Soudan (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1844), 69.
62. William Plumer, “Meroh, a Native African,” New York Observer, January 8, 1863, 1.
63. J. H. Buchner, The Moravians in Jamaica (London: Longman, Brown, 1854), 51.
64. Raymundo Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos no Brasil (1932; reprint, São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1976), 63.
65. Roger Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil: Towards a Sociology of the Interpenetration of Civilizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 105.
66. Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos, 60.
67. al-Bagdadi, Amusement of the Foreigner, 17.
68. Querino, Costumes africanos, 71.
69. Francis de Castelnau, Renseignements sur l’Afrique Centrale (Paris: Chez P. Bertrand, 1851), 46.
70. Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos, 63.
71. Parrish, Slave Songs, 54.
72. Lorenzo Dow Turner, Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect (1949; reprint, New York: Arno Press / New York Times, 1969), 202.
1. Daniel Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991); Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Norton, 1974).
2. Gabriel Debien, De l’Afrique à Saint Domingue. Notes d’Histoire coloniale, nos. 221/222 (1982): 20.
3. Lorenzo Dow Turner, Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect (1949; reprint, New York: Arno Press / New York Times, 1969).
4. Jaime Borja, “Barbarización y redes de indoctrinamiento en los negros cartageno XVII y XVIII,” in Contribución africana a la cultura de las Americas (Bogota: Instituto Colombiano de Antroplogía Colcutura, 1993), 249.
5. George Gardner, Travels in the Interior of Brazil, 1836–1841 (1849; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1970), 20.
6. Charles Ball, Fifty Years in Chains (1837; reprint, New York: Dover, 1970), 108–9.
7. Colonel Malenfant, Des colonies et particulièrement de celle de Saint Domingue (Paris: Audibert, 1814), 232.
8. James Alexander, Transatlantic Sketches (Philadelphia: Key & Biddle, 1833), vol. 1, 118.
9. Quoted in Vincent Monteil, L’islam noir (1964; reprint, Paris: Le Seuil, 1980), 359.
10. Mervyn Hiskett, The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usuman Dan Fodio (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 48.
11. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 231.
12. Works Progress Administration (WPA), Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 162.
13. Ibid., 180.
14. Georgia Bryan Conrad, “Reminiscences of a Southern Woman,” Southern Workman (May 1901): 252.
15. WPA, Drums and Shadows, 179.
16. Ibid., 181.
17. George Callcott, “Omar ibn Seid, a Slave Who Wrote an Autobiography in Arabic,” Journal of Negro History 39, 1 (January 1954): 62.
18. Wandalina Velez Rodrigues, El Turbante bianco: Muertos, santos y vivos en la lucha politica (Santo Domingo: Museo del Hombre Dominicano, 1982).
19. Harrison Hough, “Grégoire’s Sketch of Angelo Solimann,” Journal of Negro History 4, 3 (July 1919): 289.
20. Arthur Ramos, O negro brasileiro (São Paulo: Companhia Editorial Nacional, 1940), 84.
21. Carl Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath and the Free Mandingos in Trinidad: The Question of Their Repatriation to Africa 1831–38,” Journal of African Studies 2, 4 (1975–1976): 467.
22. George Truman, John Jackson, and Thos. B. Longstreth, Narrative of a Visit to the West Indies, in 1840 and 1841 (Philadelphia: Merrihew & Thompson, 1844), 108.
23. Charles William Day, Five Years’ Residence in the West Indies (London: Colburn, 1852), vol. 1, 313.
24. Thomas Bluett, Some Memoirs of the Life of Job, the Son of Solomon, the High Priest of Boonda in Africa (London: Richard Ford, 1736), 50–51.
25. Ibid., 53.
26. Fernando Ortiz, La fiesta afro-cubana del “dia de reyes” (Havana: Imprenta El Siglo XX, 1925), 6.
27. Newbell Puckett, Folk Beliefs of the Southern Negroes (1926; reprint, New York: Negro Universities Press, 1975), 203.
28. Melville Herskovits and Frances Herskovits, Trinidad Village (New York: A. Knopf, 1947), 27.
29. Professor and Mrs. Louis Agassiz, A Journey in Brazil (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1868), 83.
30. Gilberto Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 319.
31. João Jose Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 79.
32. Ibid., 84.
33. Gaspard Mollien, L’Afrique occidentale en 1818 (1820; reprint, Paris: Calman Levy, 1967), 145.
34. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 105.
35. Ibid., 214.
36. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 107.
37. Puckett, Folk Beliefs, 314.
38. WPA, Drums and Shadows, 179.
39. Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia de todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1968), 328.
40. Manoel Querino, Costumes africanos no Brasil (1938; reprint, São Paulo: Editora Massangana, 1988), 66.
41. White, “Slave Clothing,” 179–80.
42. Gazette of the State of Georgia, December 8, 1791.
43. Terry Alford, Prince among Slaves: The True Story of an African Prince Sold into Slavery in the American South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 78.
44. Jean Fouchard, Les marrons de la liberté (Paris: Editions L’École, 1972), passim.
45. Reis, Slave Rebellion, passim; Paul Lovejoy, “Background to Rebellion: The Origins of Muslim Slaves in Bahia,” Slavery and Abolition 15, 2 (August 1994): 176–80.
46. Donald Wood, Trinidad in Transition: The Years after Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), passim; Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath,” passim.
47. Richard Madden, A Twelve Months’ Residence in the West Indies (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1835), passim.
48. See Louisiana Historical Quarterly 8, 4 (October 1925): 628–31; 18, 1 (January 1935): 162; 18, 2 (April 1935): 297–330; 19, 2 (April 1936): 471–78.
49. WPA, Drums and Shadows, passim; Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), passim.
50. Newbell Puckett, Black Names in America: Origins and Usage (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1975).
51. John Inscoe, “Carolina Slave Names: An Index to Acculturation,” Journal of Southern History 49, 1 (February 1983): 533.
52. Turner, Africanisms, 40.
53. Alford, Prince among Slaves, 78.
54. WPA, Drums and Shadows.
55. Charles S. Wylly, The Seed That Was Sown in the Colony of Georgia (New York: Neale, 1910), 53.
56. Ray Crook, “Bilali—The Old Man of Sapelo Island: Between Africa and Georgia,” Wadabagei 10, 2 (Spring–Summer 2007): 40–57.
57. Lydia Parrish, Slave Songs of the Georgia Sea Island (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 26–27.
58. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, VIN 83027, http://www.slavevoyages.org (accessed 10/11/12).
59. 1870 Federal Census, Sapelo, McIntosh, Georgia, 226–30.
60. WPA, Drums and Shadows, 166.
61. For some family history, see Cornelia Walker Bailey with Christena Bledsoe, God, Dr. Buzzard, and the Bolito Man (New York: Anchor Books, 2000). Ms. Bailey is a descendant of Bilali through Hester.
62. R. Montgomery Martin, History of the British Colonies (London: Cochrane & M’Crone, 1834), vol. 2, 411.
63. William Brown Hodgson, Notes on Northern Africa, the Sahara and the Soudan (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1844), 69.
64. Bluett, Some Memoirs, 21.
65. Charles C. Sellers, “Charles Willson Peale and Yarrow Mamout,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 7, 2 (April 1947): 101.
66. Cyrus Griffin, “The Unfortunate Moor,” African Repository (February 1828): 365.
67. Carlton Robert Ottley, Slavery Days in Trinidad: A Social History of the Island from 1797–1838 (Port of Spain: Ottley, 1974), 59.
68. Charles Colcock Jones, The Religious Instruction of the Negroes in the Southern States (Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1847), 138.
69. Edward Teas, “A Trading Trip to Natchez and New Orleans in 1822: Diary of Thomas Teas,” Journal of Southern History 7 (August 1941): 388.
70. Gabriel Debien, Les esclaves aux Antilles françaises XVIIe–XVIIIe siècles (Pointe-à-Pitre: Société d’Histoire de la Guadeloupe, 1974), 173.
71. Alford, Prince among Slaves, 59.
72. Bluett, Some Memoirs, 26.
73. Ibid.
74. Frances Anne Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgia Plantation (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1864), 278
75. Gomez, “Muslims in Early America,” 698.
76. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 108.
77. Querino, Costumes africanos, 70.
78. Ibid.
79. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 110.
80. Esteban Montejo, The Autobiography of a Runaway Slave, ed. Miguel Barnet (New York: Pantheon, 1968), 38.
81. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 110.
82. Ball, Fifty Years in Chains, 21.
83. Carlton Robert Ottley, Slavery Days in Trinidad: A Social History of the Island from 1797–1838 (Port of Spain: Ottley, 1974), 58–59.
84. Austin, African Muslims, 268.
85. Conrad, “Reminiscences,” 252.
86. Roger Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil: Towards a Sociology of the Interpenetration of Civilizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 146.
87. Gomez, “Muslims in Early America,” 701.
88. Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims and West African Pluralism (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), 20.
89. Mungo Park, Travel in the Interior districts of Africa, Performed in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1816–1817), vol. 1, 479.
90. Nicholas Owen, Journal of a Slave Dealer: A view of some remarkable Axcedents in the life of Nicholas Owen 1746–1757 (reprint, New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 71.
91. Ball, Fifty Years in Chains, 219.
92. Agassiz, Journey in Brazil, 85.
93. Verger, Flux et reflux, 328.
94. John Matthews, A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone in the Years 1785, 1786, 1787 (London: B. White, 1791), 96.
95. Alford, Prince among Slaves, 103.
96. Truman, Jackson, and Longstreth, Narrative of a Visit, 108.
97. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 140.
98. Alford, Prince among Slaves, 80.
99. Curtis Carroll Davis, Chronicler of the Cavaliers: A Life of the Virginia Novelist Dr. William A. Caruthers (Richmond: Dietz Press, 1953), 344.
100. Charles Lyell, A Second Visit to the United States (London: John Murray, 1849), 359.
101. Dr. Collins, Practical Rules for the Management and Medical Treatment of Negro Slaves, in the Sugar Colonies (1811; reprint, Freeport: Books for Library Presses, 1971), 36.
102. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 98.
103. Gardner, Travels in the Interior, 20.
104. Cyrus Griffin, “Prince the Moor,” Southern Galaxy, June 5, 1828.
105. Austin, African Muslims, 474.
106. Ibid., 473.
107. Marina Wikramanayake, A World in Shadow: The Free Blacks in Antebellum South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1973), 20–21.
108. Paul Barringer, The Natural Bent (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1949), 12.
109. Roger Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil: Towards a Sociology of the Interpenetration of Civilizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 153.
110. Etienne Ignace, “La secte musulmane des Malés du Brésil et leur révolte en 1835,” Anthropos 4, 1 (January 1909): 100.
111. Freyre, Masters and Slaves, 298.
112. Georges Raeders, Le comte de Gobineau au Brésil (Paris: Les Editions Latines, 1934), 74.
113. Ibid., 75–76.
114. Theophilus Conneau, A Slaver’s Log Book or Twenty Years’ Residence in Africa (1854; reprint, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976), 88.
115. Clifton James, ed., Life and Labor on Argyle Island (Savannah: Beehive Press, 1978), 65.
116. Leslie Howard Owens, This Species of Property: Slave Life and Culture in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 122.
117. Emilia Viotti da Costa, Crowns of Glory, Tears of Blood: The Demerara Slave Rebellion of 1823 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 195.
118. Truman, Jackson, and Longstreth, Narrative of a Visit, 109.
119. Ibid., 110. For Mandingo and Muslim as interchangeable, see Sylviane A. Diouf, “Devils or Sorcerers, Muslims or Studs: Manding in the Americas,” in Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy and David V. Trotman (London: Continuum, 2003), 139–57.
120. For number of manumissions, see Barry W. Higman, Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 (Kingston, Jamaica: The Press, University of the West Indies, 1995), 691.
121. From memorial of Finlay and Hervey, in David V. Trotman and Paul E. Lovejoy, “Community of Believers: Trinidad Muslims and the Return to Africa, 1810–1850,” in Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 2004), 233.
122. Captain J. Washington, “Some Account of Mohammedu Sisei: A Mandingo of Nyani-Maru on the Gambia,” Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, no. 8 (1838): 450; Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath,” 474.
123. Truman, Jackson, and Longstreth, Narrative of a Visit, 111–12.
124. Andrew Halliday, The West Indies (London: J. W. Parker, 1837), 321.
125. James Fletcher and D. W. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians, Portrayed in Historical and Descriptive Sketches (Boston: Little, Brown, 1866), 135.
126. Raeders, Le comte de Gobineau, 75.
127. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 132–33.
128. Ibid., 131.
1. Michael Johnson, “Runaway Slaves and the Slave Communities in South Carolina, 1799 to 1830,” William and Mary Quarterly 38, 3 (July 1981): 437.
2. Gilberto Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 299.
3. Thomas Ewbank, Life in Brazil, or the Land of the Cocoa and the Palm (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1856), 439.
4. Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves, 299.
5. Theodore Dwight, “Condition and Character of Negroes in Africa.” in The People of Africa: A Series of Papers on their Character, Condition, and Future Prospects, ed. Henry Schieffelin (New York: A. D. F. Randolph, 1871), 49.
6. Rev. A. E. Renouard, “Routes in North Africa,” Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 6 (1836): 109.
7. Richard Robert Madden, A Twelve Months’ Residence in the West Indies (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1835), 125.
8. Bryan Edwards, The History, Civil and Commercial of the British Colonies in the West Indies (Philadelphia: James Humphreys, 1806), vol. 2, 265.
9. Cynric R. Williams, A Tour through the Island of Jamaica from the Western to the Eastern End, in the Year 1823 (London: Hunt and Clarke, 1826), 31.
10. Francis de Castelnau, Renseignements sur l’Afrique Centrale (Paris: Chez P. Bertrand, 1851), 9.
11. João Jose Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 98.
12. William Brown Hodgson, Notes on Northern Africa, the Sahara and the Soudan (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1844), 69.
13. “Autobiography of Omar ibn Said, Slave in North Carolina, 1831,” American Historical Review 30 (October 1924–July 1925): 792.
14. Yacine Daddi Addoun and Paul Lovejoy, “Muhammad Kaba Saghanughu and the Muslim Community of Jamaica,” in Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 2004), 199–218.
15. Terry Alford, Prince among Slaves: The True Story of an African Prince Sold into Slavery in the American South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 57.
16. Janet Duitsman Cornelius, When I Can Read My Title Clear: Literacy, Slavery and Religion in the Antebellum South (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992), 72.
17. Alford, Prince among Slaves, 89.
18. Jean Fouchard, Les marrons de la liberté (Paris: Editions L’École, 1972), 142.
19. Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, Performed in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1816–1817), vol. 1, 467–68.
20. Alford, Prince among Slaves, 103.
21. William Plumer, “Meroh, a Native African,” New York Observer, January 8, 1863, 1.
22. Ralph Gurley, “Secretary’s Report,” African Repository (July 1937): 203.
23. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 133–34.
24. Abd al-Rahman al-Baghdadi, The Amusement of the Foreigner, trans. Yacine Daddi Addoun and Renée Soulodre-La France, 29, http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/shadd/baghdadi.pdf (accessed 10/9/2012).
25. Georges Raeders, Le comte de Gobineau au Brésil (Paris: Les Nouvelles Editions Latines, 1934), 75.
26. Gilberto Freyre, Brazil: An Interpretation (New York: A. Knopf, 1945), 95.
27. Edward Bean Underhill, The West Indies (London: Jackson, Walford and Hodder, 1862), 46.
28. Carl Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath and the Free Mandingos in Trinidad: The Question of Their Repatriation to Africa 1831–38,” Journal of African Studies 2, 4 (1975–1976): 467, 471.
29. Hodgson, Notes on Northern Africa, 69.
30. Works Progress Administration (WPA), Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 179.
31. Lydia Parrish, Slave Songs of the Georgia Sea Islands (1942; reprint, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 28.
32. Harry Johnston, The Negro in the New World (1910; reprint, New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1969), 94–95.
33. Vincent Monteil, L’Islam noir (1964; reprint, Paris: Le Seuil, 1980), 343n.
34. John Oliver Killens, ed., The Trial Record of Denmark Vesey (1822; reprint, Boston: Beacon, 1970), 11.
35. Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Norton, 1974), 178.
36. B. G. Martin, “Sapelo Island’s Arabic Document: The ‘Bilali Diary’ in Context,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 78, 3 (Fall 1994): 589–601.
37. Sylviane A. Diouf, “The Last Resort: Redeeming Family and Friends,” in Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies, ed. Sylviane A. Diouf (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003), 95.
38. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).
39. Killens, ed., Trial Record, 70–71.
40. John Gabriel Stedman, Narrative of a Five Years’ Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (London: J. Johnson, 1806), vol. 2, 271.
41. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 99.
42. Thomas Bluett, Some Memoirs of the Life of Job, the Son of Solomon, the High Priest of Boonda in Africa (London: Richard Ford, 1736), 48.
43. Maureen Warner Lewis, Trinidad Yoruba: From Mother Tongue to Memory (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996), 27.
44. Raymundo Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos no Brasil (1932; reprint, São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1976), 56.
45. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 104–5.
46. Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia de todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1968), 340.
47. Vincent Monteil, “Analyse des 25 documents arabes des Malês de Bahia (1835).” Bulletin de l’IFAN 29, 1–2 (1967): 88–98; Rolf Reichert, Os documentos arabes do Arquivo do Estado da Bahia (Bahia: Universidade Federal da Bahia, Centro de Estudos Afro-Orientais, 1970).
48. Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos, 60.
49. Reichert, Os documentos arabes.
50. Roger Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil: Towards a Sociology of the Interpenetration of Civilizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 103.
51. Richard Jobson, The Golden Trade (1623; reprint, Devonshire: E. Speight and Walpole, 1904), 94.
52. Dwight, “Condition and Character,” 51; Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 99.
53. Edward Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race (1887; reprint, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967), 178.
54. George W. Ellis, “Islam as a factor in West African Culture.” Journal of Race Development 2, 2 (October 1911): 114.
55. Raeders, Le comte de Gobineau, 75.
56. Mary Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro 1808–1850 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), 285.
57. Blyden, Christianity, 178.
58. Maximilien Radiguet, Souvenirs de l’Amérique espagnole: Chili, Pérou, Brésil (Paris: M. Levy, 1874), 138.
59. Cornelius, When I Can Read, 7–9.
60. Ibid., 3.
61. Verger, Flux et reflux, 328.
62. William Caruthers, The Kentuckian in New York (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1834), 147.
63. Edward Teas, “A Trading Trip to Natchez and New Orleans in 1822: Diary of Thomas Teas,” Journal of Southern History 7 (August 1941): 387.
64. Colonel Malenfant, Des colonies et particulièrement de celle de Saint Domingue (Paris: Audibert, 1814), 212–13.
65. Joseph Sturge and Thomas Harvey, The West Indies in 1837 (1838; reprint, London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968), 287. Yalla is the name given to God by the Senegalese. One may speculate that Yallah’s Bay means “God’s bay.”
66. John Stewart, View of the Island of Jamaica (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1823), 251.
67. William Brown Hodgson, The Gospels written in the negro patois of English with Arabic characters by a Mandingo Slave in Georgia (American Ethnological Society, October 13, 1857).
68. Edward Bean Underhill, The West Indies (London: Jackson, Walford and Hodder, 1862), 46.
69. Reichert, Os documentos arabes, n.p.
70. Hodgson, Gospels, 9.
71. Joseph Greenberg, “The Decipherment of the ‘Ben-Ali Diary’: A Preliminary Statement,” Journal of Negro History 25, 3 (July 1940): 372–75.
72. Hodgson, Gospels, 9.
73. Marion Wilson Starling, The Slave Narrative: Its Place in American History (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1988), 311.
74. Jobson, Golden Trade, 63.
75. Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos, 60.
76. Joseph Dupuis, Journal of a Residence in Ashantee (London: Henry Colburn, 1824), 142.
77. Thomas Edward Bowdich, Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee (London: John Murray, 1819), 272.
78. Antoine Le Page du Pratz, Histoire de la Louisiane, 3 vols. (Paris, 1758), vol. 1, 334.
79. Sylviane A. Diouf, “Devils or Sorcerers, Muslims or Studs: Manding in the Americas,” in Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy and David V. Trotman (London: Continuum, 2003), 139–57.
80. Nicholas Owen, Journal of a Slave Dealer: A view of some remarkable Axcedents in the life of Nicholas Owen, 1746–1757 (reprint, New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 95.
81. Charles William Day, Five Years’ Residence in the West Indies (London: Colburn, 1852), vol. 1, 275.
82. Laura Porteous, “The Gri-gri Case,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly 17, 1 (January 1934): 48–63.
83. Malenfant, Des colonies, 211.
84. Bastide, African Religions of Brazil, 103.
85. Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos, 59.
86. Ibid., 41.
87. George Gardner, Travels in the Interior of Brazil, 1836–1841 (1849; reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1970), 20.
88. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 89.
89. Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos, 60.
90. Ibid.
91. Ibid.
92. Bastide, African Religions of Brazil, 120.
93. See João José Reis, Rebelião escrava no Brasil: A história do levante dos malês em 1835 (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2003), 197–205; Nikolay Dobronravin, “Literacy among Muslims in Nineteenth-Century Trinidad and Brazil,” in Slavery, Islam and Diaspora, ed. Behnaz A. Mirzai, Ismael Musah Montana, and Paul E. Lovejoy (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 2009), 230–31.
94. See Reis, Rebelião escrava no Brasil, 200–205.
95. Dobronravin, “Literacy among Muslims,” 217–36.
96. James Rodway, History of British Guiana, from the year 1668 to the present time, 3 vols. (Georgetown: J. Thompson, 1891–1894), vol. 2, 297.
97. Plumer, “Meroh,” 1.
98. Ibid.
99. Bluett, Some Memoirs, 23.
100. Carl Bernhard Wadstrom, An Essay on Colonization, particularly applied to the Western Coast of Africa (London: Darton & Harvey, 1794), part 2, 114.
101. John Blassingame, ed., Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996), 314–15.
102. Frank Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany (1883; reprint, New York: Arno Press / New York Times, 1969), 16–18.
103. Slavery was officially abolished in the British colonies in 1834, a four-year period followed during which the former slaves became “apprentices.” The effective date of Emancipation is therefore August 1, 1838.
104. Carlton Robert Ottley, Slavery Days in Trinidad: A Social History of the Island from 1797–1838 (Port of Spain: Ottley, 1974), 58.
105. Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath,” 481.
106. Ibid., 485.
107. Madden, Twelve Months’ Residence, 136.
108. Ibid.
109. Ibid., 137.
110. Karasch, Slave Life, 219.
111. It is held at Trinity College in Dublin.
112. “The Humble Memorial of Philip Finlay & Jackson Hervey Natives of Africa,” in David V. Trotman and Paul E, Lovejoy, “Community of Believers: Trinidad Muslims and the Return to Africa, 1810–1850,” in Lovejoy, ed., Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam, 222.
113. Dobronravin, “Literacy among Muslims.”
114. This name is unusual. When Hausa need to differentiate between children who bear the same first name, they use the construction “Muhammadu dan Aishatu”—Muhammadu son of Aishatu—and the person is known as “dan Aishatu.”
115. Dobronravin, “Literacy among Muslims,” 222.
116. Addoun and Lovejoy, “Muhammad Kaba Saghanughu.” For original and translation, see Addoun and Lovejoy, “The Arabic Manuscript of Muhammad Kaba Saghanughu of Jamaica, c. 1823,” at http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/shadd/kaba/index.asp (accessed 10/9/2012).
117. Ivor Wilks, “The Transmission of Islamic Leaning in Western Sudan,” in Literacy in Traditional Societies, ed. Jack Goody (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 162–97.
118. Addoun and Lovejoy, “Arabic Manuscript,” translation of the original document, 19–26; Addoun and Lovejoy, “Muhammad Kaba Saghanughu,” 206.
119. The manuscript and the translation by Rev. Isaac Bird belong to the Omar ibn Said Foundation.
120. Bayoumi, “Moving Beliefs,” Interventions 5, 1 (2003): 65n.
121. African Origins, http://www.african-origins.org/ (accessed 10/9/2012).
122. Castelnau, Renseignements sur l’Afrique Centrale.
123. Bird translation of Sana See manuscript.
124. Maureen Warner Lewis, Guinea’s Other Suns: The African Dynamic in Trinidad Culture (Dover, Mass.: Majority, 1991), 14. Based on William A. Green, British Slave Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment, 1830–1865 (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1976), 285.
125. Bayoumi, “Moving Beliefs,” 69, 71.
126. Dobronravin, “Literacy among Muslims,” 327–28. Dobronravin states that the word a-shari na in the letter can be understood as “condolences” or “amulet.” But it can only be understood as “amulet.” People do not ask a marabout for “condolences”; the only request they make in these circumstances is for a talisman. The expression domin Allah domin Annabi shows how desperate the father was. It is used as an emphasis when someone is almost begging for something. Dobronravin gives the baby’s name as Fatsumata, but that name does not exist; it is Fatumata (Fatoumata, Fatou). Used throughout West Africa, it is the equivalent of Fatima, the name of a daughter of Muhammad and his first wife, Khadija.
127. Studholme Hodgson, Truths from the West Indies: Including a Sketch of Madeira in 1833 (London: William Ball, 1838), 358.
128. Bahama Argus, September 14 and 21, 1831, and October 29, 1831. See also Grace Turner, “In His Own Words: Abul Keli, a Liberated African Apprentice,” Journal of the Bahamas Historical Society 29 (October 2007): 27–31.
129. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, VIN 1213, http://www.slavevoyages.com (accessed 9/20/2012).
130. Bahama Argus, September 14, 1831.
131. Marion Wilson Starling, The Slave Narrative: Its Place in American History (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1988). These narratives comprise the WPA interviews, broadsides, oral histories, statements in court records, biographical sketches of runaways to Canada, and so on.
132. Omar ibn Said, “The Life of Omar ibn Said, Written by Himself,” trans. Alay Alryyes, in A Muslim American Slave: The Life of Omar ibn Said, ed. Ala Alryyes (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011), 61.
133. Madden, Twelve Month’s Residence, 126.
134. Nicholas Said, “A Native of Bornoo,” Atlantic Monthly 20 (October 1867): 485.
135. Dobronravin, “Literacy among Muslims,” 220..
136. Ala Alryyes, introduction to Alryyes, ed., A Muslim American Slave, 26.
137. Madden, Twelve Month’s Residence, 129.
138. “Documents,” Journal of Negro History 21, 1 (January 1936): 55.
139. Ivor Wilks, “Abu Bakr al-Siddiq of Timbuktu,” in Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip Curtin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 162.
140. Alryyes, introduction to Muslim American Slave, 18.
141. Ibid., 23.
142. Madden, Twelve Month’s Residence, 129.
143. Alryyes, introduction to Muslim American Slave, 25–26.
144. Dwight, “Condition and Character,” 48.
1. J. A. Saco, Historia de la esclavitud de la raza africana en el Nuevo Mundo (Havana, 1938), vol. 1, 65.
2. Françoise Mari, “À propos de la première révolte d’esclaves noirs au Nouveau Monde,” Bulletin de l’IFAN, no. 164 (October 1979): 90–98. Complete text of Fernandez de Oviedo’s description of the revolt published in 1549.
3. For this cédula and others, see Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Historia general de los hechos de los castellanos en las islas y tierra firme del mar océano (Madrid, 1726–27; reprint, 1934), vol. 1, 175; Rolando Mellafe, La introducción de la esclavitud negra en Chile (Santiago: Editorial Universitaria, 1984), 158; Max Portugal Ortiz, La esclavitud negra en las épocas colonial y nacional de Bolivia (La Paz: Instituto Boliviano de Cultura, 1977), 14–15.
4. Jean-Baptiste Dutertre, Histoire générale des Antilles habitées par les François, 2 vols. (1667; reprint, Saint-Pierre, Martinique: Durieu & Leyritz, 1868–1969), vol. 1, 467–68 and 502–3.
5. Frederick Rodriguez, “Cimarron Revolts and Pacification in New Spain and the Isthmus of Panama” (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1979), 151.
6. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 285–86; Jack D. Forbes, Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 186–89.
7. Carlos Melendez and Quince Duncan, El Negro en Costa Rica (San José: Editorial Costa Rica, 1972), 18.
8. Frederick Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru 1524–1650 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974), 251.
9. A. C. Saunders, A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal 1441–1555 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 161.
10. Horses were not indigenous to the Americas but were introduced by the Europeans. The presence of the tsetse fly in most of Africa limited the population of horses there to the Sahelian region, where the fly did not exist.
11. A horse was worth between six and fifteen slaves.
12. Jean Boulègue, Le grand Jolof XIIIe–XVIe siècle (Blois: Edition Façades, 1987), 72.
13. Thornton, Africa and Africans, 298.
14. Juan de Castellanos, Elegias de varones ilustres de Indias (Madrid: M. Rivadeneyra, 1847), 48.
15. Jean Mongin, “Lettre à personne de condition,” Bulletin d’histoire de la Guadeloupe (December 1984): 136.
16. Colonel Malenfant, Des colonies et particulièrement de celle de Saint Domingue (Paris: Audibert, 1814), 215.
17. Jean Fouchard, Les marrons de la liberté (Paris: Editions L’École, 1972), 405.
18. Ibid., 496.
19. Thomas Madiou, Histoire d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Editions Fardin, 1981), 35.
20. Mercure de France, September 15, 1787, 102–14; Washington Patrol, September 16, 1795; Carolyn E. Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press 1990), 60–63; Michael Gomez, Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 89.
21. Melvil Bloncourt, “La colonie française de Saint-Domingue avant la révolution: Episode du prophète Makandal,” Revue du monde colonial, asiatique et Américain 6, 3rd ser., 7, 12 (July 1864): 438–56.
22. “Mémoire sur la création d’un corps de gens de couleur levé à Saint-Domingue, 1779,” in Fouchard, Les marrons, 494–95.
23. Ibid., 495.
24. Ibid.
25. Jean Price-Mars, Ainsi parla l’oncle (Ottawa: Leméac, 1973).
26. John Matthews, A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone in the Years 1785, 1786, 1787 (London: B. White, 1791), 69.
27. In addition to Boukman, there was a woman who has been described as a mambo (voodoo priestess) at Bois-Caiman. Her name was Cecile Fatiman, and she later became the wife of a president of Haiti. Her mother was an African and her father a Corsican. It is possible that her second name was Fatima, like that of Muhammad’s favorite daughter, and she may have been born a Muslim.
28. Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Bénin et Bahia de todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1968), 329.
29. For details on the Muslim uprisings in Bahia, see João Jose Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); Etienne Ignace, “La secte musulmane des Malés du Brésil et leur révolte en 1835,” Anthropos 4, 1 (1909): 99–105; 4, 2: 405–15; Raymundo Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos no Brasil (1932; reprint, São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1976); Verger, Flux et reflux. This and following paragraphs are based on these sources.
30. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 140, 206. Pierre Verger’s figures (Flux et reflux, 340) are slightly different: 199 Nago, 25 Hausa, 9 Ewe, 6 Tapa, 7 Mina, 7 Congo/Angola, 3 native born; 160 enslaved and 126 free men.
31. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 81.
32. Ignace, “La secte musulmane,” 412.
33. Roger Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil: Towards a Sociology of the Interpenetration of Civilizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 104.
34. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 132.
35. Ibid., 217.
36. Manoel Querino, Costumes africanos no Brasil (1938; reprint, São Paulo: Editora Massangana, 1988), 72–73.
37. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 123.
38. João José Reis and Beatriz Gallotti Mamigonian, “Nagô and Mina: The Yoruba Diaspora in Brazil,” in The Yoruba Diaspora in the Atlantic World, ed. Toyin Falola and Matt D. Childs (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 77–110.
39. Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos, 38.
40. Bastide, African Religions of Brazil, 106.
41. Verger, Flux et reflux, 326–27.
42. Reis, Slave Rebellion, 90.
43. Ibid., 48.
44. Verger, Flux et reflux, 369.
45. Malenfant, Des colonies, 215.
46. Francis Moore, Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa (London: E. Cave, 1738), 204–5.
47. Ibid., 205–6.
48. Ibid., 207.
49. Ibid., 224.
50. Terry Alford, Prince among Slaves: The True Story of an African Prince Sold into Slavery in the American South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 120.
51. Cyrus Griffin, “The Unfortunate Moor,” African Repository (February 1828): 367.
52. “Abdul Rahahman, the Unfortunate Moor,” African Repository (October 1828): 246.
53. “Abduhl Rahhahman,” Freedom’s Journal, June 27, 1828.
54. Alford, Prince among Slaves, 111.
55. Richard Madden, A Twelve Months’ Residence in the West Indies (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1835), 132.
56. John Davidson, Notes Taken during Travels in Africa (London: J. L. Cox and Sons, 1839), 191.
57. Baron Roger, Kélédor, histoire africaine (Paris: Nepveu, 1828), 263–64.
58. Sylviane A. Diouf, “Devils or Sorcerers, Muslims or Studs: Manding in the Americas,” in Trans-Atlantic Dimension of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy and David V. Trotman (London: Continuum, 2003), 148–51.
59. It is common in West Africa to add the first name of the mother to a child’s name to differentiate him from another with the same first name.
60. Carlton Robert Ottley, Slavery Days in Trinidad: A Social History of the Island from 1797–1838 (Port of Spain: Ottley, 1974), 58.
61. Ibid., 59.
62. Carl Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath and the Free Mandingos in Trinidad: The Question of Their Repatriation to Africa 1831–38,” Journal of African Studies 2, 4 (1975–1976): 487–88.
63. From the Trinidad Free Press, July 9, 1852, in Donald Wood, Trinidad in Transition: The Years after Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 40.
64. Captain J. Washington, “Some Account of Mohammedu Sisei: A Mandingo of Nyani-Maru on the Gambia,” Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, no. 8 (1838): 449–54; Campbell, “John Mohammed Bath,” 483–84.
65. Studholme Hodgson, Truths from the West Indies: Including a Sketch of Madeira in 1833 (London: William Ball, 1838), 358.
66. Verger, Flux et reflux, 363.
67. For more details on the Brazilian repatriates, see ibid.
68. Ibid., 362.
69. James Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians, Portrayed in Historical and Descriptive Sketches (Boston: Little, Brown, 1866), 136, 607.
70. Richard Rathbone, “The Gold Coast, the Closing of the Atlantic Slave Trade, and the Africans of the Diaspora,” in Slave Cultures and the Cultures of Slavery, ed. Stephan Palmie (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1995), 57.
71. Ibid.
72. John Duncan, Travels in Western Africa in 1845 and 1846, 2 vols. (London: R. Bentley, 1847), vol. 1, 185.
73. Elisée Reclus, Africa, 4 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1895–1898), vol. 3, 316.
74. Pierre Verger, “Influence du Brésil au Golfe du Bénin,” in Bulletin de l’IFAN, no. 27, special issue, Les afro-américains, ed. Pierre Verger (1952): 20.
75. Lorenzo Dow Turner, “Some Contacts of Brazilian Ex-Slaves with Nigeria, West Africa,” Journal of Negro History 27, 1 (January 1942): 65.
76. Michael J. Turner, “Les Brésiliens: The Impact of Former Brazilian Slaves upon Dahomey” (Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1975), 182–84.
1. Paul Lovejoy, “Background to Rebellion: The Origins of Muslim Slaves in Bahia,” Slavery and Abolition 15, 2 (August 1994): 161–62.
2. According to James H. Johnson, Yarrow Mamout had one son named Aquilla like his owner’s son. James H. Johnson, From Slave Ship to Harvard: Yarrow Mamout and the History of an African American Family (New York: Fordham University Press, 2012).
3. George Truman, John Jackson, and Thos. B. Longstreth, Narrative of a Visit to the West Indies, in 1840 and 1841 (Philadelphia: Merrihew & Thompson, 1844), 110.
4. Raymundo Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos no Brasil (1932; reprint, São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1976), 62.
5. Abd al-Rahman al-Baghdadi, The Amusement of the Foreigner, trans. Yacine Daddi Addoun and Renée Soulodre-La France, 29, http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/shadd/baghdadi.pdf (accessed 10/9/2012).
6. Charles Ball, Fifty Years in Chains (1837; reprint, New York: Dover, 1970), 165.
7. Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims and West African Pluralism (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1997), 20.
8. al-Baghdadi, Amusement of the Foreigner, 29.
9. Pierre Verger, Flux et reflux de la traite des nègres entre le Golfe de Benin and Bahia e todos os Santos du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1968), 520.
10. Michael Gomez, “Muslims in Early America,” Journal of Southern History 60, 4 (November 1994): 708.
11. Verger, Flux et reflux, 520.
12. Joseph Dupuis, Journal of a Residence in Ashantee (London: Henry Colburn, 1824), 163.
13. Mervyn Hiskett, “African Languages and Literatures.” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, ed. John Esposition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), vol. 1, 40–41.
14. Elisée Reclus, Africa (New York: D. Appleton, 1895–1898), vol. 3, 265.
15. Bernard Maupoil, La géomancie à l’ancienne Côte des Esclaves (1943; reprint, Paris: Institut d’Ethnologie, 1988).
16. Edison Carneiro, Negros Bantus (Rio de Janeiro: Civilizacao Brasileira, 1939), 37.
17. Arthur Ramos, O negro brasileiro (São Paulo: Companhia Editorial Nacional, 1940), 91.
18. Ibid., 89.
19. Ibid., 88–91.
20. Ibid., 75.
21. Ibid., 127.
22. Jesus Fuentes Guerra and Armin Schwegler, Lengua y ritos del palo monte mayombe (Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2005), 68, 70.
23. Wandalina Velez Rodrigues, El turbante blanco: Muertos, santos y vivos en la lucha politica (Santo Domingo: Museo del Hombre Dominicano, 1982).
24. Odette Rigaud, “Vodou haïtien: Quelques notes sur ses réminiscences africaines,” Bulletin de l’IFAN, no. 27 (1952): 236.
25. Leslie Desmangles, professor of Religion and International Studies at Trinity College, personal communication to the author, Hartford, Conn., April 14, 1997.
26. Odette Rigaud, “Le rôle du vaudou dans l’indépendance d’Haïti,” Présence afri-caine 18–19 (February–May 1958): 55.
27. In slavery times, “Congo” referred to Bakongo, the people, and not to Congo the country.
28. Melville Herskovits and Frances Herskovits, Trinidad Village (New York: A. Knopf, 1947).
29. Maureen Warner Lewis, Guinea’s Other Suns: The African Dynamic in Trinidad Culture (Dover, Mass.: Majority, 1991), 69, 116.
30. Pierre Anglade, Inventaire éthymologique des termes créoles des Caraïbes d’origine africaine (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1998), 78; Benjamin Nunez, Dictionary of Afro-Latin American Civilization (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1980), 426, 427, 429.
31. Lewis, Guinea’s Other Suns, 32; Herskovits and Herskovits, Trinidad Village, 87–91.
32. George Eaton Simpson, Black Religions in the New World (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 102–3.
33. Robert Clarke, Sierra Leone: A Description of the Manners and Customs of the Liberated Africans (London: James Ridgway, 1846), 169, 170, 176.
34. Lorenzo Dow Turner, Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect (1949; reprint, New York: Arno Press / New York Times, 1969), 200.
35. Lorna McDaniel, The Big Drum Ritual of Carriacou: Praisesongs in Rememory of Flight (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998), 47.
36. Lamin Sanneh, The Jakhanke Muslim Clerics (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1989), 207.
37. Ramos, O negro brasileiro, 92–97.
38. Works Progress Administration (WPA), Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 141, 145.
39. Ibid. 165, 174, 187.
40. Gomez, “Muslims in Early America,” 709.
41. Etienne Ignace, “Le fétichisme des nègres du Brésil,” Anthropos 3 (1908): 903.
42. Gilberto Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves (Berkeley: University of California, 1986), 316.
43. Mason Crum, Gullah: Negro Life in the Carolina Sea Islands (1940; reprint, New York: Negro Universities Press, 1968), 265.
44. Fernando Romero, Quimba, fa, malambo, neque: Afronegrismos en el Peru (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1988), 236.
45. Ibid., 188.
46. William Bascom, “Yoruba Acculturation in Cuba,” Bulletin de l’IFAN, no. 27 (1952): 166.
47. Maureen Warner Lewis, Trinidad Yoruba: From Mother Tongue to Memory (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996), 178.
48. J. D. Elder, “The Yoruba Ancestor Cult in Gasparillo,” Caribbean Quarterly 16, 3 (September 1970): 9.
49. Alan Lomax, The Land Where the Blues Began (New York: Bantam/Doubleday, 1993), 233.
50. George Washington Cable, “The Dance in Place Congo,” The Century 31, 4 (February 1886): 196.
51. Gerhard Kubik, Africa and the Blues (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1999).
52. Samuel Charters, The Roots of the Blues: An African Search (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1981), 125.
53. Paul Oliver, Savannah Syncopators: African Retentions in the Blues (New York: Stein and Day, 1970), 88.
54. Ibid., 186.
55. John Storm Roberts, Black Music of Two Worlds (New York: Praeger, 1972), 197.
56. Ibid., 213.
57. Lomax, Land Where Blues Began, 276.
58. Carl Bernhard Wadstrom, An Essay on Colonization, particularly applied to the Western Coast of Africa (London: Darton & Harvey, 1794), part 2, 83.
59. Frederick Law Olmsted, The Cotton Kingdom (New York: Mason Brothers, 1861), vol. 1, 214.
60. Paul Oliver, The Story of the Blues (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998), 18.
61. Kubik, Africa and the Blues, 203.
62. Frank Rollin, Life and Public Services of Martin R. Delany (1883; reprint, New York: Arno Press / New York Times, 1969), 16.
63. Dorothy Sterling, The Making of an Afro-American: Martin Robinson Delany 1812–1885 (New York: Doubleday, 1971), 2–3.
64. Ibid., 3.
65. Arthur Huff Fauset, Black Gods of the Metropolis: Negro Religious Cults in the Urban North (1944; reprint, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971); Albert Raboteau, “Muslim Movements,” in The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987).
66. Clegg, An Original Man, passim; Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982).
67. Cornelia Walker Bailey with Christena Bledsoe, God, Dr. Buzzard, and the Bolito Man (New York: Anchor Books, 2000), 289.
68. Mrs. McLeod, personal communication to the author, 6/5/1999.