NOTES

Introduction. The Legacy and Human Cost of Slavery

1. Atlanta Journal, May 20, 1918.

2. Walter White, “Memorandum for Governor Dorsey from Walter F. White Submitted in Person July 10, 1918,” Papers of the NAACP, group 1, series C, box 353, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Hampton Smith, who had a reputation as being particularly violent toward his workers, which included Mary’s husband, Hayes Turner, was shot in his home. His wife, who was also pregnant, was probably unintentionally injured, but both baby and mother survived, as her injuries were reportedly not serious. Governor Dorsey, defending the mob’s actions, claimed that the “unspeakable outrages . . . committed by members of your race” were responsible for the lynching. Yet he knew that the perpetrator, Sidney Johnson, acknowledged that he had acted alone in the crime of murdering the white farmer Hampton Smith because Smith had physically abused Johnson a few days earlier. Johnson’s entire family, his mother, father, and all other relatives, were put in jail for their own protection, “owing to the increased feeling among the people” (Atlanta Journal, May 20, 1918).

3. Howard Thurman, The Luminous Darkness (Richmond, Ind.: Friends United, 1999), 48.

4. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1997), 25-28, 93.

5. Claude A. Clegg, The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 21.

6. See Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975).

7. John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), introduction and chap. 1.

8. Unlimited warfare and wars of extermination or extirpation all signify the same action in the seventeenth through the twentieth century, and I use these terms interchangeably throughout the manuscript. Carl von Clausewitz’s classic work On War, published in 1832, was the first to discuss the use of unlimited war as a military concept.

9. See Nell Irvin Painter, “Soul Murder and Slavery: Toward a Fully Loaded Cost Accounting,” in Southern History across the Color Line (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 6.

10. A former slave notes that “we had to stand in fear of them, we had no protection.” “Kicked Around Like a Mule,” in Unwritten History of Slavery: Autobiographical Accounts of Negro Ex-Slaves, ed. Ophelia Settle Egypt, J. Masuoka, and Charles S. Johnson (Nashville: Fisk University Press, 1968), 49.

11. Thurman, Luminous Darkness, 25–26.

12. Howard Thurman, Jesus and the Disinherited (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 37–39.

13. Michelle Balaev, “Trends in Literary Trauma Theory,” Mosaic (Winnipeg) 41, no. 2 (June 2008): 2-3.

14. Aaron R. Denham, “Rethinking Historical Trauma: Narratives of Resilience,” Transcultural Psychiatry 45, no. 3 (2008): 392.

15. Julius Sherrard Scott, “The Common Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication in the Era of the Haitian Revolution” (PhD diss., Duke University, 1986).

16. George M. Frederickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1971), 4-24.

17. Robert H. Abzug, “The Influence of Garrisonian Abolitionists’ Fears of Slave Violence on the Antislavery Argument, 1829–40,” Journal of Negro History 55, no. 1 (January 1970): 15–26.

18. Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 183, 199, 214, 10.

19. Leon Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Vintage, 1998), 202–216, 15, 38, 210–214, 374, 420, 424–425.

20. Gregory J. W. Urwin, “’We Cannot Treat Negroes . . . as Prisoners of War’: Racial Atrocities and Reprisals in Civil War Arkansas,” in Black Flag over Dixie: Racial Atrocities and Reprisals in the Civil War, ed. Gregory J. W. Urwin (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004), 140, 146.

21. Chandra Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery, and the Civil War (New York: Vintage Books, 2007), 38, 174.

22. François Furstenberg, “Beyond Freedom and Slavery: Autonomy, Virtue, and Resistance in Early American Political Discourse,” Journal of American History 89, no. 4 (March 2003): 2-5, 9-12, 15-19, http://www.hist0ryc00perative.0rg/j0urnals/jah/89.4/furstenberg.html.

23. Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), xxvii.

24. Catherine A. Reinhardt, Claims to Memory: French Caribbean Slavery during the Enlightenment (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 8.

25. Trouillot, Silencing, 73.

26. Abbé de Raynal, Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies (1770), and Marie Jean Condorcet, Reflections on Negro Slavery (1781), both in The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History, ed. and trans. Lynn Hunt (Boston: Bedford / St. Martin’s Press, 1996).

27. Raynal, Philosophical and Political History, 54–55.

28. Condorcet, Reflections, 56–57.

29. John Phillip, Researches in South Africa: Illustrating the Civil, Moral, and Religious Condition of the Progress of the Christian Missions, Exhibiting the Influence of Christianity in Promoting Civilization, 2 vols. (London, 1828; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 1:32–33; Sir Charles Lyell, Esq., Principles of Geology (London, 1832; repr., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 2:14, 156; James Prichard, The Natural History of Man: Comprising Inquiries into the Modifying Influences of Physical and Moral Agencies on the Different Tribes of the Human Family (London: Hippolyte Bailliere, 1848), 5–7; Robert Knox, The Races of Men: A Fragment (London: Henry Renshaw, 1850), 466–467, 229.

30. Sir Charles Lyell, A Second Visit to the United States in the Years 1845–6 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1849), 2:40.

31. U. B. Phillips, American Negro Slavery (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1918), 230–231; “The Slave Labor Problem in the Charleston District,” Political Science Quarterly 22, no. 3 (September 1907): 421, 437.

32. Phillips, American Negro Slavery, 230–231; Phillips, “Slave Labor Problem,” 421, 437.

33. Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Vintage, 1976).

34. I have received a number of questions about paternalism at conferences where Genovese’s ideas about reciprocity have been used to explain why black extermination would never have happened.

35. Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

36. See Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-bellum South (New York: Knopf, 1956); Stanley Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959); Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll; Gaines Foster, “Guilt over Slavery: A Historiographical Analysis,” Journal of Southern History 56, no. 4 (November 1990): 665.

Chapter 1. “Nits Make Lice”

1. See Jean Andreau and Raymond Descat, Slavery in Greece and Rome, trans. Marion Leopold (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011).

2. The English philosopher John Locke wrote in his Two Treatises of Government that slavery was a particularly contentious state in which the bodies of those enslaved were disposable at will. Locke notes that freedom allows us to protect ourselves from those who would do us harm. Slavery, because of the natural desire for freedom, Locke argued, was “nothing else, but the State of War continued, between lawful Conqueror, and Captive” (1698; repr., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), 296–297, 302. It seems that the Romans understood this and incorporated into their system of slavery a safety valve called peculium, which allowed those enslaved to work toward manumission. The hope of freedom helped motivate slaves and made slavery tolerable. See Andreau and Descat, Slavery in Greece and Rome, 82–84, 87–88, 94.

3. Increase Mather, A Discourse Concerning the Grace of Courage, where in The Nature, Beneficialness, and Necessities of that Vertue for all Christians, is described. Delivered in a Sermon Preached at Boston in New-England. June 5th. 1710 (Corn Hill: Brick Shop, 1710), 39, http://name.umdl.umich.edu/N01237.0001.001.

4. “Kicked Around Like a Mule,” in Unwritten History of Slavery: Autobiographical Accounts of Negro Ex-Slaves, ed. Ophelia Settle Egypt, J. Masuoka, and Charles S. Johnson (Nashville: Fisk University Press, 1968), 49.

5. Barbara Donagan, War in England, 1642–1649 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). Donagan argues that the atrocities committed across Europe during the Thirty Years’ War were prelude to the subsequent Irish massacres, contradicting previously held standards of English warfare that protected civilians. See also Wayne E. Lee, “Early American Ways of War: A New Reconnaissance, 1600–1815,” Historical Journal 44, no. 1 (March 2001): 269–289; Alden T. Vaughan, “’Expulsion of the Savages’: English Policy and the Virginia Massacre of 1622,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 35, no. 1 (January 1978): 57–84; Gary B. Nash, “The Image of the Indian in the Southern Colonial Mind,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 29, no. 2 (April 1972): 198–230; Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975); Nicholas P. Canny, “The Ideology of English Colonization: From Ireland to America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 30, no. 4 (October 1973): 575–598.

6. The Desmond Rebellions were fought by the followers of the FitzGeralds of Desmond against the English in Munster, Ireland, from 1569 to 1573 and then again from 1579 to 1583. See Thomas Churchyard, A General Rehearsal of Warres, called Churchyardes choise (London, 1579), 72–75, QI-RI, http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:8316:72.

7. Paul E. J. Hammer, Elizabeth’s Wars: War, Government and Society in Tudor England, 1544–1604 (New York: Palgrave, 2003), 77, 109; David Quinn, The Voyages and Colonizing Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert (London: Hakluyt Society, 1940), 1:188–194. Others who rationalized and practiced extermination as effective war tactics were Edward Barkley, Walter Devereux, the 1st Earl of Essex, Sir John Norris, and Sir Peter Carew. See Canny, “Ideology of English Colonization,” 577–582.

8. Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters, from the Earliest Period to the Year 1616. Edited from MSS in the Library of the Royal Irish Academy and of the Trinity College Dublin with a Translation and Copious Notes (compiled 1632–1636), trans. John O’Donovan, Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition T100005E, M1573.8, p. 1665.

9. Canny, “Ideology of English Colonization,” 585–586; Donagan, War in England, 196–197, 202–204.

10. Canny, “Ideology of English Colonization,” 588–590, 593.

11. Annals of the Kingdom, M1574.4, p. 1678.

12. Ibid., M1577.14, p. 1696.

13. Donagan, War in England, 206.

14. For example, in retaliation and in order to “wreak his vengeance for the slaughter of his people . . . the Irish captain [Adare] slew one hundred and fifty women and children” (Annals of the Kingdom, M1581.15, p. 1759).

15. William Edward Hartpole Lecky, A History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, vol. 1 (London: Elibron, 2006), 82–83, 86–87.

16. Lecky, History, 102–103.

17. John Nalson, An Impartial Collection of the Great Affairs of State, from the Beginning of the Scotch Rebellion in the Year 1639 to the Murther of King Charles I (London: His Majesty’s Special Command, 1683), 2:vii.

18. Lecky, History, 85.

19. Mary Frances Cusack, An Illustrated History of Ireland from AD 400 to 1800 (1868), 491.

20. Charles II declared that the peace agreement with Ireland was no longer enforceable in 1650 (Cusack, Illustrated History, 489). See also Lecky, History, 104.

21. Patrick M. Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics among the New England Indians (Lanham, Md.: Madison, 1991), 75.

22. “Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s Patent, 11 June, 1578,” in The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (1598), ed. Richard Hakluyt, 7:17–23.

23. See “The Peticion Exhibited to His Majestie by the Lords Spirituall and Temporall and Comons in this present Parliament assembled concerning divers Rights and Liberties of the Subjects: with the Kings majesties Royall Aunswere thereunto in full Parliament” (1627), which was ratified by King Charles I in 1628, esp. secs. 3 and 4, http://www.constitution.org/eng/petright.htm.

24. Jennings, Invasion of America, 15, 45; Gary B. Nash, “The Image of the Indian in the Southern Colonial Mind,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 29, no. 2 (April 1972): 198–205; Canny, “Ideology of English Colonization,” 586–588.

25. Jennings, Invasion of America, 146.

26. Sir Richard Grenville and Sir Walter Raleigh also used the same brutal military tactics that they used in Ireland against Native Americans. See ibid., 5, 163–168; Nash, “Image,” 203–204, 206. Nash notes that most of the New World explorers had been involved in the English invasions in Ireland. See also Adam J. Hirsch, “The Collision of Military Cultures in Seventeenth-Century New England,” Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (March 1988): 1188.

27. William Symmonds, “Virginia: A Sermon Preached at White Church” (1609), Early English Books On Line, 2–4, http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:11682.

28. Robert Johnson, “Nova Brittannia offering most excellent fruites by Planting in Virginia: exciting all such as be well affected to further the same” (1609), Early English Books On line, 9–10, http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:177020.

29. Robert Gray, “Good Speed to Virginia” (1609), Early English Books On Line, 5–6, 9, http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2003&res_id=xri:eebo&rft_id=xri:eebo:image:6158. See also Joshua 6:21.

30. Jennings, Invasion of America, 5.

31. John Morgan Dederer, War in America to 1??5 before Yankee Doodle (New York: New York University Press, 1990), 21–22, 32, 175–176. Old Testament usage is prolific in Cromwell’s Soldier’s Bible (1643; London: Elliot Stock, 1895). It was reprinted and given to Union soldiers during the Civil War. See also Donagan, War in England, 20–21.

32. John E. Ferling, A Wilderness of Miseries: War andWarriors in Early America (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980), 21–22.

33. Malone, Skulking Way of War, 75.

34. Helen C. Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia through Four Centuries (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 136.

35. Nash, “Image,” 208–209, 217.

36. Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People, 10.

37. Mark Nicholls, “George Percy’s ‘Trewe Relacyon’: A Primary Source for the Jamestown Settlement,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 113, no. 3 (2005): 43–44, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4250269. See also Alden T. Vaughan, “’Expulsion of the Savages’: English Policy and the Virginia Massacre of 1622,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 35, no. 1 (January 1978): 65–66.

38. Susan Myra Kingsbury, ed., The Records of the State of Virginia Company of London (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), 551.

39. Nash, “Image,” 217–218; John Smith, “Smith’s Generall Historie, Book IV,” in Narratives of Early Virginia 1606–1625, ed. Lyon Gardiner Tyler (New York: Scribner, 1907), 357; Vaughan, “Expulsion,” 80.

40. Edward Waterhouse, A Declaration of the State of the Colony and Affaires in Virginia (1622), Sabin Americana, 1500–1926 (Gale, February 22, 2012), 14.

41. Kingsbury, Records, 556–557.

42. John Smith, “Smith’s History of Virginia,” in Tyler, Narratives of Early Virginia, 364.

43. “A Letter to the Governor and the Council in Virginia,” October 7, 1622, in Kings-bury, Records, 683; Vaughan, “Expulsion,” 77, 81.

44. “The Story of ‘Uncle’ Moble Hobson,” in Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States, from Interviews with Former Slaves. Ohio, Virginia, Tennessee Narratives (St. Clair Shores: Scholarly Press, 1976), 18:31–33.

45. See Jennings, Invasion of America, 168; Hirsch, “Collision,” 1210; Malone, Skulking Way of War, 80.

46. William Strachey, The Historie of Travell into Virginia Britannia, 2nd series, ed. Louis B. Wright and Virginia Freund (1612; repr., Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1849), 103:68–69, 44. See also Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People, 10–12, 25–27; Christina Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010), 37–38.

47. Strachey, The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia, 101, 107; also quoted in The Indians of the Southeastern United States, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 137 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1946), 687–688.

48. Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country, 65–67.

49. H. R. McIlwaine, ed., Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia 1622–1632, 1670–1676, 2nd ed. (1924; repr., Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1979), 488–489.

50. Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People, 93, 103, 127, 129.

51. Ibid., 95; Stephen R. Potter, “Early English Effects on Virginia Algonquian Exchange and Tribute in the Tidewater Potomac,” in Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, ed. Gregory A. Waselkov, Peter H. Wood, and Tom Hatley (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 231.

52. Martha W. McCartney, “Cockacoeske, Queen of Pamunkey: Diplomat and Suzeraine,” in Waselkov, Wood, and Hatley, Powhatan’s Mantle, 249.

53. Kathleen M. Brown, Goodwives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996) 159.

54. Ibid., 159–160.

55. John Berry and Francis Moryson, “Narrative of Bacon’s Rebellion,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 4, no. 2 (October 1896): 126.

56. Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People, 96; Berry and Moryson, “Narrative of Bacon’s Rebellion,” 126.

57. Berry and Moryson, “Narrative of Bacon’s Rebellion,” 124, 126.

58. Brown, Goodwives, 164, 168.

59. Berry and Moryson, “Narrative of Bacon’s Rebellion,” 126, 136; Brown, Good-wives, 161.

60. Berry and Moryson, “Narrative of Bacon’s Rebellion,” 126, 138.

61. Ibid., 140, 138.

62. Brown, Goodwives, 168.

63. Berry and Moryson, “Narrative of Bacon’s Rebellion,” 136.

64. Ibid., 126.

65. Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People, 97–100.

66. James H. Merrell, The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 36.

67. John Rolfe, “A Letter to Sir Edwin Sandys,” January 1619/20, The Thomas Jefferson Papers, series 8, Virginia Records Manuscript, 1606–1737, Susan Myra Kingsbury, ed., Records of the Virginia Company, 1606–26, vol. 3: Miscellaneous Records, 243, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mtj.mtjbib026605; “List of the Living and Dead in Virginia Feb. 16, 1623,” Census Records, USGenWeb Archives, http://files.usgenwarchives.net/va/jamestown.htm.

68. Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People, 141–142; Brown, Goodwives, 132–136, 197–198.

69. Jack D. Forbes, Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black People (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 195–196.

70. J. Leitch Wright, The Only Land They Knew: The Tragic Story of the American Indians in the Old South (New York: Free Press, 1981), 154, 160, 169, 253.

71. Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country, 132–133, 64, 83, 61–63; Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), chap. 5.

72. Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People, 167, 179–180, 183.

73. Theda Perdue, Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003), 83.

74. A. Leon Higginbotham, In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 52–53, 55–57.

75. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 138. Col. William Byrd II, son of William Byrd I and one of the largest slave owners in Virginia, wrote to the Earl of Edgemont in 1736 about the “public danger” that so many slaves represented. Even James Madison agreed that blacks who were freedmen “would soon be at war with the whites if too near.” See Elizabeth Donnan, Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institute, 1935), 4:132; Winthrop Jordon, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 552.

76. Jefferson, Notes, 61, 96, 138, 143, 163. On the “scale of beings,” Jefferson placed Native Americans above Africans, but only those who were not mixed with Africans. When Jefferson wrote Notes, he portrayed Native Americans in the romantic terms of the day as the superior “noble savage,” although, as historian Rhys Isaac points out, this was easy enough for him to do, as few Native Americans remained near Monticello or in Virginia generally. See Rhys Isaac, “The First Monticello,” in Jefferson’s Legacies, ed. Peter Onuf (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1993), 98–99.

77. Roundtree, Pocahontas’s People, 105, 180, 183–184; Brown, Goodwives, 180–181. After Nat Turner’s rebellion in 1831, white paranoia extended to the Gingaskins, many of whom were forced to sell their tribal homes. Eventually, they merged with a sympathetic black community nearby.

78. Dederer, War, 176.

79. Roy Harvey Pearce, The Savages of America: A Study of the Indian and the Idea of Civilization (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), 20–21.

80. Jennings, Invasion of America, 187–281.

81. Capt. John Mason, Brief History of the Pequot War: Especially of the memorable Taking of their Fort at Mistick in Connecticut in 1637 (Boston: Kneeland and Green, 1736), in History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent and Gardener, reprinted from the collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (Cleveland: Helman-Taylor, 1897), 16, 18; Hirsch, “Collision,” 1197.

82. Mason, Brief History, 18–19. The idea that the Pequots were bent on destroying the English is questionable when considering the total number of deaths by year: seven in 1643, three in 1635, thirteen in 1636, and nine in 1637.

83. Ibid., 25–26, 29.

84. Capt. John Underhill, Newes from America; or, A New and ExperimentallDiscoverie of New England (London, 1638), 80–81. For more references to King David’s methods of war, see 1 Samuel 19:8: “And David went out and fought with the Philistines, and killed them with a great slaughter. And they fled from him"; and 1 Samuel 27:9: “And David struck the land, and did not keep alive man nor woman” (KJV).

85. Jennings, Invasion of America, 226; Mason, Brief History, 31, 35, 36–40.

86. Mason, Brief History, 44.

87. Capt. Leif Lion Gardener, “Leif Lion Gardener His Relation of the Pequot Warres,” in History of the Pequot War, 119.

88. William Apess, A Son of the Forest and Other Writings, ed. Barry O’Connell (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 91.

89. Underhill, Newes from America, 84.

90. Gardener, “Leif Lion Gardener,” 132.

91. Charles Orr, introduction to History of the Pequot War, x–xiii.

92. Hirsch, “Collision,” 1211.

93. Pearce, Savages, 49.

94. See Richard Slotkin’s seminal work on how European anxiety and subsequent rationale for violence shaped the colonial process, Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000).

95. The number of incidents is enormous, but a few good examples of total warfare used against Native Americans are the Great Swamp Massacre of 1675, the Gnadenhuetten Massacre of 1782, the Horseshoe Bend Massacre of the Red Sticks in 1814, the Bad Axe River Massacre in 1833, the Bear River Massacre in 1863, and the Sand Creek Massacre in 1864.

96. Capt. John Underhill was hired in 1643–1644 as an English mercenary by the Dutch to conduct a similar campaign in the New Amsterdam region against the Raritan, Wappinger, and Mohawk nations, during which he and his men used the exact same tactics of fire and entrapment that they employed in the Pequot War. See Ward Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide (San Francisco: City Lights, 1997), 198; Increase Mather, A Brief History of the War (Boston, 1676), see December 18; Slotkin, Regeneration through Violence, 162.

97. Apess, Son of the Forest, 105.

98. Gary Nash, Red, Black, and White: The Peoples of Early America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1974), 126; Churchill, Little Matter, 177.

99. See Jill Lepore’s seminal work for a discussion of the importance of writing, who gets to create the narrative of an event, and how it is remembered: The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Vantage Press, 1998).

100. Rev. John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations (1818; repr., Philadelphia: Historical Society, 1876), 337–338.

101. No. 91, 1843, vol. 8, 3rd series, Body of Liberties Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston; Higginbotham, In the Matter of Color, 61–62.

102. Kenneth Wiggins Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier, 1670–1763,” Journal of Negro History 33, no. 1 (January 1948): 54; Nash, Red, Black, and White, 114.

103. Alan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise ofthe English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002), 299.

104. Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 40; Sir Harry H. Johnston, The Negro in the New World (Plymouth, Mass.: W. Brendon, 1910), 213n1.

105. Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country, 5–7.

106. Wood, Black Majority, 39; Wright, Only Land They Knew, 126–127, 137–138, 140.

107. Gallay, Indian Slave Trade, 299.

108. Wright, Only Land They Knew, 147–148; Nash, Red, Black, and White, 153.

109. Nash, Red, Black, and White, 151; Dr. Francis Le Jau, The Carolina Chronicle of Dr. Francis Le Jau 1706–1717, ed. Frank J. Klingberg (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956), 122–123.

110. Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country, 37–38; David E. Stannard, American Holocaust: The Conquest ofthe New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 118–120; Churchill, Little Matter, 200–201.

111. Wood, Black Majority, 99n.

112. Interview with Mrs. Susan Hamilton, in Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States, from Interviews with Former Slaves. South Carolina Slave Narratives, pt. 2 (St. Clair Shores: Scholarly Press, 1976), 1:235.

113. Gallay, Indian Slave Trade, 257–258, 301–302. Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island all passed laws restricting the importation of Native American slaves from South Carolina after the Yamasee and Tuscarora Wars.

114. Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country, 86–87, 37.

115. Paul Lovejoy, “The Children of Slavery–the Transatlantic Phase,” Slavery and Abolition 27, no. 2 (August 2006): 197, 202, 213.

116. Rev. John Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighboring States (Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1876), 339, 337; James E. Seaver, A Narrative of the Life of Mrs. Mary Jameson, ed. June Namias (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 117–118; James E. Quinlan, Tom Quick, the Indian Slayer (Monticello, N.Y.: De Voe & Quinlan, 1851; repr., Morristown: Digital Antiquaria, 2004), 31, 33; Diary of DavidZeisberger: A Moravian Missionary among the Indians of Ohio (Cincinnati: Historical and Philosophical Society of Ohio, 1885), March 8, 1782, 80–81, 85, http://www.archive.org/details/diaryofdavid01zeisrich; True History ofthe Massacre of Ninety-Six Christian Indians, at Gnadenhuetten, Ohio (New Philadelphia, Ohio: Gnadenhuetten Monument Society, 1843), 10–11.

117. John H. Hann, Apalachee: The Land between the Rivers (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1988), chap. 12 and app. 12, 395, quoted in Gallay, Indian Slave Trade, 147–148. Gallay estimates that the number of captives was somewhere between two and four thousand, with the larger number probably being more likely. See also Wright, Only Land They Knew, 149; William R. Snell, “Indian Slavery in Colonial South Carolina, 1671–1795” (PhD diss., University of Alabama, 1972), 96.

118. In 1663 South Carolina officials instituted laws that only Native Americans captured in a just war could be transported out of the colony. Gallay, Indian Slave Trade, 64–65.

119. Ibid., 289.

120. Bartolomé de Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, trans. and ed. Nigel Griffin (1542; repr., Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1992), 15, 22.

121. Gallay, Indian Slave Trade, 261, 267, 270.

122. Wright, Only Land They Knew, 117–119, 143–144.

123. Ibid., 112–124, 144; Churchill, Little Matter, 200–201; Ian K. Steele, Warpaths: Invasions of North America (New York: Oxford University Press), 165–167.

124. Le Jau, Carolina Chronicle, 157.

Chapter 2. A “State of War Continued”

1. John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (1698; repr., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), 297.

2. Ibid., 302–303. Although Locke attempts to qualify the way in which slavery could be lawful, according to Christian standards of war in Europe at the time, prisoners of war could not be made slaves. See also Hugo Grotius’s The Rights of War and Peace: Including the Law of Nature and of Nations (1625; repr., Washington, D.C.: M. Walter Dunne Press, 1901), specifically bk. 3, chap. 7.

3. See Sylvaine A. Diouf, ed., Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003), x, xi, xvi, 125, 129, and chap. 8, for countless examples of African rejection of their deportation as slaves. This sentiment was also observed by slave ship surgeon Alexander Falconbridge, Narrative of Two Voyages in the River Sierra Leone during the years 1791,1792,1793, with Alexander Falconbridge: An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa, ed. Christopher Fyfe (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000), 216, 214.

4. See Ismail Rashid, “A Devotion to the Idea of Liberty at Any Price: Rebellion and Antislavery in the Upper Guinea Coast in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” chap. 9 in Diouf, Fighting the Slave Trade, for compelling evidence that slave resistance actually began in Africa.

5. Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 70.

6. Michael Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Mark: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 64–65, 75–76, 91.

7. Melville J. Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past (Boston: Beacon Press, 1990), 108.

8. Charles Ball, Slavery in the United States: A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball (1837; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 183.

9. See John K. Thornton and Robert S. Smith for a different assessment about the existence of total warfare in Africa: John K. Thornton, Warfare in Atlantic Africa 1500–1800 (London: UCL Press, 1999), 150, 133, 16; Robert S. Smith, Warfare and Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 35. See also Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past, 108.

10. Joseph Corry, Observations upon the Windward Coast of Africa (London: W. Bulmer and Co., 1807; e-book, www.gutenberg.net), 33–34.

11. Martin A. Klein, “Defensive Strategies: Wasula, Masina, and the Slave Trade,” in Diouf, Fighting the Slave Trade, 62–63.

12. John Barnwell, “The Journal of John Barnwell,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 6, no. 1 (July 1898): 43; see also Le Jau, Carolina Chronicles, 103?35.

13. Elizabeth Donnan, Documents Illustrative ofthe History ofthe Slave Trade to America (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institute, 1935), 4:316–317, 351, 319. Henry Laurens, one of the largest slave traders in South Carolina, was particularly adamant about the difficulty that his company had in trying to sell “bite Slaves.” Yet when the market demand for slaves was high, even “ordinary Calabar men” sold well. Michael Gomez makes this point as well with respect to levels of various ethnicities in the colonies (Exchanging Our Country Mark, 107). Also see Donnan, Documents, 4:310, 314, 411–413, 453–454, 504, 521–522, for examples of the number of ships that just listed their cargo of slaves as “Africans"; and see Elizabeth Donnan, “The Slave Trade in South Carolina before the Revolution,” American Historical Review 33, no. 4 (July 1928): 823n92, for evidence that Igbos were indeed part of the Charleston market. Nevertheless, the largest populations of Igbos were in Virginia, Maryland, and Louisiana, while the Dahomeans and Yorubas from the Bight of Benin were largely sold in Louisiana (Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Mark, 149–153).

14. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself, Classic Slave Narratives, ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. (New York: Mentor, 1987), 18. Olaudah was a powerful antislavery activist in London and one of the founders of the anti–slave trade group the Sons of Africa.

15. Ibid., 18, 25.

16. Ibid., 19.

17. G. I. Jones, Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era ofthe Slave Trade, ed. Philip D. Curtin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 66.

18. Joseph Wright, “The Narrative of Joseph Wright,” in Jones, Africa Remembered, 326. Martin R. Delaney observed during his trip to Africa that old people of both genders were put to death when Africans were warring for slaves in southwestern Nigeria among the Yoruba people even in 1859. See “Report of the Niger Valley Exploring Party,” in Martin R. Delany: A Documentary Reader, ed. Robert S. Levine (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 339–340.

19. Paul Lovejoy, “The Children of Slavery–the Transatlantic Phase,” Slavery and Abolition 27, no. 2 (August 2006): 205–206.

20. Ball, Slavery in the United States, 185.

21. John Ashley Hall, in House of Commons Sessional Papers, ed. Sheila Lambert, vol. 72: Minutes and Correspondence, 1790, 558; George Francis Dow, “Testimony ofJames Arnold,” in Slave Ships and Slaving (Mineola: Dover, 2002), 173.

22. Lovejoy, “Children of Slavery,” 197, 200, 213. See Donnan for countless examples of traders requesting that children be around ten years old (Documents, 2:159, 244, 250, 289, 292, 327, and 4:57, 360, 451, 456, 586).

23. “Contract between the South Sea Company and the Royal African Company” (1713), in Donnan, Documents, 2:159, and 4:323–324, 326, 357, 351.

24. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 399; Donnan, Documents, 4:504, 522; Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 76–80.

25. For many nations in Africa, the ritual of circumcision defined warrior status within the community and indicated that the boy (or girl) was initiated into manhood (or womanhood). See Jeff Marck, “Aspects of Male Circumcision in Subequatorial African Culture History,” Health Transition Review, supplement to vol. 7 (1997): 337, 346–347. Bryan Edwards, a historian, leading member of the colonial assembly in Jamaica, and English politician, wrote on the topic of circumcision. Based on his interviews with his slaves, although Muslim slaves were circumcised, many slaves from other nations were as well (Edwards, The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies [Dublin: Luke White, 1793], 2:57, 68, 71).

26. John K. Thornton, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion,” American Historical Review 96 (1991): 1103.

27. Equiano, Interesting Life, 18, 25.

28. Edwards, History, 2:97.

29. Martin R. Delany, Frank Rollins Biography of Martin R. Delany (1868; repr., New York: Arno Press, 1969), 15–16.

30. Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past, 47–48.

31. “Aunt Ciller,” Federal Writers’ Project (South Carolina), unpublished ex-slave narratives, 36 MSS Project 1885-1, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

32. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Mark, 46–52.

33. According to the research of Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Bambara is inaccurate. “Bambara” is of Muslim African derivation, and it means “barbarian” in Arabic, which is an ethnic slur. See Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 96–98.

34. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Mark, 54. Eric Robert Taylor’s work makes clear that African leadership and organizational ability were evident during the numerous insurrections that occurred during the Middle Passage. See If We Must Die: Shipboard Insurrections in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006).

35. Samuel Brun, “Samuel Brun’s Voyages of 1611–20,” in German Sources for West African History 1599–1699, trans. Adam Jones (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag GmbH, 1983), 93–94. See also clergyman Wilhelm Johann Muller’s description in ibid., 198.

36. Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 20–24. See also Thornton, Warfare in Atlantic Africa, for a different assessment of early Akan warfare as not “genocide” (132–133).

37. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 84.

38. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Mark, 107.

39. Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1982), 120–121.

40. Othello, “What the Negro Was Thinking during the Eighteenth Century: Essay on Negro Slavery,” Journal of Negro History 1, no. 1 (January 1916): 68.

41. Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, 120; Robin Law, “Dahomey and the Slave Trade: Reflections on the Historiography of the Rise of Dahomey,” Journal of African History 27, no. 2, Special Issue in Honour of J. D. Fage (1986): 250–251, 266; Edna G. Bay, Wives of the Leopard: Gender, Politics, and Culture in the Kingdom of Dahomey (Charlottes-ville: University of Virginia Press, 1998), 141–142; Robin Law, “Human Sacrifice in Pre-colonial West Africa,” African Affairs 84, no. 334 (January 1985): 74.

42. Bay, Wives of the Leopard, 58.

43. Thomas Phillips, A Journal of a Voyage Made in the Hannibal of London, Ann. 1693, 1694, from England to Cape Monseradoe in Africa; And thence along the Coast of Guiney to Whidaw, the Island of St. Thomas, andso forward to Barbadoes, A Collection of Voyages and Travels, ed. Awnsham and John Churchill (London, 1746), 6:220.

44. Othello, “What the Negro Was Thinking,” 67.

45. Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, 120; Sir Richard Burton, A Mission to Gelele, King of Dahome (London, 1853), 57, 155.

46. John Thornton argues that high numbers of Africans captured and sold into slavery were trained soldiers (Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 139–147).

47. Warren Alleyne and Henry Fraser, The Barbados–Carolina Connection (London: Macmillan, 1988), 1–31; Richard S. Dunn, “The Barbados Census of 1680: Profile of the Richest Colony in English America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 26, no. 1 (January 1969): 28–29.

48. Donnan, Documents, 4:241, 243.

49. Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 16, 25–26, 45, 49, 100, 105.

50. Donnan, “Slave Trade,” 823–827.

51. Daniel C. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 31–32, 8–55, 117; Donnan, “Slave Trade"; Margaret Washington Creel, “A Peculiar People”: Slave Religion and Community-Culture among the Gullahs (New York: New York University Press, 1988), 30–36; Gomez, Making Our Country Mark, 40, 106, 241.

52. South-Carolina Gazette, June 12, 1749, February 19, 26, 1754, July 30, 1772, July 12, 1804.

53. Donnan, “Slave Trade,” 816–817, 811–812.

54. David Richardson, Suzanne Schwarz, and Anthony Tibbles, eds., Liverpool and Transatlantic Slavery (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007), 14–15.

55. Alexander Hewatt, An Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia (London: A. Donaldson, 1779), 2:4–6.

56. Donnan, Documents, 4:243, 296–297, 315–449; R. C. Nash, “Trade and Business in Eighteenth Century South Carolina: The Career of John Guerard, Merchant and Planter,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 95 (1995): 8, 14, 16, 20, 27.

57. See Darold Wax, “Negro Resistance to the Early American Slave Trade,” Journal of Negro History 51, no. 1 (January 1966): 1–15.

58. Taylor, If We Must Die, 2–3, 14, 82, 135. Of the 493 cases that Taylor was able to confirm as insurrections, 120 of them led to the freedom of at least some of those enslaved.

59. Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past, 88–89.

60. Robert Norris, Memoirs of the Reign of Bossa Ahadee, King of Dahomy, an Inland Country of Guiney. To Which are Added, The Author’s Journey to Abomey, The Capital: And Short Account of the African Slave Trade (London: Lowndes, 1789; electronic ed., Documenting the American South, http://doc.south.unc.edu), 174.

61. David Richardson, “Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” in Diouf, Fighting the Slave Trade, 203.

62. For other examples, see “Newport, Rhode Island,” South-Carolina Gazette, October 4, 1732; “Extract of a Letter from Antigua dated Jan. 11, 1733–4,” South-Carolina Gazette, August 31–September 7, 1734; “Antigua, Oct. 24,” South-Carolina Gazette, December 4, 1736; Great Newes from Barbadoes, or A True and faithful account of the grand conspiracy ofthe Negroes against the English and happy discovery ofthe same with the number of those that were burned alive, beheaded, and other wise executed for their horrid crimes (London: L. Curtis, 1676); U. B. Phillips, Plantation and Frontier 1649–1863 (New York: Burt Franklin, 1969), 2:100, 117; Donnan, Documents, 4:274, and 2:528.

63. Donnan, Documents, 4:274.

64. “Newport Octob. 25,” South-Carolina Gazette, December 2–9, 1732.

65. South-Carolina Gazette, October 24, 1743; Donnan, Documents, 4:296n6.

66. Donnan, Documents, 4:374, 418.

67. Wood, Black Majority, 220–225, 222.

68. “An Extract of the Journals of Mr. Commissary Von Reck, who conducted the First Transport of Saltzburgers to Georgia: And of the Reverend Mr. Bolzius, One of their Ministers. Giving an Account of their Voyage to, and happy Settlement in that Province” (1733–1734), Force’s Collection of Historical Tracts 4, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Wm. Q. Force, 1846), 9, 18.

69. South-Carolina Gazette, November 1, May 18, 1734, January 18, July 12, September 20, October 11, 1735, July 28, 1739.

70. “Colonel William Byrd to the Earl of Egmont, 1736,” in Donnan, Documents, 4:132.

71. “Acts Relating to Slaves,” Acts of 1712, 1722, and 1735, in The Statutes at Large of South Carolina, ed. David J. McCord (Columbia, S.C.: A. S. Johnston, 1840), 7:352, 371, 385; Winthrop Jordon, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 114–115; Wood, Black Majority, 236–237.

72. Donnan, Documents, 4:257; Thomas Cooper, ed., Statutes at Large of South Carolina (Nabu Press, primary source edition, 2013), 2:646–649.

73. Donnan, Documents, 4:256.

74. “An Act for Raising and Enlisting Such Slaves as Shall Be Thought Serviceable to This Province in Times of Alarm,” no. 237, in McCord, Statutes at Large, 7:347–348. This was also true in Virginia, as blacks were free to carry arms and were enlisted in the militia even as late as 1738, although at that point they were required to “appear without arms.” See T. H. Breene and Stephen Innes, “Myne Owne Ground”: Race and Freedom on Virginia’s Eastern Shore (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 8, 26–27. Blacks in Louisiana enlisted under the French for the first time in 1729. See Roland C. McConnell, Negro Troops of Antebellum Louisiana: A History of the Battalion of Free Men of Color (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), 2–7.

75. Wood, Black Majority, 125–128; Kenneth Wiggins Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier, 1670–1763,” Journal of Negro History 33, no. 1 (January 1948): 54–56; Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Press, 2008), 171–173. Most alarming to slaveholders was the 1712 slave conspiracy in New York during which twenty-five to thirty slaves burned a building and killed nine men before their insurrection was suppressed.

76. Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier,” 56.

77. “Richard Ludlam to David Humphreys, St James, Goose Creek, South Carolina. March 22, 1725,” in An Appraisal of the Negro in Colonial South Carolina, by Frank Klingberg (Washington, D.C.: Associated Publishers, 1941), 47.

78. May 25, 1738, James Glen Papers, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia; “An Act for Raising and Enlisting,” 7:347–348; Wood, Black Majority, 125–128; Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier,” 54–56; Alan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002), 347.

79. Gallay, Indian Slave Trade, 348–349.

80. “Lt. Governor Bull to Duke Newcastle” (1739), in Wood, Black Majority, 312.

81. Wood, Black Majority, 321.

82. Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier,” 69; Terry W. Lipscomb, ed., Journal of the Commons House of Assembly of South Carolina 33 (October 6, 1757–January 24, 1761): 59; Charles Town Gazette, January 17, 1761.

83. Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 198; Donnan, Documents, 4:415.

84. Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past, 48.

85. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Mark, 23; W. Roberts Higgins, “Charleston: Terminous and Entrepot of the Colonial Trade,” in The African Diaspora: Interpretive Essays, ed. Martin L. Kilson and Robert I. Rotberg (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976), 118.

86. Donnan, Documents, 4:297.

87. Creel, Peculiar People, 74; “Missionary John Wikhead to SPG” (1715), Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, reel 6.

88. Wood, Black Majority, 220.

89. John Brickell, The Natural History of North-Carolina with an Account ofthe Trade, Manners, and Customs of the Christian and Indian Inhabitants (Dublin: James Carson, 1737), 272–273.

90. John R. Alden, “John Stuart Accuses William Bull,” William and Mary Quarterly 2, no. 3 (July 1945): 318–319.

91. Donnan, Documents, 4:131–132.

92. Brickell, Natural History, 274. The term “Guinea” was commonly used to describe all Africans.

93. Dena J. Epstein, “African Music in British and French America,” Music Quarterly 59, no. 1 (January 1973): 81.

94. Wood, Black Majority, 256; South-Carolina Gazette, April 26, 1760, July 24, 1769.

95. Thomas Clarkson, The History ofthe Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment ofthe Abolition ofthe African Slave Trade by the British Parliament (Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing, 1839), 45, 48. See also Christopher Leslie Brown’s Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006) for a comprehensive overview of the origins of English abolitionism.

96. Donnan, Documents, 2:254–255.

97. Law, “Dahomey and the Slave Trade,” 250–251; see Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, 121.

98. Capt. William Snelgrave, A New Account of Some Parts of Guinea and the SlaveTrade (1731; repr., London: Frank Cass, 1971), 152, 97, 77.

99. Edwards, History, i:59, 64–65, 80.

100. John Hippisley, “On Populousness ofAfrica: An Eighteenth-Century Text,” Population and Development Review 24, no. 3 (September 1998): 605–606.

101. Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts ofAfrica (1799), 283–284, http://www.archive.org/details/travelsininter101unkngoog.

102. “Account of a Plot formed by the Negroes of Goree, to Destroy All the White People on the Island,” New York Magazine, or Literary Repository, April 1796 (New York: T. and J. Swords, 1796), 1:108–110, https://books.google.com.

103. English independent traders, merchants, and ship captains, nicknamed the “Ten Percenters,” eventually forced the end of the RCA’s control of the trade, which allowed the global economy in African slaves to blossom. See Thomas, Slave Trade, 205, 209.

104. Clarkson, History, 48.

105. H. Shelton Smith, In His Image, but. . . Racism in Southern Religion, 1780–1910 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1972), 12.

106. Anthony Benezet, A Short Account of That Part of Africa, Inhabited by the Negroes (Bedford: Applewood Books, 1762), 8–10, 23, 45, 72–73, 79.

107. Alan Gallay, ed., Voices of the Old South: Eyewitness Accounts, 1528–1861 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994), 149. Whitefield had changed his position about the slave trade as early as 1751 and became a slave owner himself; see Smith, In His Image, 13.

108. Clarkson, History, 87–88.

109. Alexander Hewatt, An Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia (London: A. Donaldson, 1779), 2:38. Hewatt was pastor from 1763 to 1775; see Smith, In His Image, 18.

110. Clarkson, History, 224, 265.

111. Ibid., 228–229.

112. Robin Law, “Human Sacrifice in Pre-colonial West Africa,” African Affairs 84, no. 334 (January 1985): 53–55.

113. Snelgrave, New Account, 46–47.

114. Wax, “Negro Resistance,” 2–3. See, for example, Randy J. Sparks, Where Negroes Are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2014), for compelling evidence of the power that Ghanaian West Africans wielded in the trade with Europeans.

115. Law, “Human Sacrifice,” 66, 69, 73–77.

116. Hewatt, Historical Account, 38–39.

117. Locke, Two Treatises, 302.

118. “Acts Relating to Slaves,” 7:352.

119. Ibid., 7:352, 343, 357, 359–360.

120. “Le Jau to the Secretary,” February 20, 1712, in Le Jau, Carolina Chronicles, 108; William G. McLoughlin and Winthrop D. Jordon, eds., “Baptist Face the Barbarities of Slavery in 1710,” Journal of Southern History 29, no. 4 (November 1963): 497, 501.

121. Mia Bay, The White Image in the Black Mind: African-American Ideas about White People, 1830–1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).

122. “Acts Relating to Slaves,” 7:371.

123. Ibid., 7:382; see also “Act of 1740,” in McCord, Statutes at Large, 7:413; Wood, Black Majority, 273.

124. Wood, Black Majority, app. D, 342–343; see also “Stranger,” South-Carolina Gazette, September 17, 1772.

125. Gregory O’Malley, “Beyond the Middle Passage: Slave Migration from the Caribbean to North America, 1619–1807,” William and Mary Quarterly 66, no. 1 (2009) : 3–5; John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994), 69–70; Lorenzo Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England 1620–1776 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1942), 35–37; Darold D. Wax, “Preferences for Slaves in Colonial America,” Journal of Negro History 58, no. 4 (October 1973): 374.

126. “Acts Relating to Slaves,” 7:372–373, 417–418, 412.

127. Michael Mullin, “British Caribbean and the North American Slaves in the Era of War and Revolution,” in The Southern Experience in the American Revolution, ed. Jeffrey J. Crow and Larry E. Tise (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978), 241; Benjamin Quarles, Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), 174.

128. “Acts Relating to Slaves,” 7:410.

129. Epstein, “African Music,” 78.

130. Wood, Black Majority, 276–277.

131. Brickell, Natural History, 272.

132. Benjamin Martyn, “An Impartial Inquiry in to the State and Utility of the Province of Georgia,” in Gallay, Voices ofthe Old South, 82.

133. Johann Martin Bolzius, “Reliable Answers to Some Submitted Questions Concerning the Land Carolina in Which Answer, However, Regard Is Also Paid at the Same Time to the condition of the Colony of Georgia,” in Gallay, Voices ofthe Old South, 234. See Jill Lepore’s work for an excellent analysis of the purported 1741 New York slave insurrection: New York Burning (New York: Knopf, 2005), 58, xii.

134. Bolzius, “Reliable Answers,” 233, 256.

135. Martyn, “Impartial Inquiry,” 83.

136. Wood, Black Majority, 26, 44, 105; Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier,” 72.

137. Wood, Black Majority, 152–153, 158. For a discussion of how the increasingly brutal nature of plantation labor correlated to the decline in female fertility and pregnancy and the survival of women, children, and men, see William Dusinberre, Them Dark Days: Slavery in the American Rice Swamp (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000); Frances Anne Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation (Charleston: BiblioBazaar, 2006); Jennifer Morgan, Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004); and Sharla Fetts, Working Cures: Healing, Health, and Power on Southern Slave Plantations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).

138. “To the Right Honorable the Lord Commissioner for Trade and Plantations,” 15–16, May 25, 1738, James Glen Papers, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

139. Donnan, Documents, 4:482–483.

140. Ralph Izard to Mathius Hutchinson, November 20, 1794, Ralph Izard Papers, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

Chapter 3. “The Past Is Never Dead”

1. William Faulkner, Requiem for a Nun (New York: Random House, 1951), 92.

2. John K. Thornton, Warfare in Atlantic Africa 1500–1800 (London: UCL Press, 1999), 139–147.

3. Vincent Harding, There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America (New York: Mariner Books, 1993); Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2016), chaps. 1 and 2.

4. “Circular fallacy” is a term used by Francis Jennings to describe the thought processes that Europeans used against Native Americans to justify European imperialism and the myths of savagery that I adapt to describe the condition of enslavement. See Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 31.

5. Robert Norris, Memoirs of the Reign of Bossa Ahadee, King of Dahomy, an Inland Country of Guiney. To Which are Added, The Author’s Journey to Abomey, The Capital: And Short Account of the African Slave Trade (London: Lowndes, 1789; electronic ed., Documenting the American South, http://doc.south.unc.edu), 175–176.

6. Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados (1657), 45–46. Eric Williams states that enemies to Oliver Cromwell were sent away to the colonies as white laborers, including those who survived the Drogheda massacre, “and thereafter it became his fixed policy to ‘barbadoes’ his opponents.” See From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean (New York: Vintage Press, 1970), 100–101.

7. Noel Sainsbury, ed., Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and West Indies 1675–1676 (London: John Menzies, 1893), 291; David Eltis, The Rise ofAfrican Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 243.

8. Great Newes from the Barbadoes, or A True and Faithful Account of the Grand Conspiracy of the Negroes against the English . . . with the Number of Those That Were Burned Alive, Beheaded, and Otherwise Executed for Their Horrid Crimes (London: L. Curtis, 1676), 1.

9. Michael Craton, Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982), 109–110.

10. John Poyer, The History of Barbados, from the First Discovery of the Island in the Year 1605, till the Accession of Lord Seaforth, 1801 (London: Printed for J. Mawman, 1808), 155; Journal of the Commons House of Assembly of South Carolina (1692), 15, https://books.google.com/books/content/images/frontcover/6cYBAAAAYAAJ?fife=w300.

11. “Extract of a Letter from a Gentleman in Jamaica, to his Friend in London,” Kingston, Jamaica, February 25, 1734, South-Carolina Gazette, August 31–September 7, 1734.

12. “Boston, March 15 [1734],” South-Carolina Gazette, May ii–18, 1734.

13. “Extract of a Letter,” South-Carolina Gazette, August 31–September 7, 1734, emphasis added.

14. For full treatment of this topic, see Sylviane Diouf, Slavery’s Exiles: The Story of the American Maroons (New York: New York University Press, 2014).

15. Martha Warren Beckwith, Black Roadways: A Study of Jamaican Folk Life (New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 190–191.

16. South-Carolina Gazette, November 1, 1732, May 18, 1734, January 18, July 12, September 20, October 11, 1735, July 28, 1739.

17. Thomas Thistlewood’s Journal, 1748–1786, June 7, 1760, pp. 114, 97, series I, box 6, folder 31, Thomas Thistlewood Papers, James Marshall and Marie-Louise Osborn Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

18. Ibid., 181, 100.

19. Bryan Edwards, The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies (Dublin: Luke White, 1793), 2:59–61, 87–88.

20. Thistlewood’s Journal, 108.

21. Ibid., 221–222, 232, 121.

22. There is evidence that women participated and were made prisoners of war during Tacky’s rebellion. A female named Rosanna shaved her head, and a Colonel Spragg made the exception of not destroying rebel women and children in his attempt to regain control of the enslaved population. See ibid., 100, 128, 51.

23. Ibid., 136.

24. Ibid., 134, 200, 116, 109.

25. Edwards, History, 2:88.

26. Thistlewood’s Journal, 104–105, 154.

27. Edwards, History, 2:59–61, 87–88; Edward Long, History of Jamaica (London: T. Lowndes Press, 1774), 2:461–462; Craton, Testing the Chains, 129, 133, 136–137.

28. Thistlewood’s Journal, 114.

29. Craton, Testing the Chains, 138.

30. “Report to Governor Mathew of an Enquiry into the Negro Conspiracy,” Antigua, December 30, 1736, in “America and West Indies: January 1737,” Calender of State Papers Colonial, America and West Indies: 1737 (1963), 43:20, http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/colonial/america-west-indies/vol43/pp1-21; for South Carolina, see “Antigua, Oct. 24,” South-Carolina Gazette, December4, 1736, and “Charles-town,” South-Carolina Gazette, January 29–February 5, 1737.

31. “Governor William Mathew to Alured Popple,” Saint Christophers, May 11–15, 1737, in “America and the West Indies: May 1737, 11–15,” Calender, 287.

32. “Report to Governor Mathew.”

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid. Michael Craton cites their war dancing as an Akan ritual (Testing the Chains, 123).

35. John K. Thornton, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion,” American Historical Review 96 (1991): 1112.

36. Croton, Testing the Chains, 359n18; Minutes of the Antiguan Council, January 31, 1737, Colonial Office 9/10.

37. Waldemar Westergaard, ed., “Account of the Negro Rebellion on St. Croix, Danish West Indies, 1759,” Journal of Negro History 11, no. 1 (January 1926): 57. Further evidence of African rituals of oath taking can be found in Edward Bryan’s interviews of his “Kora-mantyn” slaves in Jamaica (History, 67).

38. Westergaard, “Account,” 56.

39. Ibid., 58–59.

40. Creel, Peculiar People, 117.

41. Michael Gomez argues that it was not until the 1830s that perhaps the large numbers (over 82 percent) of American-born Africans influenced the acculturation process in the everyday lives of those enslaved (Exchanging Our Country Mark, 194–195, and see 22–23 for demographic breakdown).

42. Edwin C. Holland, A Refutation of the Calumnies Circulated against the Southern and Western States, Respecting the Institution and Existence of Slavery among Them (Charleston: A. E. Miller, 1822), 63–65.

43. J. Leitch Wright, Only Land They Knew: The Tragic Story ofthe American Indians in the Old South (New York: Free Press, 1981), 275; Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Press, 2008), 175–176; Kenneth Wiggins Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier, 1670–1763,” Journal of Negro History 33, no. 1 (January 1948): 63.

44. Wood, Black Majority, 299; Creel, Peculiar People, 114.

45. “Charleston March 26,” South-Carolina Gazette, March 26–April 2, 1737.

46. Thornton, “African Dimensions,” 1103.

47. Wood, Black Majority, 314–316.

48. Thornton, “African Dimensions,” 1102. Spain offered freedom to all slaves who could reach Spanish territory.

49. Wood, Black Majority, 313–314.

50. George Cato, Federal Writers’ Project (South Carolina), unpublished ex-slave narratives at the South Caroliniana Library, 36 MSS Project 1655.

51. Boston Weekly News-Letter, November 8, 1739; Wood, Black Majority, 318.

52. Wood, Black Majority, 318–322.

53. Porter, “Negroes on the Southern Frontier,” 67.

54. Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 258–259.

55. C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York: Vintage Press, 1989), 20–21, 241–242; “The Revolution of Saint-Domingue,” in Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection, ed. Jeremy D. Popkin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 6.

56. Yves Benot, “The Insurgents of 1791, Their Leaders and the Concept of Independence,” in The World of the Haitian Revolution, ed. David Patrick Geggus and Norman Fiering (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 102.

57. “The Revolution of Saint-Domingue,” 53.

58. “Mon Odyssee,” in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 76.

59. “Historick Recital of the Different Occurrences in the Camps of Grande-Reviere, Dondon, Sainte-Suzanne, and Others from the 26th of October, 1791, to the 24th of December, of the Same Year,” in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 144–145.

60. “Mon Odyssee,” 77.

61. James, Black Jacobins, 242; Laurent Dubois, “Avenging America: The Politics of Violence in the Haitian Revolution,” in Geggus and Fiering, World of the Haitian Revolution, 112–113.

62. “Mon Odyssee,” 78–79, 89.

63. “Historick Recital,” 144, 152, 132.

64. “Revolution of Saint-Domingue,” 55; Dubois, “Avenging America,” 115.

65. “Revolution of Saint-Domingue,” 56.

66. “Mon Odyssee,” 77.

67. Ibid., 58.

68. “Historick Recital,” 134.

69. Ibid., 153. In Saint-Domingue, as it was in America and across the African diaspora, sex between white planters and black females was common. This resulted in a mulatto class that was often privileged with manumission by their fathers. They often owned land, were educated, and acquired personal wealth that situated them in a class above those enslaved. Some even owned slaves.

70. “Historick Recital,” 154–155.

71. “A Journalist’s Account of the Destruction of Cap Français,” in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 194–195.

72. “Excerpts from Extrait d’une Lettre,” in Popkin, Facing Racial Revolution, 220–221.

73. Napoleon Bonaparte, “Proclamation to the Citizens of Santo Domingo,” Paris, December 1799, Letters and Documents ofNapoleon, vol. 1, The Rise to Power (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961), 370, http://www.archive.org/details/lettersofdocumen006632mbp.

74. “Charles Victor Emanuel LeClerc Letter” (1802), Digital History, University of Houston, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/era.cfm?eraID=4&smtID=3.

75. “Letter from Leclerc to Napoleon Bonaparte,” October 7, 1802, in Napoleon: Symbol for an Age: A Brief History with Documents, trans. Rafe Blaufarb (Boston: Bedford / St. Martin’s, 2008), 165.

76. “Speech to the Legislature on the Reestablishment of Slavery,” May 20, 1802, in Blaufarb, Napoleon, 159.

77. “Boston Centinel, Dec. 8. French West-Indies,” Courier of New Hampshire, December 16, 1802.

78. Dubois, “Avenging America,” 120, emphasis added.

79. “The Governor-General to General Dessalines, Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the West,” February 8, 1802, Letters and Documents by Toussaint Louverture, http://thelouvertureproject.org.

80. “Boston Centinel, Dec. 8.”

81. Michel-Etienne Descourtilz, “Voyages d’un naturaliste,” in Popkins, Facing Racial Revolution, 306.

82. Honoré Lazarus Lecompte, “The Short Account of the Extraordinary Life and Travels of H.L.L.,” in Popkins, Facing Racial Revolution, 319, 325.

83. Carlo Célius, “Neoclassicism and the Haitian Revolution,” in Geggus and Fiering, World of the Haitian Revolution, 359; Descourtilz, “Voyages,” in Popkins, Facing Racial Revolution, 276, 288–289, 353.

84. James, Black Jacobins, 22, 241–242. For full treatment of this topic, see Laurent Dubois, A Colony of Citizens: Revolution and Slave Emancipation in the French Caribbean, 1787-1804 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).

85. Célius, “Neoclassicism,” 359–360.

86. Ashli White, Encountering Revolution: Haiti and the Making of the Early Republic (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 177, 179.

87. White, Encountering Revolution, 179.

88. Davis P. Geggus, “The Garadeux and Colonial Memory,” in The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World, ed. David P. Geggus (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001), 232.

89. Ralph Izard to Mathius Hutchinson, November 20, 1794, Ralph Izard Papers 1742–1804, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

90. Mary Pinckney to Mrs. Manigault, February 5, 1798, Manigault Family Papers 1750–1900, folder 20, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

91. Craton, “Proto-Peasant Revolts? The Late Slave Rebellions in the British West Indies 1816–1832,” Past and Present 85, no. 1 (1979): 100.

92. My analysis does not rely on any of the contested evidence that Michael P. Johnson interrogates in his article “Denmark Vesey and His Co-conspirators.” But because no African American that I know of contested the trial or accusations waged against Vesey in the antebellum era, I am convinced that people like David Walker, Rev. Morris Brown, Bishop Richard Allen, T. Hamilton, and Robert Vesey, Denmark Vesey’s son, who eventually rebuilt Charleston’s African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1865, would have spoken out against the murder of dozens of black people for absolutely no reason whatsoever, which would have been the case if one believes that Vesey’s insurrection plot was fabricated. Because these black men lived in South Carolina around or during the time of the incident, they would have, at some point, spoken out. Indeed, what one observes instead is the black community’s continuous reverence for what Vesey attempted to do throughout the antebellum era. Moreover, the black community writ large would have had nothing to gain by pretending that an insurrection was planned when one was not, but they would have gained much antislavery sympathy against southern white slaveholders who slaughtered or sent into exile 131 innocent blacks.

93. Lionel H. Kennedy and Thomas Parker, An Official Report of the Trials of Sundry Negroes Charged with an Attempt to Raise an Insurrection in the State of South Carolina (Charleston, 1822), reprinted as The Trial Record of Denmark Vesey, ed. John Killens (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), 4.

94. See Michael Craton’s Testing the Chains and Edward Pearson’s introduction to Designs against Charleston: The Trial Record of the Denmark Vesey Slave Conspiracy of 1822 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999) for more on the continuity of African cultural mores and the influence of Haiti in Denmark Vesey’s insurrection plan. Also see Walter C. Rucker, The River Flows On: Black Resistance, Culture, and Identity Formation in Early America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 152–179.

95. Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 68, 46, 88, 117.

96. “Confession of Bacchus Hammet, the Slave of Mr. Hammet (ca. 12 July),” in Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 328. In Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, the authors either observed or thought to add for effect that “old daddy” had marks on his face, signifying him as having been part of the warrior class (110).

97. Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 117. See also Pearson, Designs against Charleston, 238–239.

98. Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 43, 42, 45.

99. Ibid., 45, 47, 41, 95, 79, 82, 120, 44.

100. Ibid., 53, 66, 78, 83, 76, 84, 76–77, 85.

101. Ibid., 110, 120, 17, 31–32.

102. Melville J. Herkovits, Myth of the Negro Past (Boston: Beacon Press, 1990), 82; Creel, Peculiar People, 2, 46, 51, 59, 181; Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Mark, 94–102, 167. Gomez states that the continuity of the secret societies is found in the attraction of blacks to European Masonry and religious organizations, the latter clearly functioning outside of the structure of secrecy.

103. Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 71, 52, 45, 85, 96, 46, 58.

104. See Joshua 6:20 (KJV).

105. S[tephen] Elliot to William Elliot (Beaufort), July 22, 1822, in Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 334. There is a history of African slaves rejecting the Christianity of their masters. See Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), chap. 6. Margaret Washington Creel argues that outside of Charleston, slaves in the rural areas learned what they knew about Christianity from other blacks (Peculiar People, 147).

106. “Testimony of Smart,” in Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 90.

107. “Confession of John,” in Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 337.

108. H. Shelton Smith, In His Image. . . Racism in Southern Religion, 1780–1910 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1972), 54. This is membership reported in May 1818.

109. Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 53.

110. Hamilton states that the insurrection was instigated by the enactment of repressive legislation that restricted the rights of free people of color and the criminalization of future manumissions of slaves, closing an important avenue of freedom and black prosperity. T. Hamilton, The Late Contemplated Insurrection in Charleston, S.C. with the Execution of 36 of the Patriots: Death of William Irving, The Provoked Husband: and Joe Devaul, For Refusing to Be the slave of Mr. Roach: with the Capture of the American Slaver Trading between the Seat of Govt. and New Orleans: Together with an Account of the Capture of the Spanish Schooner Amistad (Jan. 1850), 3, 5, 8–9, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia. Also see “Acts Relating to Slaves,” which states that “no slave shall hereafter be emancipated but by act of Legislature” (7:459).

111. Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 58.

112. Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 337; Henry Ravenel Papers, South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston.

113. Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 54, 50, 86.

114. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Black Rebellion: Five Slave Revolts (New York: Arno Press, 1969), 244.

115. Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1982), 121; Edna G. Bay, Wives ofthe Leopard: Gender, Politics, and Culture in the Kingdom of Dahomey (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998), 121; Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself, Classic Slave Narratives, ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. (New York: Mentor, 1987), 18–19.

116. Deborah Gray White, Ar’n’t I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985), 63–64; Eric Robert Taylor, If We Must Die: Shipboard Insurrections in the Era ofthe Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 88–93, 111.

117. Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 65, 56, 80, 95.

118. Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 272.

119. Creel, Peculiar People, 163.

120. Pearson, Designs against Charleston, 351.

121. Richard Furman, Rev. Dr. Richard Furman’s Exposition ofthe Views ofthe Baptists, Relative to the Coloured Population ofthe United States, in A Communication To the Governor of South-Carolina (Charleston: A. E. Miller, 1823), 4.

122. Pearson, Designs against Charleston, 332.

123. “Mary L. Beach to Elizabeth L. Gilchrist (Germantown, Pennsylvania), 5 July 1822,” in Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 324.

124. “Anna Johnson (Charleston) to Elizabeth Haywood (Charleston) 18 July 1822,” in Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 333.

125. “Martha Proctor Richardson (Savannah) to Dr. James Screven (Liverpool), 6 July 1822,” in Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 325.

126. “Martha Proctor Richardson (Savannah) to Dr. James Screven (Liverpool), 7 August 1822,” in Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 341; Arnold and Screven Family Papers, 1762–1903, Southern Historical Collection, Louis Round Wilson Special Collections Library, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, emphasis added.

127. “Thomas Bennett to John Calhoun, 30 July 1822,” in Pearson, Designs against Charleston, app. 3, 340.

128. Holland, Refutation, 76, 86.

129. Ibid., 65–66.

130. Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), 135.

131. Whitemarsh B. Seabrook, A Concise View ofthe Critical Situation and Future Prospects ofthe Slave-Holding States (Charleston: A. E. Miller, 1825), 4.

132. Creel, Peculiar People, 165.

133. Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 274–275?1; John Hope Franklin, The Militant South 1800-1861 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 77.

134. “Acts Relating to Slaves,” 7:461, 462, 464.

135. Court members were William Drayton, Nathaniel Heyward, J. R. Pringle, Jas. Legare, Robert J. Turnbull, Henry Deas, and of course Thomas Parker and Lionel H. Kennedy, the authorized authors of the Report. See Kennedy and Parker, Trial Record, 11, 138.

136. Holland, Refutation, 62.

Chapter 4. The Abridgment of Hope

1. John Hope Franklin, Militant South 1800–1861 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 78. The American Beacon announced on August 30, 1831, “The war is over.” See Henry Irving Tragle, The Southampton Slave Revolt of 1831: A Compilation of Source Material (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1971), 55.

2. Newspaper editors asserted that Nat Turner was known as a “General” or “Captain.” See Richmond Enquirer, August 30, 1831.

3. Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 189, 196, 204, 214.

4. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Travellers and Outlaws: Episodes in American History (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1889), 282–288; Herbert Aptheker, Nat Turner’s Rebellion (New York: Humanities, 1966), 44–50. The number of whites killed varies from fifty-seven to sixty-one; the larger number was used by Governor John Floyd.

5. Richmond Enquirer, August 30, 1831, September 30, 1831.

6. Ella Williams, in Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves, ed. Charles L. Perdue Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Phillips (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1976), 313–314.

7. Richmond Enquirer, August 30, 1831; Higginson, Travellers and Outlaws, 294–296.

8. Richmond Enquirer, August 30, 1831.

9. Richmond Enquirer, September 4, 1831. See Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Press, 2008), 309–312 for evidence of white paranoia in Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, and South Carolina after Turner’s insurrection.

10. Lucy Mae Turner, “The Family of Nat Turner,” in Harlem’s Glory: Black Women Writing 1900–1950, ed. Lorraine Elena Roses and Ruth Elizabeth Randolph (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), 140; Tragle, “Confessions,” in Southampton Slave Revolt, 310.

11. J. W. C. Pennington, A Narrative of Events of the Life of J. H. Banks, an Escaped Slave, from the Cotton State, Alabama, in America (Liverpool: M. Rourke, 1861; electronic ed., Documenting the American South, http://doc.south.unc.edu), 18.

12. Turner, “Family of Nat Turner,” 142.

13. Mary E. C. Drew, Divine Will Restless Heart: The Life and Works of Dr. John Jefferson Smallwood 1863–1912 (Bloomington: Xlibris, 2010), 18; Turner, “Family of Nat Turner,” 144.

14. Turner, “Family of Nat Turner,” 142–144.

15. Mrs. Colman Freeman, A North-Side View of Slavery. The Refugee: Of the Narratives of Fugitive Slaves in Canada. Related by Themselves with an Account of the History and Condition of the Colored Population of Upper Canada, ed. Benjamin Drew (1856; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1968), 136.

16. Allen Crawford, in Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 75–76. Crawford’s account is interesting not only for its reference to slinging babies as a way of killing them but also because the Confessions narrative written after Nat Turner’s capture is silent on who or how the baby was killed. In fact, it states that Nat Turner forgot that the infant was even there but then sent back Henry and Will, and they “killed it.” The story told by Turner even at first glance seems rather implausible, as he stated that they had “gone some distance” before he ordered them to return at the onset of their very dangerous mission to begin an insurrection. William Drewry’s account, however, states that after Nat left, he remembered that “nits make lice. Nat sent Henry [Travis] and Will [Reeves] back to take it by its heels and dash its brains out against the bricks of the fireplace.” Whether Nat Turner or Henry Porter and Will Francis did the deed, it seems that all three accounts are consistent that the baby was murdered. It is interesting that even in 1900 the phrase “nits make lice” was still used by Drewry; and in 1937 the idea of swinging a baby’s head against the wall is still remembered by ex-slaves as a form of execution. See William Sidney Drewry, The Southampton Insurrection (1900; repr., Murfreesboro: Johnson Publishing Company, 1968), 36; Thomas C. Parramore, Murfreesboro, North Carolina and the Roots of Nat Turner’s Revolt 1820–1831 (Zebulon: Murfreesboro Historical Association, 2004), 60.

17. Richmond Enquirer, 8 November 1831, repr. in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 137.

18. James L. Smith, Autobiography of James L. Smith, Including, Also, Reminiscences of Slave Life, Recollections ofthe War, Education of Freedmen, Causes ofthe Exodus, etc. (Norwich: Press of the Bulletin, 1881; electronic ed., http://doc.south.unc.edu), 15.

19. “News from the Insurgents,” American Beacon (Norfolk, Va.), August 29, 1831; also Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 49.

20. Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 202; Southampton County Minutebook, 1830–35, 72–131, Virginia State Library, Richmond.

21. Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 223.

22. “The Southampton Tragedy, Jerusalem, September 21, 1831,” Richmond Enquirer, September 30, 1831.

23. Higginson, Travellers and Outlaws, 297.

24. Richmond Enquirer, August 26, 1831.

25. Susan Selden, “Spreading Terror and Devastation Wherever They Have Been: A Norfolk Woman’s Account of the Southampton Slave Insurrection,” ed. Deborah Shea, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 95, no. 1 (January 1987): 72.

26. Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 52–53.

27. “Headquarters, Jerusalem, August 28, 1831,” Richmond Enquirer, September 6, 1831.

28. Robert S. Parker to Rebecca Manney, August 29, 1831, in John Kimberly Papers, Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, quoted in Merton L. Dillon, Slavery Attacked: Southern Slaves and Their Allies 1619–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), 157.

29. Allen Crawford, in Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 76.

30. “Savage Barbarity!,” Liberator, October 1, 1831, repr. in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 115.

31. Constitutional Whig, September 3, 1831, repr. in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 69, 71, emphasis added.

32. Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 106–107.

33. I am arguing against and making reference to Eugene Genovese’s Roll, Jordan, Roll and his notion that white paternalism “implicitly recognized the slaves’ humanity” or that paternalism undermined “solidarity among the oppressed by linking them as individuals to their oppressors” (5, 317). The work of Patrick Wolff, who argues that slaves were a valued commodity “carefully–albeit not kindly–preserved,” also needs reevaluation (“Land, Labor, and Difference,” American Historical Review 106, no. 3 [June 2001]: 896). The “pious Methodist” woman is quoted in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 106.

34. Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 107.

35. Liberator (Boston, Mass.), September 17, 1831; Worcester (Mass.) Spy, September 1831, repr. in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 84. In the Battle of Horse Shoe Bend or the Red Sticks Massacre, nine hundred Creek Indians were killed in 1814 by forces led by Andrew Jackson. See Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), 135.

36. Liberator (Boston, Mass.), September 17, 1831.

37. “Daring Outrage of Virginia Slavites,” repr. in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 114; New York Sentinel, repr. in the Liberator (Boston, Mass.), October 1, 1831.

38. See Scot French, The Rebellious Slave: Nat Turner in American Memory (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), for an excellent overview of this idea. Also see David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), for his questioning of whether it is appropriate to defend “indiscriminate killing of people who are ‘part of’ an oppressive system,” as it echoes the rationale/psychology used to justify other acts of crimes against humanity, like “the genocide ofJews, Armenians, Tutsis, or Sudanese blacks” (210).

39. Howard Thurman, The Luminous Darkness (Richmond, Ind.: Friends United, 1999), 48.

40. Howard Thurman, Jesus and the Disinherited (Boston: Beacon, 1996), 37–39.

41. Thurman, Luminous Darkness, 25–26.

42. Charity Bowery, interview by Lydia Maria Childs, January 1, 1839, in The Liberty Bell: By Friends of Freedom (1839–1858) (Boston: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1839–1858), 42; also found in John Blassingame, ed., Slave Testimony: Two Centuries of Letters, Speeches, Interviews, and Autobiographies (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 267; also in Higginson, Travellers and Outlaws, 301–302.

43. Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 97–98.

44. Ibid., 102.

45. Freeman, North-Side View of Slavery, 332.

46. F. N. Boney, Richard L. Hume, and Rafia Zafar, eds., God Made Man, Man Made the Slave: The Autobiography of George Teamoh (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1990), 69, 71.

47. Michelle Balaev, “Trends in Literary Trauma Theory,” Mosaic (Winnipeg) 41, no. 2 (June 2008): 2; also see Aaron R. Denham, “Rethinking Historical Trauma: Narratives of Resilience,” TransculturalPsychiatry 45, no. 3 (2008): 395.

48. Mifflin Winstar Gibbs, Shadow and Light: An Autobiography with Reminiscences of the Last and Present Century (Washington, D.C., 1902; Project Gutenberg e-book, www.gutenberg.org), 21. Mifflin Gibbs was the first African American elected as a municipal judge in the United States. He was also a successful businessman.

49. Denham, “Rethinking Historical Trauma,” 398.

50. Albert Raboteau asserts that the enslaved and free communities were very familiar with the theology of the Old Testament (Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004], 289–321).

51. Rev. Noah Davis, “A Narrative of the Life of Rev. Noah Davis, a Colored Man,” in Don’t Carry Me Back! Narratives of Former Virginia Slaves, ed. Maurice Duke (Richmond, Va.: Dietz Press, 1995), 154.

52. Henry Box Brown, Narrative of Henry Box Brown, Who Escaped from Slavery Enclosed in a Box 3 Feet Long and2 Wide (Boston: Brown and Stearns, 1849), 40.

53. Bethany Veney, The Narrative of Bethany Veney, a Slave Woman (Worcester, Mass., 1889; electronic ed., Documenting the American South, http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/veney/veney.html). Veney was seventy-four years old at the time of the publication of her narrative, which means that she would have been seventeen at the time of Turner’s rebellion.

54. John Floyd, “Diary of John Floyd,” June 1918, nos. 1 and 2, in The John P. Branch Historical Papers of Randolph-Macon College, ed. Charles H. Ambler (Richmond, Va.: Richmond Press, 1918), 5:156.

55. “The pike” was probably the Columbia turnpike, which ran from east to west across Virginia. See Veney, Narrative, 31–32.

56. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 375, app. 6, question no. 281.

57. Frances Andrews, Newberry, South Carolina, in Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936–1938, 18, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?co11Id=mesn&fileName=022/mesn022.db7recNu.

58. Liney Chambers, Brinkley, Arkansas; and Frances Andrews, Newberry, South Carolina, both in Born in Slavery.

59. One marker of trauma is called the “conspiracy of silence,” where, Aaron Denham argues, an “explicit or unstated taboo forbids the asking about or discussion of trauma” (“Rethinking Historical Trauma,” 398). See also Maria Sutton Clemments, DeValls Bluff, Arkansas, in Born in Slavery.

60. See the introduction to Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat.

61. Lydia Maria Childs to Harriet Jacobs, in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl Written by Herself by Harriet Jacobs, ed. Jean Fagin Yellin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987), 244.

62. Jacobs, Incidents, 102–103, 99.

63. Moses Grandy, Narrative ofthe Life of Moses Grandy, Late a Slave in the United States of America (London: Gilpin, 1844), 15.

64. Ibid., 19.

65. Ibid., 20.

66. Pumla Gododo Madikizela, A Human Being Died That Night: A South African Woman Confronts the Legacy of Apartheid (New York: First Mariner Books, 2004), 86.

67. Freeman, North-Side View of Slavery, 332.

68. Fields Cook, Fields Observations: The Slave Narrative of a Nineteenth Century Virginian, ed. Mary Jo Jackson Bratton, in Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1980, 93, http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/fields/menu.html. See also Job 3:1–19, 3:21–24, 27 (AKJV).

69. Cook, Fields Observations, 92.

70. Ibid., 93. Allen Crawford stated that when Henry Travis’s mother hit Turner in her grief and asked him, “Why did you take my son away,” Turner’s response was that Travis “was as willing to go as I was.” All those who believed in the cause, Turner seemed to suggest, did not regret losing their lives.

71. Ibid., 93.

72. Turner, “Family of Nat Turner,” 139–140.

73. “Massa’s Slave Son,” in Unwritten History of Slavery: Autobiographical Accounts of Negro Ex-Slaves, ed. Ophelia Settle Egypt, J. Masuoka, and Charles S. Johnson (Nashville: Fisk University Press, 1968), 38.

74. Autobiography VI, in “Slavery Was Hell without Fires,” God Struck Me Dead: Religious Conversion Experiences and Autobiographies of Ex-Slaves, ed. Clifton H. Johnson (Philadelphia: Pilgrim, 1969), 161.

75. Freeman, A North-Side View of Slavery, 283–284.

76. Mrs. Angie Boyce, in Indiana Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project of the W.P.A., 1936–1938 Indiana Narratives, vol. 5, District 6, Marion County, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Washington, D.C.

77. As one former slave put it, “White folks crazy ’bout their nigger babies ’cause that’s where they got their profit” (“Nigger Ain’t Scared of White Folks Now,” in Egypt, Masuoka, and Johnson, Unwritten History, 56).

78. Mrs. Parthena Rollins, in Indiana Slave Narratives.

79. Mrs. Fannie Berry, in Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 33.

80. “L. M. Mill’s Story,” in Blassingame, Slave Testimony, 504.

81. Wilma King, “Mad Enough to Kill: Enslaved Women, Murder, and Southern Courts,” Journal of African American History 92, no. 1 (Winter 2007): 47, 52.

82. Drew, Divine Will Restless Heart, 24, 60–61, 112, 199.

83. Geo. H. Burks, Future: Containing Great Lecturers on the Future of the Colored Race, Nat Turner’s Insur[r]ection, the New Insur[r]ection (New Albany, Ind.: Will A. Dudley, 1890), 11–12, in African American Perspectives: Pamphlets from the Daniel A. P. Murray Collection, 1818–1907, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress, 10–12, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/lcrbmrp.t2012.

84. Turner, “Family of Nat Turner,” 142–144, 149, 155.

85. Daniel Goddard, Columbia, South Carolina, in Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States, from Interviews with Former Slaves. South Carolina Narratives, pt. 2 (St. Clair Shores: Scholarly Press, 1976), 1:150.

86. Jacobs, Incidents, 138–139.

87. Anna Washington, Clarendon, Arkansas; Emma Turner, Pine Bluff, Arkansas; and Rev. Frank T. Boone, Little Rock, Arkansas, all in Born in Slavery.

88. Cornelia Carney, in Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 67. See Joel Chandler Harris, The Complete Tales of Uncle Remus (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1955), 679–725.

89. Herbert Aptheker calculated that there were 250 revolts and conspiracies for the entire history of slavery in the United States (American Negro Slave Revolts, 162).

90. Aptheker defines slave rebellion and conspiracy as ten or more slaves who have freedom as their main objective. I have counted only those where the plot was detailed or specific, where there were recorded reprisals against the accused, and where the plot was confirmed by court conviction or execution of the said guilty parties in order to weed out those that, in my opinion, might merely have been white hysteria or delusions about servile unrest. See ibid., 328–333, 338, 341–343, 346–347, 351, 353–357.

91. Ibid., 351. In Clarksburg, Virginia, ten slaves were arrested in 1859, but there is no further evidence of what happened to them after being arrested. See Liberator, July 29, 1859.

92. Rev. William G. Hawkins, LunsfordLane; or, Another Helper from North Carolina (Boston: Crosby and Nichols, 1864), 83.

93. Johnson, God Struck Me Dead, 134.

94. Mom Ryer Emmanuel, Marion, South Carolina, in Slave Narratives. . . South Carolina, pt. 2, 1:25.

95. Brown, Narrative, 38–39.

96. The hopelessness of the enslaved trying to acquire freedom forcibly was made even clearer in the Great Slave revolt of December 1831 led by Samuel Sharpe in Jamaica, which demonstrated that even peaceful attempts at obtaining freedom end in the massacre of men, women, and children. Just as in America, many religious Jamaican slaves were implicated in the movement, and “dreadful was the retaliation inflicted upon the misguided negroes.” At least 207 slaves were killed in the rebellion, and another 312 were executed after a trial in the Slave Courts at Montego Bay. In all, 519 slaves lost their lives compared to 14 whites. See Henry Bleby, Death Struggles of Slavery: Being a Narrative of Facts and Incidents, Which Occurred in a British Colony, during the Two Years Immediately Preceding Negro Emancipation (London: Hamilton, Adams, 1853), 113–114; Mary Reckford, “The Jamaica Slave Rebellion of 1831,” Past and Present 40 (July 1968): 120.

97. Document 10, “Statement of Amount Paid by Public Treasury,” in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 445.

98. Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 301; John W. Cromwell, “The Aftermath of Nat Turner’s Insurrection,” Journal of Negro History 5, no. 2 (April 1920): 212.

99. Darlene Clark Hine, William C. Hine, and Stanley Harrold, The African-American Odyssey, 6th ed. (Boston: Pearson, 2014), 1:215.

100. “Insurrection in North Carolina,” Providence Journal, September 21, 1831; “Another Riot,” Rhode Island American & Gazette, September 27, 1831.

101. Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855; New York: Dover Press, 1969), 200, 311–312. In Douglass’s first narrative, he says that they said that “they all ought to be killed.” See Frederick Douglass, Narrative ofthe Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself (1845; repr., New York: Dell, 1997), 92.

102. Julie Winch, A Gentleman of Color (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 284–288. See also “To the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,” in A Documentary History ofthe Negro People in the United States, ed. Herbert Aptheker (New York: Citadel, 1951), 126.

Chapter 5. “In the Hands of the Master”

1. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Henry Reeve (New York: Bantam Press, 2000), 1:433–434.

2. Philip A. Bolling, The Speeches of Philip A. Bolling (of Buckingham) in the House of Delegates of Virginia on the Policy of the State in Relation to Her Colored Population: Delivered on the 11th and 25th of January, 1832 (Richmond, Va.: Thomas W. White, 1832), 6.

3. Ibid., 1. See also Joseph C. Robert, Road to Monticello: A Study ofthe Virginia Slavery Debate of 1832 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1941); Charles H. Ambler, Sectionalism in Virginia from 1776 to 1861 (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), 196–198; James Curtis Ballagh, History of Slavery in Virginia (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1902), 127–139; Alison Goodyear Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution: The Virginia Slavery Debate of 1831–1832 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982), xi–xvi, 228; Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 316; and William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion: Secessionist at Bay 1776–1854 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 190–195, for discussions about the significance (or not) of the Virginia Debates.

4. John Floyd, “Diary of John Floyd,” in The John P. Branch Historical Papers of Randolph-Macon College, ed. Charles H. Ambler (Richmond, Va.: Richmond Press, 1918), 5:166, 168.

5. Journal ofthe House of Delegates ofthe Commonwealth of Virginia. Begun and Held at the Capitol. In the City of Richmond, on Monday, the Fifth Day of December, One Thousand Eight Hundred and Thirty-One (Richmond, Va.: Thomas Ritchie, Printer to the Commonwealth, 1831), 9–10, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond.

6. “John Floyd to J. C Harris,” in The Southampton Slave Revolt of 1831: A Compilation of Source Material, by Henry Irving Tragle (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1971), 275–276.

7. Charles F. Irons, The Origins of Proslavery Christianity: White and Black Evangelicals in Colonial and Antebellum Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 41, 49–57, 93. White evangelicals probably had little to do with Turner’s actions but rather provided the model for how religion and slavery could coexist. As historian Charles Irons argues, white evangelicals crafted the Old Testament model of slavery into ideas of paternalism in the antebellum South.

8. John Floyd, “Letters Pertaining to the Revolt,” in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 276.

9. “Floyd to Harris,” 275; Richmond Enquirer, August 30, 1831.

10. David Walker, “Letter to Thomas Lewis,” Virginia: Governor’s Office, House of Delegates Executive Communications, 1830, box 14, folder 61, accession no. 36912, State Records Collection, Library of Virginia, Richmond.

11. Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution, 82.

12. Ibid., 83.

13. “Floyd to Harris,” 276.

14. David Walker, Walker’s Appeal, in Four Articles, Together with a Preamble, to the Colored Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly to Those of the United States of America (Boston: For the Author, 1829), 69.

15. There exists a complete copy of the second edition of David Walker’s Appeal in Floyd’s Executive Papers. See Virginia: Governor’s Office, House of Delegates Executive Communications, 1830, box 14, folder 61, accession no. 36912.

16. Walker, Walker’s Appeal, 61, 21.

17. Ibid., 27–28, 21.

18. Floyd, “Diary ofJohn Floyd,” 157, 158.

19. John Patton to the Governor, “Convention of Free Negroes in Philadelphia,” January 23, 1832, Virginia: Governor’s Office, John Floyd Executive Papers, 1830–1834, box 324, accession no. 42665.

20. Ibid.

21. “After Nat Turner: A Letter from the North,” Journal of Negro History 55, no. 2 (April 1970): 145–146, 147, 148.

22. Ibid., 147–148.

23. Ibid., 147–148, 145.

24. Floyd, “Diary ofJohn Floyd,” 156, 166, 168.

25. Tragle, introduction to Floyd, “Diary ofJohn Floyd,” 249; and “John Floyd to J. C. Harris,” in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 276.

26. The writings of Thomas Jefferson reflect ideas about emancipation that would have influenced Floyd and the other members of the legislature. Jefferson foreshadowed the scientific racial theories that emerged in the last half of the nineteenth century. See Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 138, 143, 163.

27. “Floyd Diary,” in Tragle, Southampton Slave Revolt, 261, 262.

28. Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution, 127; Virginia Legislative Petitions, Loudon County, 1831, Virginia State Library, Richmond.

29. Bolling, Speeches, 3–4.

30. Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution, 125.

31. The rest of the committee members were Messrs. Fisher, Cobb, Wood of Abermarle, Roane, Moore, Newton, Campbell of Brooke, Smith of Frederick, Gholson, Brown, Stillman, and Anderson of Nottoway. Journal ofthe House of Delegates ofthe Commonwealth of Virginia, 9, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond.

32. Bolling, Speeches, 3; Charles Jas. Faulkner, The Speech of Charles Jas. Faulkner, (of Berkeley,) in the House of Delegates of Virginia, on the Policy ofthe State with Respect to Her Slave Population. Delivered on January 20,1832 (Richmond, Va.: Thomas W. White, 1832), 21; John A. Chandler, The Speech of John A. Chandler, (of Norfolk County,) in the House of Delegates of Virginia, on the Policy ofthe State with Respect to Her Slave Population. Deliv-eredJanuary 17,1832 (Richmond, Va.: Thomas W. White, 1832), 7.

33. James M’Dowell Jr., The Speech of James M’Dowell, Jr. (of Rockbridge,) in the House of Delegates of Virginia, on the Policy ofthe State with Respect to Her Slave Population. Delivered January 21, 1832 (Richmond, Va.: Thomas W. White, 1832), 5, 12.

34. “Postnatus,” plural “postnati,” means “those born after.” Postnati emancipation disallowed slaveholder claims on the children of slaves or any person born after the date of emancipation.

35. Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution, 126; “Floyd Diary,” 263.

36. “Floyd Diary,” 263.

37. Constitutional Whig, January 17, 1832.

38. William H. Brodnax, The Speech of William H. Brodnax, (of Dinwiddie,) in the House of Delegates of Virginia, on the Policy ofthe State with Respect to Her Slave Population. Delivered January 19,1832 (Richmond, Va.: Thomas W. White, 1832), 39, 26.

39. Faulkner, Speech, 8–9.

40. M’Dowell, Speech, 31.

41. Constitutional Whig, January 20, 1832.

42. U.S. Department of Commerce, table 6, “Negro Population, Slave and Free at Each Census by Division,” Bureau of the Census, Negro Population, 1790–1915 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1918), 45, 57. In Virginia, the slave population went from 292,627 to 469,757; the white population went from 442,117 to 694,300; the free black population went from 12,866 to 47,348.

43. Constitutional Whig, January 17, 1832.

44. M’Dowell, Speech, 4, 29; Bolling, Speeches, 4.

45. M’Dowell, Speech, 18–20.

46. Daniel Goodloe, The Southern Platform; or, Manual of Southern Sentiment on the Subject of Slavery (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1858), 47, 48.

47. Constitutional Whig, January 7, 1832.

48. Goodloe, Southern Platform, 48.

49. Brodnax, Speech, 17.

50. Constitutional Whig, January 19, 1832.

51. See Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), for how the internal trade in slaves operated in America.

52. Ambler, Sectionalism in Virginia, 186–188; Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts,

53. John A. Chandler, The Speech ofJohn A. Chandler, (ofNorfolk County,) in the House of Delegates of Virginia, on the Policy of the State with Respect to Her Slave Population. Delivered January 17,1832 (Richmond: Thomas W. White, 1832), 8.

54. Richmond Constitutional Whig, January 11, 1832.

55. Constitutional Whig, January 17, 1832.

56. Richmond Inquirer, January 19, 1832.

57. “Speech ofJames H. Gholson,” Constitutional Whig, January 26, 1832.

58. Thomas Marshall, Speech of Thomas Marshall, (of Fauquier) in the House of Delegates of Virginia, on the Policy of the State with Respect to Her Slave Population. Delivered January 14,1832 (Richmond, Va.: Thomas W. White, 1832), 8–9.

59. Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution, 142.

60. Brodnax, Speech, 23–26.

61. The term “disposability” is from Kevin Bales, Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). See David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation (New York: Vintage Books, 2014), chaps. 3 and 4.

62. See Davis, Problem of Slavery, chaps. 3 and 4.

63. Theodore S. Wright, “Address of the Rev. Theodore S. Wright, before the Convention of the New York State Anti-Slavery Society, on the Acceptance of the Annual Report, Held at Utica, Sept. 20,” Colored American, October 14, 1837.

64. This turn to colonization echoed white responses to an earlier insurrection attempt in Virginia. On December 12, 1800, the Virginia House of Delegates met in secret to discuss the attempted insurrection led by a twenty-four-year-old blacksmith living in Richmond named Gabriel (Prosser). The Virginia legislature drafted a proposal requesting that President Thomas Jefferson begin negotiations with other European countries to send America’s free or emancipated blacks to their African colonies. Jefferson began talks with the Sierra Leone Company, but nothing came of it. He reached out to the government of Portugal, with no results, and subsequently gave up. See Helen Tunnicliff Catterall, Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (1926; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1968), 1:73; Appendix, Letter II, in William Lloyd Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (1832; repr., New York: Arno, 1968), 8–9; Virginia Argus (Richmond), October 3, 1800; Scot French, The Rebellious Slave: Nat Turner in American Memory (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), 292; Freehling, Drifting toward Dissolution, 111; Joshua Coffin, An Account of Some of the Principal Slave Insurrections, Others, Which Have Occurred, or Been Attempted, in the United States and Elsewhere, during the Last Two Centuries (New York: ASS, 1860), in Slave Insurrections: Selected Documents (Westport, Conn.: Negro University Press, 1970), 28–29.

65. See Issac V. Brown, “Letter to Mr. John P. Mumford,” in Biography of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. of Basking Ridge, N.J. with an Account of His Agency as the Author of the American Colonization Society; also a Sketch of the Slave Trade; a View of Our National Policy and That of Great Britain towards Liberia and Africa (Philadelphia: John W. Moore, 1857), 81–83, 89–93, 97, 99; Richmond Recorder, September 22, 1802; Winthrop Jordon, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 469; Henry Noble Sherwood, “The Formation of the American Colonization Society,” Journal of Negro History 2, no. 3 (July 1917): 212–213.

66. Sherwood, “Formation,” 212–213.

67. Brown, “Letter to Mr. John P. Mumford,” 99.

68. Rev. Issac Van Brown, Memoir ofthe Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. Late Pastor ofthe Presbyterian Congregation (New Brunswick, N.J.: Terhune and Letson, 1819), 81–83, 89, 91, 90.

69. Ibid., 93.

70. Ibid., attributed to Elias Boudinot Caldwell, Esq., 90. The idea that racial amalgamation would lead to a war between the races is evident throughout the antebellum era beginning with the provocative sentiments of political pamphleteer and editor of the Richmond Recorder James Callender about Thomas Jefferson and his enslaved mistress, Sally Hemings. See Richmond Recorder, September 22, 1802; Jordon, White over Black, 469. Fanny Wright would make one exceptional effort to promote interracial sex in her utopian community, Nashoba, in Tennessee.

71. From the African American perspective, members of the ACS stoked white fear to galvanize support for their organization. See “Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Color, in the United States (1834),” in Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Convention 1830–1864, by Howard Holman Bell (New York: Arno, 1969), 4–5, 7.

72. Issac Brown and many other colonizationists rationalized that even if it meant death and hardship for blacks in the early years of settlement in Africa, it would be nothing out of the ordinary, as the ancestors of white Americans had also suffered in the beginning (Memoir ofthe Rev. Robert Finley, 97).

73. John Thompson Brown, The Speech of John Thompson Brown, in the House of Delegates of Virginia, on the Policy ofthe State with Respect to Her Slave Population. Delivered January 18,1832 (Richmond, Va.: Thomas W. White, 1832).

74. Brodnax, Speech, 7.

75. Jefferson, Notes, 138.

76. Brodnax, Speech, 30.

77. Ibid., 29, 36, 38, 43. Brodnax’s objectives, however, went beyond what the ACS outlined. As a southern businessman looking for new markets, Brodnax envisioned that colonization would facilitate white control over West Africa. This could be achieved by writing into the bill the acquisition of additional territory in Africa.

78. Constitutional Whig, January 17, 1832.

79. Faulkner, Speech, 13, 14, 16; Constitutional Whig, January 24, 1832.

80. Faulkner, Speech, 18, 16, 10.

81. Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution, 148–149.

82. Constitutional Whig, January 23, 1832.

83. Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution, 164–165.

84. Richmond Enquirer, February 7, 1832.

85. Brodnax, “Appendix,” in Speech, 42.

86. African Americans contested the ACS’S plan for colonization from the very beginning. And they were rightly concerned that compulsion might replace the purported voluntary recruitment of free blacks. See William Loren Katz, introduction to Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization, viii–ix; Philip Bell, “An Address to the Citizens of NewYork,” in Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization, 16–17; Richmond Enquirer, February 7, 1832.

87. Brodnax, “Appendix,” in Speech, 42; Richmond Enquirer, February 7, 1832.

88. Ibid.

89. Moses Grandy, Narrative ofthe Life of Moses Grandy, Late a Slave in the United States of America (London: Gilpin, 1844), 24.

90. Brodnax, “Appendix,” in Speech, 44, 42.

91. Freehling, Drift toward Dissolution, 182, 191–192.

92. Claude A. Clegg, The Price of Liberty: African Americans and the Making of Liberia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 134–136; See U.S. Congress, Senate Roll of Emigrants That Have Been Sent to the Colony of Liberia, 28th Cong., 2nd sess., 1844, report 150; and “The Long Awaited Statistics,” African Repository, June 1844, 161–162.

93. Clegg, Price of Liberty, 130–160. Out of 4,454 people sent to settle in Liberia from 1820, only 1,736 remained in 1843; 2,198 of them had died, and 608 managed to leave the colony. Also see Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization, 19, 26–30, 34, for black awareness of mortality in Africa.

94. Clegg, Price of Liberty, 134–136. See U.S. Congress, Senate Roll of Emigrants; and “Long Awaited Statistics.”

95. Clegg, Price of Liberty, 139.

96. Brodnax, “Appendix,” in Speech, 43.

97. Clegg, Price of Liberty, 134–135.

98. The 1832 Police Bill altered the rights of free blacks to a trial by jury. Now they would share the same legal rights that slaves had. The governor could now sell free blacks into slavery if convicted of a crime punishable by death.

99. Smith remarked that slaves continued to hold meetings at their quarters in secret. See James L. Smith, Autobiography of James L. Smith, Including, Also, Reminiscences of Slave Life, Recollections of the War, Education of Freedmen, Causes of the Exodus, etc. (Norwich: Press of the Bulletin, 1881; electronic edition, http://doc.south.unc.edu), 15.

100. Floyd, “Diary of John Floyd,” 92.

101. Thomas R. Dew, Review of the Debate in the Virginia Legislature of1831 and 1832 (1832; repr., Westport, Conn.: Negro University Press, 1970), 5, 9.

102. Ibid., 15, 19, 18; Hugo Grotius, Rights of War and Peace: Including the Law of Nature and of Nations (1625; repr., Washington, D.C.: M. Walter Dunne Press, 1901), chaps. 1 and 7.

103. Dew, Review, 11–12, 33, 29, 113–114, 116.

104. Ibid., 32–33.

105. Ibid., 33.

106. See Bell, “Address,” 16–17.

107. Brodnax, “Appendix,” in Speech, 42.

Chapter 6. Would Have to “See His Blood Flow”

1. For the origins of the “Sambo” thesis, see Stanley Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959).

2. Other than the monographs of W. E. B. Du Bois, The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America 1638–1870 (1896; repr., Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969), and Ronald Takaki, The Proslavery Crusade: The Agitation to Reopen the African Slave Trade (New York: Free Press, 1971), there are several articles and book chapters written from various perspectives on the reopening of the foreign slave trade. See Harvey Wish, “The Revival of the African Slave Trade in the United States, 1856–1860,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 27, no. 4 (March 1941): 569–588; Robert F. Durden, “J. D. B. De Bow: Convulsions of a Slavery Expansionist,” Journal of Southern History 17, no. 4 (November 1951): 441–461; Barton J. Berstein, “Southern Politics and Attempts to Reopen the African Slave Trade,” Journal of Negro History 51, no. 1 (January 1966): 16–35; Gerald Horne, The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade (New York: New York University Press, 2007), esp. 83–170; and Manisha Sinha, The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 136, 129, 142, and chap. 5.

3. See William Law Mathieson, Great Britain and the Slave Trade 1839–1865 (New York: Octagon: 1967), 133, 135, 162, 165–166, 179; Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944), 176–177.

4. George Fitzhugh, “The Conservative Principle; or, Social Evils and Their Remedies,” De Bow’s Review 22, no. 5 (May 1857): 450.

5. Trafficking in African slaves continued beyond 1807 because the penalties for participation in the trade were minor at best, while profits reached over 30 percent. The problem was that all of the acts established by Congress were essentially a dead letter. Du Bois notes that there was some decline from 1825 to 1830, but then the trade was revived from 1840 to 1860. Thomas Fowell Buxton, The African Slave Trade and Its Remedy (1839; repr., London: Frank Cass, 1967), 221–225; Mathieson, Great Britain, 5; see also Walter B. Hill, “Living with the Hydra: The Documentation of Slavery and the Slave Trade in Federal Records,” Prologue 32, no. 4 (Winter 2000): 4–8, https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2000/winter/hydra-slave-trade-10cumentat10n-2.html; Hugh Thiomas, The Slave Trade: The Story ofthe Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 614; Du Bois, Suppression, 112, 114–123, 182–184.

6. William Lowndes Yancey, “Late Southern Convention at Montgomery,” De Bow’s Review 24, no. 6 (June 1858): 585.

7. Du Bois notes that the fitting out of slave ships was a thriving business in New York City in the 1850s. Even in 1808 New York was considered the premier port for the illicit trade, and the cities of Portland and Boston participated in a major way as well. See Du Bois, Suppression, 178–179; Thomas, Slave Trade, 461–463.

8. Fitzhugh, “Conservative Principle,” 450, 456–457.

9. Leonidas W. Spratt, “Report on the Slave Trade,” De Bow’s Review 24, no. 6 (June 1858): 477–478.

10. Edward Bryan, Notice ofthe Rev. John B. Adgers’s Article on the Slave Trade Published for the Author (Charleston, S.C.: Steam Power Press of Walker, Evans, 1858), 24, 26.

11. Fitzhugh, “Conservative Principle,” 454, 456.

12. Mathieson, Great Britain, 42; Frederick C. Drake and R. W. Schufeldt, “Secret History of the Slave Trade to Cuba Written by an American Naval Officer, Robert Wilson Schufeldt, 1861,” Journal of Negro History 55, no. 3 (July 1970): 225.

13. W. W. Wright, “The Coolie Trade, or the Excomienda System of the Nineteenth Century,” De Bow’s Review 27, no. 3 (September 1859): 304; Drake and Schufeldt, “Secret History,” 225, 226.

14. Mathieson, Great Britain, 97–99; see also Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 143; David Eltis and Stanley L. Engerman, “Fluctuations on Sex and Age Ratios in the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1663–1864,” Economic History Review 46, no. 2 (1993): 308–323.

15. Mathieson, Great Britain, 40–41, 43.

16. Rev. Pascoe G. Hill noted that of the 447 slaves on board the recaptured Brazilian ship the Progresso in 1843, 213 were boys, and none of the 189 men exceeded twenty years of age. See Fifty Days on Board a Slave Vessel (Baltimore, Md.: Black Classic Press, 1848), 21–22.

17. An Exposition of the African Slave Trade, from the Year 1840, to 1850, Inclusive. Prepared from Official Documents, and Published by Direction of the Representatives of the Religious Society of Friends, in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware (Philadelphia: J. Rakestraw, 1851), 20, 154.

18. Buxton, African Slave Trade, 73, 200; John Leighton Wilson, The Foreign Slave Trade. Can It Be Revived without Violating the Most Sacred Principles of Honor, Humanity, and Religion? (pamphlet), Southern Presbyterian Review, October 1859, Cornell University Library Digital Collection, 13. Thomas Buxton argued that for every ten slaves who survived to reach Cuba or Brazil, at least fourteen were destroyed. And if the victims of the Islamic slave trade were factored in, the mortality rate escalated to over 200 percent.

19. Mathieson, Great Britain, 44; Herman Melville, Moby-Dick; or The Whale (1851; repr., New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 280.

20. Buxton, African Slave Trade, 189, 202; Mathieson, Great Britain, 41, 121; Thomas C. Hansard, Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates (London: T. C. Hansard, 1844), 76:930.

21. “Slave Trade–Horrible Massacre,” Niles National Register, May 1, 1847.

22. Buxton, African Slave Trade, 183.

23. Hill, Fifty Days, 50. Out of a total of 447 captives, 175 Africans died on board the Progresso, and according to Hill, many of them were children.

24. Mathieson, Great Britain, 44.

25. Drake and Schufeldt, Secret History, 228, 231.

26. Hill, Fifty Days, 54, 56.

27. Buxton, African Slave Trade, 202; An Exposition, 63–64.

28. Dr. Van Evne, “Slavery Extension,” De Bow’s Review 15, no. 1 (July 1853): 3, 9–10, 13.

29. Leonidas W. Spratt, “Speech of Mr. Spratt, of South Carolina,” De Bow’s Review 27, no. 2 (August 1859): 213.

30. Report of the Special Committee of the House of Representatives, of South Carolina, on So Much of the Message of His Excellency Gov. Jas. H. Adams, as Relates to Slavery and the Slave Trade (Columbia, S.C.: Steam Power Press, 1857), 7–8, 16.

31. Van Evne, “Slavery Extension,” 4, 11.

32. James H. Hammond, “Slavery in the Light of Political Science,” in Cotton Is King, and Pro-slavery Arguments: Comprising the Writings of Hammond, Harper, Christy, String-fellow, Hodge, Bledsoe, and Cartwright, on This Important Subject, ed. E. N. Elliot (Augusta, Ga.: Pritchard, Abbott & Loomis, 1860), 667–668.

33. “The Results of African Labor in the New World,” Staunton Vindicator 16, no. 6 (February 10, 1860).

34. Wright, “Coolie Trade,” 318–320.

35. “Southern Population–Its Destiny,” De Bow’s Review 13, no. 1 (July 1852): 13, 18.

36. Spratt, “Report on the Slave Trade,” 490.

37. Rev. George B. Wheeler, introduction to The Southern Confederacy and the African Slave Trade: The Correspondence between Professor Cairnes, A.M. and George M’Henry, Esq. (Dublin: Mcglashan and Gill, 1863), vi, xvii; Spratt, “Report on the Slave Trade,” 474.

38. Henry Hughes, “Reopening of the Slave Trade: A Series by ‘St. Henry’” (from the Southern Reveille, 1857–58), in Selected Writings of Henry Hughes: Antebellum Southerner, Slavocrat, Sociologist, ed. Stanford M. Lyman (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985), 98–99. Hughes created a third American labor system (the other two being free and slave) called “warranteeism,” where labor was owed as the duty of an inferior race in a productive society rather than owned. Ultimately, it was slavery called something else.

39. Ibid., 99.

40. L. J. Gogerty, “Southern Convention at Knoxville,” De Bow’s Review 23, no. 3 (September 1857): 318.

41. Wright, “Coolie Trade,” 304, 318–320, 316–317. See also Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 151–152. Lovejoy contends that the French and Portuguese were the greatest offenders of all the European nations trying to get around the legal barriers to slave trading by using the label “contract laborers.” Because these laborers left Africa as slaves, Lovejoy argues, they must be included in the number of slaves exported from Africa in the nineteenth century.

42. Wright, “Coolie Trade,” 298.

43. Mr. Preston, “Late Southern Convention at Montgomery,” De Bow’s Review 24, no. 6 (June 1858): 596.

44. Wright, “Coolie Trade,” 310; Fitzhugh, “Conservative Principle,” 449, 451.

45. Hill, Fifty Days, 51.

46. Roger Pryor, “Late Southern Convention at Montgomery,” De Bow’s Review 24, no. 6 (June 1858): 582.

47. “The Slave Trade,” National Era, June 23, 1859; “Great Changes Coming Over the South,” National Era, March 24, 1859.

48. Frederick Douglass, Frederick Douglass Papers, ed. John W. Blassingame, series i, vol. 3, 1855–63 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985), 434.

49. Henry Washington Hilliard, “Late Southern Convention at Montgomery,” De Bow’s Review 24, no. 6 (June 1858): 592.

50. Ibid., 582.

51. James J. Pettigrew, “Protest against the Slave-Trade Revival,” De Bow’s Review 25, no. 3 (September 1858): 292–295.

52. Ibid., 294.

53. “The Recent Southern Convention at Vicksburg,” De Bow’s Review 27, no. 3 (September 1859): 361.

54. Pettigrew, “Protest,” 293–295. This notion of warlike Africans aligns with John Thornton’s conclusions that high numbers of Africans captured and sold into slavery were trained soldiers. See John K. Thornton, Warfare in Atlantic Africa 1500–1800 (London: UCL Press, 1999), 139–147.

55. Pettigrew, “Protest,” 298–299.

56. “Becoming Africanized,” Franklin Repository, September 14, 1859, 4.

57. Edmund Ruffin, Anticipations ofthe Future: To Serve as Lessons for the Present Time (1860; repr., Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries, 1972), 238, 237, 385, 243, 76–77.

58. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 142.

59. Pettigrew, “Protest,” 305.

60. A Florida Farmer, “Southern Prosperity,” De Bow’s Review 27, no. 1 (July 1859): 38.

61. “Southern Convention at Vicksburg,” De Bow’s Review 27, no. 2 (August 1859): 220.

62. John Hope Franklin, Militant South 1800–1861 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 7, 10, 12–13, 91–92.

63. Spratt, “Report on the Slave Trade,” 488–499.

64. Pettigrew, “Protest,” 295.

65. “A Quartette of Objections to African Labor Immigration,” New Orleans Delta, March 9, 1858.

66. François Furstenberg, “Beyond Freedom and Slavery: Autonomy, Virtue, and Resistance in Early American Political Discourse,” Journal of American History 89, no. 4 (March 2003): 9–12, 23–24.

67. Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Vintage, 1976), 89–93.

68. John B. Russwurm to [Edward Jones], March 20, 1830, in The Black Abolitionist Papers, ed. C. Peter Ripley (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 3:74.

69. Martin R. Delany, “Annexation of Cuba,” North Star, April 27, 1849, repr. in Martin R. Delany: A Documentary Reader, ed. Robert S. Levine (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 161–162.

70. John Brown, Slave Life in Georgia: A Narrative of the Life, Sufferings, and Escape of John Brown, a Fugitive Slave, ed. F. N. Boney (1855; repr., Savannah: Beehive, 1991), 163–164; Du Bois, Suppression, 114; Thomas, Slave Trade, 614.

71. Charley Barber, Winnaboro, S.C., “Ex-Slave 81 Years Old,” in Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States, from Interviews with Former Slaves. South Carolina Narratives, pt. 1 (St. Clair Shores: Scholarly Press, 1976), 1:30.

72. Paul Singleton, Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Works Projects Administration, Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1940), 17.

73. “Revival of the Slave Trade,” Frederick Douglass’Paper, August 18, 1854.

74. Frederick Douglass’Paper, September 15, 1854.

75. “A New Dodge,” Provincial Freeman (Chatham, Canada West), August 22, 1857.

76. “Anonymous,” Anglo-African Magazine 1, no. 9 (September 1, 1859; repr., New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1968), 310.

77. James McCune Smith, “The Critic at Chess,” in The Works of James McCune Smith: Black Intellectual and Abolitionist, ed. John Stauffer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 110.

78. Smith, “Critic at Chess,” 111; see also Frederick Douglass’Paper, January 12, 1855.

79. “South Carolina Becoming Africanized,” National Era, August 18, 1859.

80. Ethiop, “The Anglo-African and the African Slave Trade,” Anglo-African Magazine, ed. Thomas Hamilton, 1, no. 9 (September 1859; repr., New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1968), 284–286.

81. “Editorial by Thomas Hamilton,” in The Black Abolitionist Papers, vol. 5: The United States, 1859–1865, ed. C. Peter Ripley (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 98–99.

Chapter 7. John Brown’s Mistake

1. Douglass, The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: In His Own Words (1881; repr., New York: Kensington Press, 1983), 281. For a thorough, albeit more traditional, treatment of Brown, see David S. Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights (New York: Vintage Books, 2005).

2. “Brown to Higginson, February 12, 1858,” in The Life and Letters of John Brown, Liberator of Kansas and Martyr of Virginia, ed. Frank B. Sanborn (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1891), 436.

3. Douglass, Life and Times, 280.

4. Howard Holman Bell, A Survey ofthe Negro Convention Movement 1830–1861 (New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1969), 116–118.

5. Henry Bibb, “Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb: An American Slave,” in Puttin On Old Massa, ed. Gilbert Osofsky (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 66.

6. Solomon Northup, “Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northup,” in Osofsky, Puttin On Old Massa, 363.

7. Samuel Ringgold Ward, Toronto, March 1, 1852, “To Free Black Men of the United States,” Frederick Douglass’Paper, March 11, 1852.

8. Herbert Aptheker, “Militant Abolitionism,” Journal of Negro History 26, no. 4 (October 1941): 466–467.

9. Charles B. Dew, “Black Ironworkers and the Slave Insurrection Panic of 1856,” Journal of Southern History 41, no. 3 (August 1975): 321–338.

10. “Massa’s Slave Son,” in Unwritten History of Slavery: Autobiographical Accounts of Negro Ex-Slaves, ed. Ophelia Settle Egypt, J. Masuoka, and Charles S. Johnson (Nashville: Fisk University Press, 1968), 38.

11. “I Stole My Learning in the Woods,” in Egypt, Masuoka, and Johnson, Unwritten History, 148.

12. “One of the First Voters in Montgomery County,” in Egypt, Masuoka, and Johnson, Unwritten History, 60.

13. Dew, “Black Ironworkers,” 327, 329–330, 328.

14. Ward, “To Free Black Men.”

15. Benj. S. Bebee, “Letter to Rev. McLain,” in The Mind of the Negro as Reflected in Letters Written during the Crisis 1800–1860, ed. Carter G. Woodson (New York: Russell and Russell, 1926), 130–131.

16. Frederick Douglass’Paper, October 23, 1851. Fugitive slave William Parker led a resistance movement in Christiana, Pennsylvania, in 1851. The slave owner, Edward Gorsuch, was killed.

17. Frederick Douglass’Paper, October 23, 1851.

18. Mary Ann Shadd Cary, “In a Strait,” Provincial Freeman (Chatham, Canada West), March 15, 1856.

19. Mary Ann Shadd Cary, “Insurrections, Underground Railroad, Republican Victory, Fugitive Slave Case,” draft, November 1857, Mary Ann Shadd Cary Papers, Ontario Archives, Black Abolitionist Archives, Mercy Libraries, University of Detroit.

20. Ibid.

21. Liberator, August 13, 1858; Aptheker, Documents, 406–408.

22. Benjamin Quarles, Allies for Freedom (New York: Da Capo Press, 2001), 83–84.

23. The research of European ethnologists like John Phillip concluded, however, that there were no biological differences between people in 1828. See Phillip, Researches in South Africa: Illustrating the Civil, Moral, and Religious Condition of the Progress of the Christian Missions, Exhibiting the Influence of Christianity in Promoting Civilization, 2 vols. (London, 1828; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 1:32–33.

24. Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 116–151; Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003), 18, 71–74, 90.

25. George M. Frederickson, Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1971), 100–102.

26. Jeffery Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators: John Brown and the Secret Six, and a Theory of Slave Violence (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), 10.

27. See John Stauffer, The Black Heart of Men: Radical Abolitionists and the Transformation of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004), for a full treatment and perhaps a differing perspective of radical abolitionism.

28. Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators, 9; François Furstenberg, “Beyond Freedom and Slavery: Autonomy, Virtue, and Resistance in Early American Political Discourse,” Journal of American History 89, no. 4 (March 2003): 28–31.

29. Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators, 148.

30. Theodore Parker, The Present Aspect of Slavery in America: Considered in Two Speeches Delivered before the American Antislavery Society, at New York (Boston: Benjamin H. Greene, 1856), 4–5.

31. Ibid., 7.

32. James Redpath, Roving Editor or Talks with Slaves in the Southern States (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996), 284–287.

33. Rossbach, Ambivalent Conspirators, 169.

34. James Redpath, Captain John Brown (Boston: Thayer and Eldridge, 1860), 204–205; Osborne P. Anderson, A Voice from Harpers Ferry (Boston: Printed for the Author, 1861), 31.

35. Sanborn, Life and Letters, 122, 130.

36. Redpath, Roving Editor, 87.

37. Harriet Beecher Stowe, “An Appeal to the Women of the Free States of America on the Present Crisis in Our Country,” Provincial Freeman, March 25, 1854.

38. Lucy Stone, “The Fugitive Slave Case,” Cincinnati Daily Gazette, February 14, 1856.

39. Parker, Present Aspect, 5, 91.

40. Frederick Douglass, “Is It Right and Wise to Kill a Kidnapper?,” Frederick Douglass’ Paper, June 2, 1854.

41. Solomon Northup, “Twelve Years a Slave,” 363.

42. J. Sella Martin, “Speech of Rev. J. S. Martin,” Liberator, November 11, 1859.

43. James McCune Smith, The Works of James McCune Smith: Black Intellectual and Abolitionist, ed. John Stauffer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 154.

44. John S. Jacobs, “A True Tale of Slavery,” in Harriet Jacobs Family Papers, vol. 1, ed. Jean Fagan Yellin (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 300.

45. Andrew Jackson, Narrative and Writings of Andrew Jackson, of Kentucky (Syracuse, N.Y.: Daily and Weekly Star, 1847), 8.

46. James W. C. Pennington, The Fugitive Blacksmith; or, Events in the History of James W. C. Pennington, Pastor of a Presbyterian Church, New York, Formerly a Slave in the States of Maryland, U.S. (1850; repr., Westport, Conn.: Negro University Press, 1971), xii, xiii.

47. Ibid., 3.

48. Bibb, “Narrative,” 156.

49. Stone, “The Fugitive Slave Case.”

50. “A Reminiscence of Slavery. The Slave Mother, Margaret Garner. Her Tragic Sacrifice of a Child in This City. Interview with Her Husband,” Cincinnati Chronicle, March 11, 1870, in Mark Reinhardt, Who Speaks for Margaret Garner? (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 238–239.

51. Austin Steward, Twenty-Two Years a Slave and Forty Years a Freeman (Rochester, N.Y.: William Alling, 1857), 140.

52. Ethiop, “What Shall We Do with the White People?,” Anglo-African Magazine, February 1860.

53. Frederick Douglass, “The Black Man’s Future in the Southern States: An Address Delivered in Boston, Massachusetts, on 5 February 1862,” in Frederick Douglass Papers, ed. John W. Blassingame, series 1, vol. 3, 1855–63 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985), 507.

54. Dr. John S. Rock, in A Documentary History ofthe Negro People in the United States, ed. Herbert Aptheker (New York: Citadel, 1951), 402.

55. Ibid., 403, 404.

56. Douglass, Life and Times, 323; see also Quarles, Allies for Freedom, 80, for a similar conclusion; as well as W. E. B. Du Bois, John Brown (Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co. Publishers, 1909), 344.

57. Edward V. Clark, National Anti-Slavery Standard, October 10, 1850.

58. Liberator, December 9, 1859.

59. Henry Highland Garnet, Walker’s Appeal and Garnet’s Address to the Slaves of the United States of America (1848; repr., Salem: Ayer, 1994), 94–96.

60. Garnet’s address has frequently been interpreted to mean that he advocated violence and was in favor of the slaves insurrecting. What Garnet advocated for slave men and women to do was to “physically resist working” in order to disrupt the institution of slavery to such an extent that it would be impossible for the slaveholding South to recover, forcing southern whites to reconceptualize how black labor would function, a harbinger of how labor relations would unfold after the Civil War. This was ultimately the same goal that Brown hoped to achieve as a result of his plan, only he intended to arm the slaves in running away or to insurrect. See ibid., 96.

61. Ibid., 95–96.

62. Douglass, Life and Times, 323–324.

63. Liberator, November 11, 1859.

64. Du Bois, John Brown, 344.

65. Quarles, Allies for Freedom, 75.

66. Jean Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry (Palo Alto, Calif.: Published by the Author, 1979), 87.

67. Charles H. Langston, “Editor,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, November 18, 1859.

68. Quarles, Allies for Freedom, 75.

69. Ibid., 66; Rev. J. W. Loguen, The Rev. J. W. Loguen, as a Slave and as a Freeman: A Narrative of Real Life (1859; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 398–430.

70. J. W. Loguen, “Letter from J. W. Logan,” Frederick Douglass’Paper, August 12, 1853.

71. Loguen, Rev. J. W. Loguen, 277; see also J. W. Loguen, “Mr. Loguen’s Reply,” Liberator, April 27, 1860, in Woodson, The Mind ofthe Negro, 218.

72. Loguen, Rev. J. W. Loguen, 104–133, 224, 276–278; see also J. W. Loguen, “Irish Ladies Anti-Slavery Society,” Douglass’Monthly, May 1859; J. W. Loguen, Frederick Douglass’ Paper, July 20, 1855.

73. Douglass’Monthly, March 1859, January 1861.

74. Liberator, August 26, 1859.

75. Quarles, Allies for Freedom, 65.

76. James Cleveland Hamilton, “John Brown in Canada,” Canadian Magazine i, no. i (November 1894–April 1895): 132; Dorothy Sterling, ed., Speak Out in Thunder Tones: Letters and Other Writings by Black Northerners, 1787–1865 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1973), 278–280.

77. National Anti-Slavery Standard, April 9, 1870; Detroit Daily Post, February 23, 1875; Detroit Advertiser and Tribune, February 23, !875.

78. Anderson, Voice from Harpers Ferry, 9–?.

79. Richard J. Hinton, John Brown and His Men (New York: Funk and Wagnalls Co., 1894), 170–173.

80. Quarles, Allies for Freedom, 41.

81. Hamilton, “John Brown in Canada,” 134; Karolyn Smardz Frost, I’ve Got a Home in Glory Land: A Lost Tale ofthe Underground Railroad (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 286–287, 307.

82. Hamilton, “John Brown,” 43–44.

83. William Wells Brown, “Narrative of William Wells Brown, a Fugitive Slave,” in Osofsky, Puttin On Old Massa, 216.

84. J. Sella Martin, Liberator, November 11, 1859.

85. Hamilton, “John Brown in Canada,” 132–133.

86. Ibid., 46, 133.

87. Frank A. Rollins, Life and Public Service of Martin R. Delany (New York: Arno Press, 1969), 88, 90.

88. Ibid., 88; Hinton, John Brown and His Men, 635.

89. Quarles, Allies for Freedom, 50.

90. Hinton, John Brown and His Men, 619.

91. Rollins, Life and Public, 92–93.

92. Martin R. Delany, Blake, or The Huts of America, in Ronald Takaki, Violence in the Black Imagination: Essays and Documents (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 103–214, 223.

93. Rollins, Life and Public, 89, 93–94.

94. Jean M. Humez, “Conversation with Martha C. Wright,” in Harriet Tubman: The Life and the Life Stories (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003), 40.

95. Benjamin Quarles, Black Leaders of the Nineteenth Century, ed. Leon Litwack and August Meier (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 45.

96. J. H. Hammond, “Hammond’s Letters on Slavery,” in The Proslavery Argument; as Maintained by the Most Distinguished Writers ofthe Southern States (1852; repr., New York: Negro University Press, 1968), 174; Sanborn, Life and Letters, 452.

97. See chapter i of Deborah Gray White, Ar’n’t I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985). Tubman did value being a woman. After being abused and put out of a railroad car where women sat and put into the smoking car where men sat, Tubman instructed the conductor that “she was proud of being a black woman as he was of being white” (Martha Coffin Wright to Marianne Pelham Mott, November 7, 1865, in Humez, Harriet Tubman, 301).

98. Harper also faced gender and racial erasure. Harper recalled “some of the remarks which my lectures call forth[:] ‘She is a man,’ again ‘She is not colored, she is painted’” (William Still, The Underground Railroad: A Record of Facts, Authentic Narratives, Letters, &c. [Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, 1970], 80). While lecturing at an antislavery meeting in Indiana in 1858, some proslavery Democrats requested that Sojourner “submit her breast for inspection” because “her voice was not the voice of a woman, it was the voice of a man” (Olive Gilbert, Narrative of Sojourner Truth: A Bondswoman of Olden Time [New York: Oxford University Press, 1991], 138–139).

99. Humez, Harriet Tubman, 35.

100. Ibid., 241, 55, 236. Tubman did not accept the idea of failure lightly, as she was known to threaten to shoot any fugitive slaves who expressed an unwillingness to finish traveling with her to Canada.

101. “Letter ofJohn H. Hill to William Still,” Toronto, January 19, 1854, in Woodson, Mind of the Negro, 589.

102. Quarles, Allies for Freedom, 83; Fred Landon, “Canadian Negroes and the John Brown Raid,” Journal of Negro History 6, no. 2 (April 1921): 174–182, in Ontario’s African-Canadian Heritage: Collected Writings of Fred Landon 1918–1967, ed. Karolyn Smardz Frost, Bryan Walls, Hillary Bates Neary, and Frederick H. Armstrong (Toronto: Natural Heritage Books, 2009), 203.

103. Osborn Anderson did not arrive at the farm until September 16, 1859 (Voice from Harpers Ferry, 62).

104. Douglass, Life and Times, 326.

105. Sanborn, Life and Letters, 541.

106. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Cheerful Yesterdays (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1898), 229; Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry, 149.

107. Sanborn, Life and Letters, 542.

108. “My Man Antony,” Putnam’s Magazine 3 (January–June 1869): 448–449.

109. Brown, “Narrative,” 216.

110. Bibb, “Narrative,” 89.

111. J. Sella Martin, Liberator, November 11, 1859.

112. Humez, Harriet Tubman, 243.

113. Harrison Berry, Slavery and Abolitionism, as Viewed by a Georgia Slave (Atlanta: M. Lynch & Co., 1861), 15, 21.

114. Ibid., 15–16.

115. Ibid., 33.

116. “The Harper’s Ferry Affair as Party Capital: The Danger of Using It,” National Era, November 3, 1859.

117. Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Press, 2008), 337–338, 341–343.

118. Lydia Marie Childs to Mary Stearns, November 3, 1859, John Brown / Boyd B. Stutler Collection, MS 78-1, West Virginia Memory Project, West Virginia Division of Culture and History, Charleston, http://www.wvculture.org/history/jbexhibit/bbsms06-0023.html.

119. Du Bois, John Brown, 344.

120. Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry, 154.

121. “The Outbreak in Virginia,” Anglo-African Magazine 1, no. 12 (December 1859): 375, 383; Robert E. McGlone, John Brown’s War against Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 300.

122. “John Brown’s Final Address to the Court, November 2, 1859,” in Jean Libby, John Brown Mysteries (Missoula: Pictorial Histories Publishing Co., 1999), 102.

123. Edmund Ruffin, The Diary of EdmundRuffin, vol. 1, ed. William Kauffman Scarborough (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972), 354.

124. David Hunter Strother, “The Trial of the Conspirators,” Harper’s Weekly, November 12, 1859.

125. “Message of Gov. Henry A. Wise December 1859,” West Virginia Archives and History, http://www.wvculture.org/history/jbexhibit/bbspr02-0016.html.

126. “Correspondence Between Lydia Maria Childs and Gov. Wise and Mrs. Mason,” published by the American Anti-Slavery Society, Boston, 1860, West Virginia Archives and History, http://www.wvculture.org/history/jbexhibit/bbspr02-0016.html.

127. “Letter of Mrs. M. J. C Mason,” Alto, King George’s Co., Va., November 11, 1859, published by the American Anti-Slavery Society, Boston, 1860, West Virginia Archives and History, http://www.wvculture.org/history/jbexhibit/bbspr02-0016.html.

128. “Message of Gov. Henry A. Wise December 1859.”

129. Anderson, Voice from Harpers Ferry, 40.

130. “The Burning of Charleston,” Harper’s Weekly, December 28, 1861.

131. Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry, 135.

132. William Lloyd Garrison, “Letter from Petersburg, Va.,” in The New Reign of Terror (1860; repr., New York: Arno Press, 1967), 116.

133. Robert Dewitt, The Life and Trial and Conviction of Capt. John Brown: Being a Full Account of the Insurrection at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (New York: Robert M. Dewitt, Publisher, 1859), 4.

134. “Affairs at the South,” Daily Evening Express, December 31, 1 860.

135. Ann Agnes Coe to George Halstead Coe, January 27, 1860, Col. George Halstead Coe 10 mss, folder 7, Coe Family Papers, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

136. “The Fear of Slave Insurrections,” New York Times, December ii, 1860.

137. “William S. Pettigrew to James S. Johnston, October 25 1860,” in Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 356.

138. John Townsend, The Doom of Slavery in the Union: Its Safety out of It (Charleston, S.C.: Evans & Cogswell, 1860), 24, 37.

139. Hinton, John Brown and His Men, 325.

140. “John Brown’s Raid at Harper’s Ferry: An Eyewitness Account by Charles White,” ed. Rayburn S. Moore, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 67 (October 19 59) : 3–4.

141. Anderson, Voice from Harpers Ferry, 42–44, 67.

142. Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry, 120.

143. “A False Alarm in Somerset County, Maryland,” National Era, November 17, 1859.

144. “The Burning of Charleston"; see also oversized folder i, Christensen Family Papers, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

145. Ruffin, Diary of Edmund Ruffin, i:456.

146. “Affairs at the South,” Daily Evening Express, December 31, 1860.

147. “Another Negro Insurrection,” Lancaster Daily Evening Express, October 18, 1860; “Alabama Negro Insurrection,” New York Herald, December 19, 1860.

148. “The Alabama Insurrection,” New York Times, October 20, 1860.

149. “Another Negro Insurrection.”

150. Donald E. Reynolds, Editors Make War: Southern Newspapers in the Secession Crisis (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2006), 101.

151. Daily Picayune, September 16, 1860.

152. Townsend, Doom of Slavery, 36, 34; see also Austin State Gazette, August 4, 1860; “Reminiscences about the Troubles,” Dallas Morning News, July 10, 1892.

153. “Reminiscences about the Troubles.”

154. W.R.D.W., “Further Accounts of the Abolition Raid,” Evening Day Book, August 12, 1860, in Townsend, Doom of Slavery, 37.

155. Laura S. Haviland, A Woman’s Life-Work: Labors and Experiences of Laura S. Haviland (Cincinnati: Walden and Stowe, 1882), 176–177.

156. Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry, 84–85.

157. Hinton, John Brown and His Men, 325; Du Bois, John Brown, 353–355.

158. Ann Agnes Coe to George Halstead Coe, January 27, 1860.

159. Thomas W. Henry, From Slavery to Salvation: The Autobiography of Rev. Thomas W. Henry of the A.M.E. Church, ed. Jean Libby (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1994), 53.

160. Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry, 133.

161. Garrison, New Reign of Terror, 108.

162. Bethany Veney, The Narrative of Bethany Veney, a Slave Woman (Worcester, Mass., 1889; electronic ed., Documenting the American South, http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/veney/veney.html), 37.

163. See Mary Ann Shadd Cary, “Underground Railroad Business” and “A Stampede,” Liberator, November 18, 1859.

164. Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry, 171.

165. Anne Brown Adams to Alexander M. Ross, January 15, 1882, GLC 03007.10, Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, New Haven, Connecticut.

166. Libby, Black Voices from Harpers Ferry, 188, 195.

167. Allen A. Lane, “A Warning to Colored Seaman,” Weekly Anglo-African, December 31, 1859.

168. Douglass, Life and Times, 325; Quarles, Allies for Freedom, 114.

169. John S. Rock, “The Position of the Colored Man Today Is a Trying One,” Liberator, March 16, 1860, in Freedom’s Journey: African American Voices of the Civil War, ed. Donald Yacovone (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2004), 49.

170. H. Ford Douglass, Anti-Slavery Bugle, October 6, 1860, in Yacovone, Freedom’s Journey, 9.

171. Humez, Harriet Tubman, 136, 243.

172. Douglass, Douglass Papers, series i, vol. 3, 413–417.

173. Anderson, Voice from Harpers Ferry, 5–6, 7–8.

174. “Speech of John S. Rock, Delivered at the Meionaon, Boston, Mass. 5 March 1860,” in The Black Abolitionist Papers, vol. 5: The United States, 1859–1865, ed. C. Peter Ripley (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 59; Liberator, March 16, 1860.

175. Thomas Hamilton, “The Nat Turner Insurrection,” Anglo-African Magazine 1, no. 12 (December 1859): 386.

176. Henry Clarke Wright, The Natick Resolution, or Resistance to Slaveholders the Right and Duty of Southern Slaves and Northern Freemen (Boston: By the Author, 1859), 21.