1. Roy P. Basler et al., eds., The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1953), 5:370–375.
2. Frederick Douglass, Frederick Douglass Papers, ed. John Blassingame, series i, vol. 3, 1855–63 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985), 477, 484.
3. Jim Downs, Sick from Freedom: African American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 21.
4. Edwin Driskell, interviewer, Henry Wright, ex-slave, Atlanta, Georgia, in Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936–1938, https://www.loc.gov/resource/mesn.044/?sp=198&st=text.
5. Liney Chambers, Brinkley, Arkansas, in Born in Slavery.
6. Frederick Douglass, “The Present and Future of the Colored Race in America: An Address Delivered in Brooklyn, New York, on 5 May 1863,” in Douglass, Douglass Papers, series i, vol. 3, 573.
7. Ibid., 574–575.
8. Ibid., 574.
9. Suzie King Taylor, Reminiscences of My Life in Camp, in Black Writers and the American Civil War, ed. Richard A. Long (Secaucus: Blue and Gray Press, 1988), 131.
10. Abraham Lincoln, “Proclamation 92–Warning to Rebel Sympathizers,” July 25, 1862; Abraham Lincoln, “Second Annual Message,” December 1, 1862, both in John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29503.
11. Ibid. Lincoln was a member of the Illinois Colonization Society even before he became president. See Charles H. Wesley, “Lincoln’s Plan for Colonizing the Emancipated Negroes,” Journal of Negro History 4 (January 1919): 7–21. See Phillip W. Magness and Sebastian N. Page, Colonization after Emancipation: Lincoln and the Movement for Black Resettlement (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011), 3–5, 13–80, for evidence that Lincoln supported colonization as early as 1857 to prevent amalgamation and that despite the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln continued to work with the British government for the resettlement of blacks in British Honduras (Belize) and British Guiana beginning in 1862. He also gave government assistance to the disastrous settlement of contraband on an uninhabited island, Ile-à-Vache, off the coast of Haiti before signing the proclamation freeing those enslaved.
12. Basler et al., The Collected Works, 5:370–375; “Editorial by Philip A. Bell,” June 14, 1862; “R.H.V. to Robert Hamilton"; “Alfred M. Green to Robert Hamilton,” October 1861; all in The Black Abolitionist Papers, vol. 5: The United States, 1859–1865, ed. C. Peter Ripley (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 143, 117–124. Former slave Maria Sutton Clemments claimed that she had “not taken sides wid neither one” (Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States, from Interviews with Former Slaves. Arkansas Narratives, 2:17, https://www.loc.gov/resource/mesn.o22/?sp=19). Former slave William Ward claimed that he didn’t know if “Sherman intended to keep him in slavery or free him” (“An Account of Slavery Related by William Ward–Ex Slave,” in Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves. Georgia Narratives, pt. 4, 131, https://www.loc.gov/resource/mesn.044/?sp=132).
13. “Alfred M. Green to Robert Hamilton,” 123.
14. Bishop Daniel A. Payne, “An Open Letter to the Colored People,” Weekly Anglo-African (1862), quoted in Christian Recorder, September 29, 1862; also in William Wells Brown, The Black Man, His Antecedents, His Genius, and His Achievements (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1865), 208–209.
15. “The Extermination of the Negro,” New York Times, October 16, 1862.
16. “The War, the Proclamation, and the Slaves,” New York Times, November 6, 1862. The massacre in Cawnpore, India, was a major event in the Indian rebellion in 1857. See Rudrangshu Mukherjee, Spectre of Violence (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1998), for a full treatment of this rebellion.
17. Douglass, Douglass Papers, series i, vol. 3, 574.
18. “George E. Stephens to Robert Hamilton,” in Ripley, Black Abolitionist Papers, 199.
19. Benjamin Butler, Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Major General Benjamin F. Butler (Boston, 1892), 492–494.
20. Maj. Gen. Thomas H. Holmes to Maj. Gen. Samuel R. Curtis, October 11, 1862, in War ofthe Rebellion: A Compilation ofthe Official Records ofthe Union and Confederate Armies, series i (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899), 13:726–727.
21. Jefferson Davis, “To the Senate and House of Representatives of the Confederate States,” in Journal ofthe Congress ofthe Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, Wednesday, January 14, 1863 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), 3:13, https://memory.loc.gov/ll/llcc/003/0000/00150013.tif; “Rebel View of the Proclamation,” Doug-lass’Monthly, March 1863.
22. “Reported Negro Plot in Virginia,” Christian Recorder, October 25, 1862.
23. Allen Parker, Recollections of Slavery Times by Allen Parker (Worcester, Mass.: Chas. W. Burbank and Co., 1895), chap. 8.
24. “The Confederate Black Flag” and “Rebels Shooting Negroes,” Liberator 33, no. 8 (February 20, 1863).
25. William De Loss Love, Wisconsin in the War ofthe Rebellion (Chicago: Sheldon & Co., 1866), 557; Greg Urwin, Black Flag over Dixie: Racial Atrocities and Reprisals in the Civil War (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004), 25.
26. Urwin, Black Flag over Dixie, 142–143.
27. “Fort Pillow Massacre,” U.S. Congress, House, Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, vol. i,206, 38th Cong., ist sess. (Washington, D.C., May 5, 1864), 7.
28. Andrew Ward, River Run Red: The Fort Pillow Massacre in the American Civil War (New York: Penguin, 2005), 156–159.
29. “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 4.
30. “Testimony of Major Williams” and “Testimony of Alexander Nayron (colored),” 26–28, in “Fort Pillow Massacre.”
31. “Testimony of Jacob Wilson (colored),” in War of Rebellion, vol. 32, pt. i, series 4 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899), 539–540; “Report of Acting Master William Ferguson, U.S. Navy, of the Capture of Fort Pillow,” in ibid., 571–572.
32. “Statement of Daniel Stamps, Company E, Thirteenth Tennessee Cavalry,” in War of Rebellion, vol. 32, pt. i, series 4, 53?.
33. “Statement of William J. Mays, Company B, Thirteenth Tennessee Cavalry,” in War of Rebellion, vol. 32, pt. i, series 4, 525.
34. “Statement of James Lewis, Private of Company C, Sixth U.S. Heavy Artillery (Colored),” in War of Rebellion, vol. 32, pt. i, series 4, 537.
35. “Testimony of Surgeon Horace Wardner,” in “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 13.
36. “Testimony of Elias Falls (Colored),” in “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 15.
37. “Testimony of Thomas Adison (Colored) Private, Company C, 6th United States Heavy Artillery,” in “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 20–21.
38. “Testimony of Manuel Nichols (Colored) Private, Company B, 6th United States Heavy Artillery,” in “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 21.
39. “Testimony of George Shaw (Colored) Private, Company B, 6th United States Heavy Artillery,” in “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 25–26.
40. “Testimony of Ransom Anderson (Colored,) Co. B, 6th United States Heavy Artillery,” in “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 31–32; “Testimony of Jacob Thompson (Colored),” in ibid., 30; “Report of Acting Master William Ferguson,” 571.
41. “Testimony of Jacob Thompson (Colored),” in “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 30.
42. “Statement of Frank Hogan, Corporal, Company A, Sixth U.S. Artillery,” in War of Rebellion, vol. 32, pt. i, series 4, 536.
43. “Report,” in “Fort Pillow Massacre,” 6.
44. Ward, River Run Red, 250, 464n4.
45. “From L. Polk to Major General Forrest” and “Joint Resolution,” in War of Rebellion, vol. 32, pt. 1, series 1, 619.
46. R.H.C., “Fort Pillow,” Christian Recorder, April 30, 1864.
47. Urwin, Black Flag over Dixie, 145–146; Dudley Taylor Cornish, The Sable Arm: Negro Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966), 176–177; Alan Axelrod, The Horrid Pit: The Battle of the Crater, the Civil War’s Cruelest Mission (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 177–178; John Cimprich, Fort Pillow, a Civil War Massacre and Public Memory (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 104.
48. H. M. Turner, “A Very Important Letter from Chaplain Turner,” Christian Recorder, July 9, 1864.
49. Ibid., emphasis added.
50. James M. McPherson, Anti-Negro Riots in the North, 1863 (New York: Arno Press, 1969), iii.
51. Andrew Dickson White, CopperHead Minstrel: A Choice Collection of Democratic Poems and Songs, for the Use of Political Clubs and the Social Circle (New York: Feeks and Bancker, 1863), 31–32.
52. Ibid., 33.
53. A Thrilling Narrative from the Lips ofthe Sufferers ofthe Late Detroit Riot, March 6, 1863, with the Hair Breadth Escapes of Men, Women and Children, and Destruction of ColoredMen’s Property, Not Less Than $15,000 (Detroit, Mich.: Published by the author, 1863), 9, 20.
54. Ibid., 2–3, 6, 24.
55. Ibid., 13, 18, 8.
56. William Webb, The History of William Webb, Composed by Himself (Detroit: Egbert Hoekstra, 1873; electronic ed., http://Docsouth.unc.edu/neh/webb/webb.html), 38–39.
57. Thrilling Narrative, 13, 15, 1–2.
58. Ibid., 11–12.
59. The 1863 draft riots were motivated by Democratic leaders who successfully riled up many working-class men, most of whom were Irish, to resist being drafted into the Civil War, as they claimed it only benefited African Americans.
60. Report ofthe Committee of Merchants for the Relief of Colored People. Suffering from the Late Riots in the City of New York (New York: George A. Whitehorne, 1863), 22.
61. Ibid., 27, 22, 26.
62. Ibid., 16–17.
63. Ibid., 17.
64. Ibid., 24–25.
65. James L. Smith, Autobiography of James L. Smith, Including, Also, Reminiscences of Slave Life, Recollections ofthe War, Education of Freedmen, Causes ofthe Exodus, etc. (Norwich: Press of the Bulletin, 1881; electronic edition, http://doc.south.unc.edu), 43.
66. Douglass, The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: In His Own Words (1881; repr., New York: Kensington Press, 1983), 361.
67. Douglass, Douglass Papers, series 1, vol. 3, 581.
68. “Congressional Testimony of John S. Smith, Washington, March 14, 1865,” Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, “Massacre of Cheyenne Indians,” 38th Cong., 2nd sess. (Washington, D.C., 1865), 4–12, 56–59, 101–108. See also Joe A. Cramer to Major [Edward Wanshaer Wynkoop], December 19, 1864, “Sand Creek Massacre,” United States Congress, Senate, Report of the Secretary of War, Sand Creek Massacre, Sen. Exec. Doc. No. 26, 39th Cong., 2nd sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1867), 29–33.
69. “Letter from Joe A. Cramer to Major,” in Joint Committee, “Massacre of Cheyenne Indians.”
70. “The Story of the Sand Creek Massacre Retold by One Who Participated in the Bloody Work of That Eventful Day in Colorado’s History,” Denver Evening Post, April 9, 1899, 13, col. A.
71. “The Chivington Massacre” and “Awful State of Affairs in Alabama,” Liberator 35, no. 34 (August 25, 1865): 135.
72. Butler, Autobiography, 903.
73. Steven Hahn, A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 2003), 147–149; Leslie A. Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We: Women’s Transition from Slavery to Freedom in South Carolina (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 128–132, 173–179.
74. Hahn, Nation under Our Feet, 194–195.
75. Eliza Frances Andrews, The War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 1864–1865 (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1908; electronic ed., Documenting the American South, http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/andrews/menu.html).
76. Entry of Mrs. Mary Jones in her journal (Wednesday, January 11, 1865), in The Children of Pride: Selected Letters of the Family of the Rev. Dr. Charles Colcock Jones from the Years 1860–1868, with the Addition of Several Previously Unpublished Letters, ed. Robert Manson Myers (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984), 526.
77. “The Government and the Freedmen,” New York Times, June 6, 1865, 4.
78. “The Policy of the President, in Its Bearings upon the Black Man,” Independent, October 19, 1865, 1.
79. “North Carolina. The Scheme to Exterminate the Colored Race. From the Southern Christian Intelligencer of Aug. 5,” New York Times, August 22, 1865.
80. “Extermination of the Negroes,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 1, 1866, issue 50, col. B.
81. “The South and the Union,” New York Times, November 6, 1866, 2. See also “The Future of the Negro,” Round Table (New York), September 9, 23, 1865, for similar analysis of whether emancipation would lead to the extermination of the colored race in the South.
82. Robert Hamilton, “The Emancipation Proclamation Ignored, and a New Scheme of Southern Despotism Boldly Initiated,” Weekly Anglo-African (New York), September 3, 1865, in Ripley, Black Abolitionist Papers, 360, 362, 364.
83. “Awful State of Affairs in Alabama,” Liberator, August 25, 1865.
84. “Letter of Chas. F. Jackson to Maj. Genl. O. O. Howard, May 22, 1866,” “Affidavit of William Davis, July 8, 1867,” and “Reports of Outrages, Riots and Murders, Jan. 15, 1866–Aug. 12, 1868,” all in Records of the Assistant Commissioner for the State of Tennessee: Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, 1865–1869, National Archives Microfilm Publication M999, roll 34. See also Hannah Rosen, Terror in the Heart of Freedom: Citizenship, Sexual Violence, and the Meaning of Race in the Postemancipation South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), for more on the use of terror and rape to subjugate African Americans after the Civil War.
85. “Letter of Chas. F. Jackson to Maj. Genl. O. O. Howard dated May 22, 1866.” In the years between 1865 and 1868, more than fifteen hundred people were lynched across the South. Data compiled from The Lynching Century: African Americans Who Died in Racial Violence in the United States Chronology: Dates of Death 1865–1899, http://www.oocities.org/colosseum/base/8507/NLists.htm.
86. Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectional States, North Carolina, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872), 14, 49, 318.
87. Martin R. Delany, “Letter on President Warner of Liberia,” Christian Recorder, July 21, 1866, 1.
88. Martin R. Delany, “Trial and Conviction,” February 28, 1876, in Tunde Adeleke, Without Regard to Race: The Other Martin R. Delany (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2003), 227.
89. “Proceedings of a Session Specially Called. Tuesday, March 4, 1873. By the President of the United States of America. A Proclamation,” Journal of the Senate of the United States of America, 1789–1873, Library of Congress, U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 68:602, http://mem0ry.l0c.g0v/cgi-bin/ampage?c011Id=llsj&fileName=068/llsj068.db&recNum=596&itemLink=D?hlaw:2:./temp/-ammem_12WE::%230680597&linkText=1.
90. “The Camp Grant Massacre: Lieut. Whitman’s Report–a Fearful Tale–Women and Children Butchered,” New York Times, July 20, 1871, 1.
91. Jeffrey Ostler, The Plain Sioux and U.S. Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 13, 15, 62.
92. Jeptha “Doc” Choice, Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 16, Texas, pt. i, Adams–Duhon, 1936, Manuscript / Mixed Material, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/mesn161/; Lewis Favor, ex-slave, Georgia, in Born in Slavery, 7.
93. Data compiled from The Lynching Century. Also see “History of Lynching in the South Documents Nearly 4,000 Names,” New York Times, February 10, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/10/us/hist0ry-0f-lynchings-in-the-s0uth-d0cuments-nearly4000?-names.html?_r=0.
94. Richard Taylor, Destruction and Reconstruction: Personal Experiences ofthe Late War (1979; repr., New York: Longmans, 1955), 306–307.
95. Essic Harris, Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition ofthe Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, North Carolina (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1872), 2:99, 94, 95.
96. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 1863–1877 (New York: Perennial Classics, 2002), 426.
97. William Henry Rooks, Arkansas, in Born in Slavery.
98. Eli Coleman, Federal Writers’ Project: Slave Narrative Project, vol. 16, Texas, pt. i.
99. Martin R. Delany, “Delany for Hampton,” letter to the editor, News and Courier, September 26, 1876, 1.
100. See Civil Rights Cases, ?9 U.S. 3 (1883).
101. Dr. Henry McNeal Turner, “The Barbarous Decision of the Supreme Court,” Christian Recorder, November 8, 1883; letter to the editor, Christian Recorder, February 22, 1883; both repr. in Respect Black: The Writings and Speeches of Henry McNeal Turner, ed. Edwin S. Redkey (New York: Arno Press, 1971), 62–63, 54.
102. T. Thomas Fortune, “Political Independence of the Negro,” in Black and White: Land, and Labor and Politics in the South (1884), repr. in African-American Social and Political Thought 1850–1920, ed. Howard Brotz (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1992), 337–343.
103. Frederick Douglass, “The Future of the Colored Race,” May 1886, repr. in Brotz, African-American Social and Political Thought, 309. Douglass was probably referring to the massacre of Chinese in Wyoming by white miners in 1885. The white miners in Duquoin, Illinois, imitated these actions and warned African American men that they would be next if they did not abandon their claims and leave. See “The Bitter Fruits of the Chinese Massacre in Wyoming Making Their Appearance with Unpleasant Rapidity,” Congregationalist, October 8, 1885, issue 41, col. B.
104. Weekly Age-Herald, August 28, 1889.
105. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America 1860–1880 (1935; repr., New York: Free Press, 1962), 379.
106. Ida B. Wells-Barnett, On Lynchings (New York: Humanity Books, 2002), 121.
107. Mary Church Terrell, “Lynching from a Negro’s Point of View,” North American Review 178 (June 1904): 853–854, 860–861, 863, JSTOR Early Journal Content, https://archive.org/details/jstor-25150991.
108. See Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Vantage Press, 1998), for more on the importance of naming historical events. See also “1898 Wilmington Race Riot Commission Report,” May 2006, LeRae Umfleet, Principal Researcher, Research Branch, Office of Archives and History, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources, http://www.history.ncdcr.gov/1898-wrrc/report/front-matter.pdf. The commission suggests that what happened in Wilmington was an “ethnic riot” defined as “lethal attacks by . . . one ethnic group upon another, designed to degrade the targeted group, inflict harm or kill them, and thus reduce the ethnic heterogeneity of one’s region or state” (357).
109. “1898 Wilmington Race Riot Commission Report,” 197.
110. J. Allen Kirk, “A Statement of Facts Concerning the Bloody Riot in Wilmington, N.C. of Interest to Every Citizen of the United States” (Wilmington, N.C., 1898), http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/kirk/menu.html.
111. Ibid.
112. “Letter to William McKinley: President of the United States of America, Nov. 13, 1898,” National Archives Material Relating to the 1898 Wilmington Race Riot, RG 60, General Records of the Department of Justice, box 1117a, “Year Files,” 1887–1904, file 17743-1898, McKinley Papers, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
113. “1898 Wilmington Race Riot Commission Report,” 195, 197–198, 203; Charles Crowe, “Racial Massacre in Atlanta,” Journal of Negro History 54, no. 2 (April 1969): 167.
114. “Crisis for Negro Race,” New York Times, June 4, 1900.
115. George White, “George White Speaks Out on Lynching,” in Trade of Puerto Rico; Personal Explanation: Speeches of Hon. George H. White, of North Carolina, in the House of Representatives, Monday, February 5, and Friday, February 23, 1900, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/murray:@field(DOCID+@lit(lcrbmrpt2112divi.
116. Kirk, Statement of Facts, emphasis added.
117. William Pickens, “Jesse Max Barber,” Voice, December 3, 1906.
118. J. Max Barber, “The Atlanta Tragedy,” Voice of the Negro, September 22, 1906, 476, 478.
119. Charles Crowe, “Racial Violence and Social Reform–Origins of the Atlanta Riot of 1906,” Journal of Negro History 53, no. 3 (July 1968): 168, 170.
120. Atlanta Constitution, September 25, 1906.
121. “Letter to the Editor,” Atlanta Georgian, August 26, 1906.
122. Lynching Calendar; Lynching Century.
123. Rev. Peter Randolph, From Slave Cabin to the Pulpit. The Autobiography of Rev. Peter Randolph: The Southern Question Illustrated and Sketched of Slave Life (Boston: James H. Earle, 1893), 44.
124. “Robert W. Winston, N.C., Oct. 2, 1919, to Moorfield Storey,” Robert W. Winston Papers, North Carolina State Archives, as found in Leon Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Vintage, 1998), 207.
125. Ophelia Settle Egypt, J. Masuoka, and Charles S. Johnson, eds., Unwritten History of Slavery: Autobiographical Accounts of Negro Ex-Slaves (Nashville: Fisk University, 1968), 118.
1. Marcus Garvey, “An Appeal to the Soul of White America” and “The Negro’s Place in World Reorganization,” repr. in African-American Social and Political Thought 1850–1920, ed. Howard Brotz (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1992), 555, 557, 567.
2. Civil Rights Congress, We Charge Genocide: The Historic Petition to the United Nations for the Relief from a Crime of the United States Government against the Negro People (New York: Civil Rights Congress, 1951), xii, xvi–xviii, 77, 126, 191–192.
3. James G. Thompson, letter to the editor, Pittsburgh Courier, January 31, 1942.
4. Civil Rights Congress, We Charge Genocide, 8–9.
5. Ibid., 196–197.
6. A. Dirk Moses, “Empire, Colony: Keywords and the Philosophy of History,” in Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, ed. A. Dirk Moses (New York: Berghahn Books, 2010), 7, 17–19. Also see Omer Bartov, “’Fields of Glory’: War, Genocide, and the Glorification of Violence,” in Catastrophe and Meaning: The Holocaust and the Twentieth Century, ed. Moishe Postone and Eric Santner (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 118, 131; Omer Bartov, “Defining Enemies, Making Victims: Germans, Jews, and the Holocaust,” in Landscaping the Human Garden: Twentieth-Century Population Management in a Comparative Framework, ed. Amir Weiner (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003), 136, 146, 152.
7. U.S. Congress, Senate Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Foreign Relations, The Genocide Convention, 81st Cong., 2nd sess., 13 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1950), 47–48.
8. Moses, “Empire, Colony,” 7–8.
9. Martin Luther King, “Non-aggression Procedures to Interracial Harmony,” address delivered at the American Baptist Assembly and American Home Mission Agencies Conference, July 23, 1956, in The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., Volume III: Birth of a New Age, December 1955–December 1956, ed. Clayborne Carson, Stewart Burns, Susan Carson, Pete Holloran, and Dana Powell (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 325; Herbert Shapiro, White Violence, Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988), 429.
10. Robert F. Williams, Negroes with Guns, ed. Marc Scheifer (Mansfield Center: Martino Publishing, 2013), 82, 76, 70.
11. Malcolm X, “America’s Gravest Crisis since the Civil War,” speech at the University of California, October 11, 1963, in Malcolm X: The Last Speeches, ed. Bruce Perry (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1989), 62–63, 69.
12. Malcolm X, “An Appeal to African Heads of State,” in Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements, ed. George Breitman (New York: Merit Publishers, 1965), 74.
13. Ibid., 75–76.
14. The New York Riot occurred on July 16, 1964. “Negro Boy Killed,” New York Times, July 17, 1964; “Verdict in Harlem,” New York Times, September 2, 1964.
15. Malcolm X, “Appeal,” 77.
16. Malcolm X et al., “Program of the Organization of Afro-American Unity,” http://www.malcolm-x.org/docs/gen_oaau.htm.
17. “Lyndon Johnson and Martin Luther King Jr.,” August 20, 1965, Presidential Recordings Program, http://whitehousetapes.net.
18. Bayard Rustin, “The Watts,” Watts Commentary Magazine, March 1966. Governor Edward Brown appointed John A. McCone to head a commission to investigate the causes of the Watts riot; the commission published a report titled Violence in the City–an End or a Beginning.
19. “Black Power Is Black Death,” New York Times, July 7, 1966; “Black Power,” New York Times, July 10 and July 12, 1966.
20. Stokely Carmichael, speech at University of California, Berkeley, October 29, 1966, http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org.
21. The Black Panthers Party Platform, 1966, http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/sixties/HTML_docs/Resources/Primary/Manifestos/Panther_platform.html.
22. Ibid.
23. “Black Power,” a statement by the National Committee of Negro Churchmen, July 31, 1966, in The Black Power Revolt, ed. Floyd B. Barbour (Toronto: Collier Books, 1969), 313, 314, 315.
24. Ibid., 319.
25. Sam Greenlee, The Spook Who Sat by the Door: A Novel (Chicago: Lushena Books, 2002), 111–112.
26. Chester Himes, Plan B (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993), 143, 146, 183, 200–201.
27. Michel Fabre and Robert E. Skinner, eds., Conversations with Chester Himes (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1995), 45, 56, 58.
28. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010), 9.
29. “Shooting Suspect in Custody after Charleston Church Massacre,” CNN.com, June 18, 2015; “Charleston Church Shooter,” Atlanta Daily World, June 19, 2015.
