1:1 Critical suggestions that the description of Job's character (lit. "perfect and upright") contradicts texts indicating mankind's sinfulness (Rm 3:23; 1 Jn 1:8) are unfounded. God twice attested to Job's integrity (Jb 1:8; 2:3). Both Hebrew words are used of God (Dt 32:4). Men and women in God's image are to reflect those attributes (Mt 5:48; Eph 4:20-24).
1:6 Canaanite mythology portrays the "sons of God" as an assembly of gods. However, angels are meant here. No contradiction exists between the use of this term for "angel" and texts that speak of Christ as God's only Son (Jn 3:18; 1 Jn 4:9) who was with God and was God before creation (Jn 1:1). Spiritually, believers become sons (Rm 8:14) and children (1 Jn 3:1) of God.
1:7-8 God's rhetorical questions to Satan do not imply that God had no knowledge of Satan's activities. The Scriptures attest to God's omniscience and omnipresence (Ps 33:13-15; 139:7-12). The phrase "roaming through the earth" has led some commentators to suggest that Satan was God's "roving agent" to detect mischief in the world, much like the spies who served in the secret service of the Persian king (known from texts from Mari in upper Mesopotamia, contemporaneous with the Hebrew patriarchs). But this is mere speculation. God does not cooperate with Satan in any way.
1:12 God's justice and integrity were not impugned by allowing Satan to inflict suffering upon an innocent man. Only a genuine test could demonstrate to Satan whether Job's devotion was real or was, as Satan insinuated, the result of God's having protected and blessed Job beyond that of most human beings. More important than proving something to Satan, God had purposes for Job's good that could only come through this arduous path of testing.
1:14-19 Skeptics charge that the four disasters that befell Job's possessions and family were violently unjust. Yet all fell within the bounds allowed to Satan. Some note a parallel with the epic of Keret, from Ugarit (Ras Shamra) on the Syrian Mediterranean coast, whose hero saw his entire family perish. That there are parallels does not prove that Job is a copy. Similar tragedies can occur in any family.
1:15 Because Sabeans are traditionally associated with a location in present-day Yemen hundreds of miles to the south (1 Kg 10:1; Jr 6:20), some consider as unlikely the arrival of marauders in Job's homeland in Uz, east of the Jordan River somewhere between Aram (Gn 10:23) and Edom (Gn 36:28). But the Bible indicates Sabean presence further north (Gn 10:7; Jb 6:19). These Sabeans were brigands, hence may point to an early setting of the book before they became the well-known later traders of southern Arabia.
1:17 The Chaldeans (Hb kasdim) were not the later people associated with Nebuchadnezzar but an earlier Bedouin group, perhaps related to Abraham's brother Nahor (Gn 22:22). The appearance of "Chaldeans" does not require a late date for Jb.
2:3-6 The charge that God and Satan were playing games, with Job as the pawn, is insensitive and erroneous. Job's ordeal was intensified to test the depths of his faith and to achieve an end that could only come through these trials.
2:9-10 The skeptical observation that Job's wife was right to fault God for Job's problems and urge him to curse God and receive God's death blow is preposterous. Job rightly rejected her suggestion as "foolish."
3:8 "Leviathan" is known from texts from Ras Shamra (ancient Ugarit, see 1:14-19) in which the god Baal battles and defeats Lotan (a great sea monster) and Yam (the sea god) with weapons over which he has pronounced an incantation. Some suggest this verse reflects those events and revocalizes the Hebrew word "day" (yom) to "sea" (yam). Others seek a background in mythologies that portray a solar or lunar eclipse as being caused by a great dragon. Mythological allusions need not indicate scriptural endorsement of paganism. Identical terms have different meanings in different contexts. Ancient Near Eastern backgrounds may have supplied the form but not the content of biblical material. Metaphorical use of "Leviathan" occurs elsewhere (Jb 41:1; Ps 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1). Leviathan may symbolize an evil spirit. Job wished that it could have eradicated the day of his birth. A similar picture occurs in Rv 12:1-6.
3:13-19 Job's portrayal of death as a place where all the deceased go does not indicate scriptural endorsement of a mythological underworld. Although all go to the grave, all do not share the same eternal destiny (Ps 49:14-15; 73:25-26; 2 Co 5:1-8).
4:12-21 Eliphaz's dream/vision did not indicate that he and the prophets engaged in ecstatic behavior. The text does not suggest that Eliphaz was a prophet.
5:1 Eliphaz's rhetorical question, "Which of the holy ones . . . ?" does not imply scriptural belief in ancient Near Eastern minor deities who served as mediating personal gods. Although the need for a mediator is a prominent theme in Jb (9:33; 13:3; 16:19-21; 19:23-27), the Scriptures do not endorse the idea of angels as mediators. Only One serves in this capacity (1 Tm 2:5;Heb 7:25; 1 Jn 2:1).
5:13 Paul's endorsement of Eliphaz's statement (1 Co 3:19) does not validate all of Eliphaz's remarks or those of his friends, any more than his citing the words of a Cretan prophet (Ti 1:12). Inerrancy guarantees only the accuracy of what the three friends said.
6:1-4 Job's perception of God as his enemy (see 13:24; 33:10), who like a cosmic warrior was shooting poison-tipped arrows into him, was colored by his intense suffering. It was far from objective or accurate. God is neither mean-spirited nor arbitrary with people. God is perfectly just in all of His dealings (Dt 32:4; Dn 9:14; Rv 16:5).
6:27 Job's words should not be understood as indicating that his friends practiced such deeds. In hisdisappointment with Eliphaz, Job pictured the callous treatment he was receiving from his friends as resembling those who made merchandise of an orphan or a friend. Such detestable activities were widely attested in ancient Near Eastern writings, such as the Kilamuwa Inscription from Syria. Righteous kings (e.g., the Code of Hammurabi, eighteenth century b.c.) claimed to be the protector of the underprivileged of society. God is declared to be the defender of the widow, the orphan, the poor, and the resident alien; He instructed His people to have the same concern (Dt 27:19; Ps 68:4-6).
7:1 Again, Job's intense suffering caused him to view life as a form of bondage to a cruel tyrant. It would be interesting to compare Job's present view of God with the view that he held during his many years of pros-perity.
7:7-9 For discussion on Job's view of death, see note on 7:21.
7:12 Earlier critical scholars suggested that Job's remark alluded to the Babylonian Enuma Elish epic, in which Marduk slew Tiamat (the sea goddess) and divided her body in order to form heaven and earth, and then set a guard on her. Contemporary scholars suggest a mythological background in the Ugaritis epic of Baal and Anat (see note on 3:8). Such an allusion may have apologetic value to clarify that it is Yahweh who controls the elements (Gn 1:1-23; Ps 74:12-14; 104:1-5).No mythological allusion may have been intended, however, for the Hebrew yam can mean "sea" (Gn 1:10) and tannin, "a reptile" (Gn 1:21; Ex 7:10). For more about the monster, see note on 9:13.
7:21 Job's pessimistic remarks about death and the grave do not reflect the full biblical perspectives on the subject. Job felt that he would soon die and it would be too late for God to help him. The Bible indicates that no place escapes the view of an omnipresent God (Ps 139:7-8) and that there is life after death (Ps 73:23-27; 1 Co 15:20-57). See notes on 14:13-15; 19:25-27.
8:9 Bildad's statement was not absurd as skeptics charge, but was a metaphor denoting relative age (cp. v. 8). Job and his three friends lived too short a time to acquire the sophisticated wisdom of earlier generations.
9:4 Job's words do not indicate that God acts arbitrarily, capriciously, or maliciously in dealing with mankind, even those who oppose Him (Hs 11:7-11; Rm 5:8; 6:23). God's ultimate purposes are His glory (Is 48:11; Hab 2:14) and man's good (Ps 145:7-13; Eph 2:7-10). See the note on 6:1-4.
9:6 Some Scriptures portray the earth metaphorically and should not be construed as reflecting primitive cosmology. Architectural terms are used (1 Sm 2:8; Ps 75:3); God forms the earth upon the seas (Ps 24:2); the mountains are viewed as pillars for the sky (Jb 26:11); and the circle of the earth and heaven stretched out over it are described as being "like a tent" (Is 40:22). Such metaphors are reminders that the earth belongs to its Creator (Ps 24:1) and is designed to be a place where God and man may meet together.
9:8 The name of the Canaanite goddess Asherah means "she who treads on the sea." The Bible portrays God's sovereignty using similar metaphors, countering pagan mythology with depictions of His greater power. He treads upon the sea with His horses and chariots (Hab 3:8,15) or upon the high places of earth (Am 4:13). He rides upon the clouds of the sky (Ps 68:4,33). The imagery shows God's complete sovereignty over the natural world.
9:13 Because "Rahab" is mentioned elsewhere (26:12-13; Ps 89:10; Is 51:9-10), critics have concluded that the Hebrews shared the Canaanite mythological belief concerning the defeat of a chaos monster. Some critics say that this picture of Rahab as having "assistants" or allies indicates a borrowing of the Babylonian creation account in which Tiamat had her helpers.Hebrew awareness of pagan mythologies does not mean that they embraced them. When the Bible alludes to mythological themes, the writers' purpose was to put them into a different context, one that reveals Yahweh's sovereignty and His control of nature (Ps 74:12-23; Is 51:9-10). See notes on 3:8; 7:12; 9:8; 26:12-13.
10:21-22 Job's view of the afterlife was shaped by his despondency. His view does not represent the full biblical view of the subject. For more on just the OT perspective on the afterlife, see the note on 14:13-15.
11:6 Zophar's remarks are not to be taken literally. He meant that Job was being punished far less than he deserved. The Scriptures report that God remembers sinful actions and will never forget the crimes of those who oppress the poor (Hs 7:1-2). The best example of God's forgetfulness is with those whose sins are forgiven (Is 43:25; Jr 31:34).
11:7-8 No contradiction exists between Zophar's question concerning knowing God's person, power, and wisdom. Paul demonstrates that man can understand enough of God's existence and power to make him accountable for not seeking to know God (Rm 1:18-20).
12:4-6 Skeptics have imagined a contradiction between God's apparent reward of evildoers and the psalmist's declaration of their disastrous end (Ps 34:21; 37:35-38).In his reversals, losses, and the resultant suffering, Job was far more aware of the great injustices in this present world. The Scriptures affirm that evildoers' own wickedness will cause them earthly and eternal ruin (Ps 1:4-5; Pr 11:5; Mt 25:26).
12:9 Critics have suggested that the word "Lord" (Yahweh) is a later substitution for the original 'eloah ("God"), since the name Yahweh does not appear elsewhere in the dialogues. They propose that a later scribe changed the rare phrase "hand of God" to the phrase "hand of the Lord," which is common in the rest of the OT. However, there are very few manuscripts that support 'eloah, and they can be explained as the result of later scribes making consistent Job's usage of 'eloah as the name of God. Some critics say that Job did not know God as Yahweh, but the use of God's covenant name in chapters 1-2 and 38-42 show that he did. Therefore, "Lord" is probably the original text.
13:15 Critical scholars take the Hebrew particle lo' to mean "not." Accordingly they suggest that Job felt that if God slayed him, he would have no hope. HCSB follows the reading of the MT marginal note, "to him," which fits Job's positive reply to his own question (v. 14). The Hebrew particle could also be translated "surely."
14:1-4 Skeptical observations that Job's remarks indicate that women are unclean are without foundation. Some ancient cultures viewed the birth process as conferring ritual uncleanness (see Lv 12:1-8; Lk 2:22), but this did not mean that women, as such, were "unclean."
14:13-15 Although critical opinion discounts any belief in personal immortality here, Job's words can express such an underlying hope. The word translated "wait" (v. 14) is the same word used in 13:15 for "hope," indicating full trust in God. The word translated "relief" (14:14) occurs commonly for change of garments(Jdg 14:12,13). Thus Job's condition will be changed from misery to life and renewed fellowship with God, as indicated in the "call/answer" motif (e.g., Ps 102:1-2; Is 65:24). Belief in immortality is attested to in the OT (e.g., Ps 49:14-15; Dn 12:2).
15:14-16 Eliphaz's philosophical rambling that nothing is pure in God's eyes does not reflect the Bible's full teaching on the subject. Those who truly believe and exercise total trust and faith in God are counted as righteous (Gn 15:6; Hab 2:4). Made righteous in God's sight through Christ's atoning death (Rm 1:17; 2 Co 5:25) and taken into union with Christ (Col 1:27), believers can live virtuous and faithful lives through Christ who lives through them (Gl 2:20).
16:19-21 The need for an intermediary between God and man is an important theme in Jb (9:33). Job feels that his desire to speak directly to God was not possible (13:3), so he spoke of his "advocate . . . in the heights" (16:19). Such an advocate need not have been some personal angel or other heavenly figure; Job may have had in mind that God would intercede with Himself on his behalf (cp. Hs 11:8). See the notes on 5:1; 19:25-27; 33:23.
17:13-15 Job's remarks stemmed from his despair and do not contradict the biblical teaching on life after death (1 Co 15:12-58; 2 Co 5:1-8).
17:16 Some scholars suggest that Job's remarks indicate a belief in a Mesopotamian underworld into which people enter via a series of gates, but this interpretation is unfounded. The term "gates" is a metaphor for entrance into the state of death or the grave. Similar expressions are found in 38:17; Ps 9:13; 107:18; Is 38:10; and Mt 16:18.
18:12-13 Critical suggestions that "disaster" and "death" reflect Mesopotamian or Ugaritic mythology are erroneous. These terms are metaphors of the calamities and diseases that affect humanity. The term "firstborn" often speaks not only of a man's first offspring but metaphorically of priority, authoritative position, or first in rank (Col 1:15; Heb 1:6). The imagery here refers to the most extreme form of death-causing disease.
18:14 Some critics equate the "king of terrors" with Nergal, the Canaanite death deity, but this is unnecessary. The term represents a metaphor for death, mankind's "last enemy" (1 Co 15:26).
19:20 The phrase "by the skin of my teeth" was a common metaphor, with "skin" being a play on an idea in the preceding line. It spoke of Job's desperate circumstances. Skeptical suggestions that the Bible teaches error in saying that teeth literally have skin are nonsense.
19:23-24 Critics once thought that Job could not write because only professional scribes did so in the pre-Mosaic period. Inscriptions discovered at Serabit el-Khadim in the western Sinai Pennisula dating from the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries b.c. demonstrate that ordinary Semitic laborers working in the turquoise mines could write. If ordinary laborers could read and write, doubtless Job could.
19:25-27 The translation of this passage is difficult, but most English versions take it as a glimpse into the reality of the resurrection. Commentators who consider Job's hopeful words inconsistent with his feelings expressed elsewhere fail to reckon with his vacillating thoughts throughout the dialogue. His suffering often caused him to expect (17:1) and desire death (3:3-19; 10:18), considering it a place of nonexistence and no return (7:7-10; 10:21-22; 14:12; 17:13-16). Although Job had viewed God as his enemy (6:4; 7:17-21; 10:3,8-14; 13:21,24; 16:7-14; 17:6; 19:7-12,22) from whom he could receive no justice (9:2-3,16,20,28-33; 10:15; 19:7) but only death (16:18), yet his faith in God (12:13,16,18; 13:15-18; 17:3) and hope in immortality had surfaced previously (14:13-17). Job's words indicate that God was his Redeemer (19:25) whom he would see in some future day after his body had wasted away in death. Job expected to live again bodily and, from the vantage point of his own flesh, behold God (vv. 26-27). See note on 14:13-15 (cp. Jn 11:25; Heb 7:25).
20:1-29 Although Zophar's second speech reflects many biblical truths concerning the wicked, it does not guarantee that his words were given in true biblical spirit. Zophar painted pictures of the certain failure and disastrous end of the wicked but left Job to make the application to himself. Words have the power to wound or heal (Pr 11:9,11; 15:4) and need to be used in a positive manner (Pr 15:23). Believers are to be ready to give a defense of their faith, but their apologetic needs to be spoken with all due propriety and truth, bathed in love (Eph 4:15; Col 4:6; 1 Pt 3:15).
21:7-15 Skeptics point out that Job's characterization of the success of the wicked, despite their godless lives, contradicts biblical teaching (cp. 21:10 with Ps 49:12-15). But Job's issue here was given voice elsewhere in Scripture (e.g., Ps 73:1-14). Biblical writers did not gloss over the seeming contradiction between the prosperity of the wicked and God's promise of blessing for those who obey Him; but their answer came from a change of perspective in which they realized the ultimate destiny of those who disregard God (Ps 73:17-20). The book of Jb is a dialogue in which the speakers, including Job, encircled the main issue—God's righteousness—approaching it from a variety of angles. Along the way some negative (Job) and superficial (the friends) ideas came out, but they should never be taken as the author's final teaching. Although seemingly reminiscent of the innocent sufferer's lament in other ancient documents, including one known as the Babylonian Theodicy, Job's remarks were a true report of his feelings at this stage of the discussion, not the book's final position.
22:8 Some critics have denied the integrity of this verse because the MT is written in the third person, while the succeeding verses are in the second person. Yet such variation is not uncommon in Hebrew, and verse 8 actually provides the basic premise upon which Eliphaz built his argument: The wealthy too often get rich at the expense of others. Eliphaz reasoned that whether knowingly or unknowingly, Job had become wealthy by violating common standards of decency. He had taken advantage of the poor, the widow, and the orphan (vv. 6,9). He had failed to assist those in need of life's basic staples (v. 7). The charges were false (1:1,8; 2:3) and Job would speak against such actions (29:12; 31:16-23). Eliphaz's false accusations are a reminder that texts must be read in context and compared with other passages so as not to be incorrectly cited as proof. Verses 6-10 are a true report of Eliphaz's speech, but Eliphaz's words are not to be read as the truth concerning Job.
22:24 Although "Ophir" has not been located with certainty, scriptural reports of Solomon's trading ventures there (1 Kg 9:26-28; 10:11) dispel any notion that such a place was a fabled land such as Shangri-La.
23:8-9 Job's complaint concerning the inaccessibility of God does not contradict the biblical teaching of God's omnipresence (Ps 139:7-12) and nearness to those in need (Ps 34:18; 103:1-2; 145:18; Is 65:24). Job's cry arose from what he considered to be unjust suffering (23:10-12). His remarks reflected accurately his perspective of things but does not guarantee theological accuracy.
24:1-17 Critical tendencies to date this chapter in the Babylonian exile period are unnecessary. The crimes listed here reflect the general moral and spiritual failure of mankind. Job's questions as to why a just God fails to deal with crimes condemned in His law (for example, cp. v. 2 with Ex 20:5; Dt 19:4; v. 3 with Ex 22:22; Dt 28:31; v. 7 with Ex 22:26-27; v. 14 with Ex 20:13,15; v. 15 with Ex 20:14) expressed only his opinion. God's seeming inactivity does not indicate divine inability or unconcern. He controls all things (Ps 22:28). Though not always condoned by God, man's free acts are under His jurisdiction (Jr 10:23; Php 2:13). People may not understand His purposes or "delays" (Ps 10:1; 2 Pt 3:9), but God's administration of the universe is just (Ps 75:2; 89:14; Is 45:21).
24:18-25 Critics have either deleted portions of this passage (e.g., v. 21) or largely transferred it to another place in the book (e.g., after 27:13 or 27:23). The difficult Hebrew and the emphasis on divine retribution upon the wicked are cited as evidence of a dislocation here. Various schemes have been suggested, such as assigning it to Bildad or to a supposed lost speech of Zophar. The number and variety of differing proposals show that the critical approach is unlikely to resolve the issue. Because this is an ongoing discussion, Job's remarks at this point need not be consistent with his previous or subsequent statements. Job endorsed the principle of divine retribution earlier (10:14-15), even if he did not think it rightly applied to his situation (23:10-12).
25:4-5 Bildad's question should not be understood as a denial that man's reconciliation with God is impossible. Bildad returned to where the dialogue began, and he repeatedly surfaced in stating that weak, flawed human beings cannot hope to be so morally perfect that they are pure in God's sight (4:15-18; 9:2; 14:4; 15:14-16). His statement was designed to counter Job's claim that were he to present his case before God, his innocence and righteousness would be established (23:10-12). Bildad asked better than he knew. The Scriptures answer the question by declaring that sinful people can be just in God's sight by meeting God's terms (Gn 15:6; Hab 2:4), faith in the substitutionary death of Christ for sins (Rm 3:21-26; 5:8; 2 Co 5:21; 1 Pt 3:18).
25:6 "Maggot" and "worm" are metaphors of man's relative weakness and imperfection. Psalm 22, quoted by Jesus as He was dying, uses this same imagery (v. 6). Bildad built upon Job's previous remarks (Jb 7:5; 17:14; 21:26). His philosophy did not represent the biblical view of man's essential dignity and potential worth as created in the image of God (Gn 1:26). Although that image is marred by sin, it is not obliterated (1 Co 11:7; Jms 3:7). It can be renewed by faith in Christ, who is the precise image of God (Col 1:15-20; Heb 1:3). The price of restoring the image of God in man was Jesus' full participation in the wretchedness of the human condition that is so aptly described in Bildad's and the psalmist's metaphors. The believer's full conformity to the image of Christ lies in the future (1 Co 15:49).
26:7 Critical attempts to view the "northern" skies (Hb. tsaphon) in terms of Ugaritic mythology in which the god Baal's title was Baal-zephon with his residence on Mount Zaphon are unnecessary, despite Ps 48:2-3 and Is 14:13-14, where the north figures prominently in connection with God and mountains. These texts may indicate that it is Yahweh, not Baal, who rightly indwells Zaphon (i.e., "heaven"). Mythological derivation may not be present, however. Job could intend "the northern skies," home to the North Star and constellations. Some scholars suggest that Job wrote better than he knew, for his observation approached the knowledge that the earth is suspended in space supported only by gravitational forces.
26:12-13 Critical theory endorses a mythological reference to Baal's subjugation of Yam (the sea) and Leviathan (a sea monster). Whether "Rahab" is to be identified with Yam or the sea monster is unclear. Similar phraseology is used of God's crushing Leviathan's heads (Ps 74:13-14; 89:9-10; Is 51:9-10). Leviathan is also called the gliding and twisting serpent that God will pierce in eschatological times (Is 27:1). The biblical accounts demythologize Canaanite theology by pointing out that Yahweh is the Creator and Controller of the forces of nature. See the notes on 3:8; 7:12; 9:13.
27:2 The text gives a true record of Job's feelings but these do not represent the scriptural position as to God's righteous and just character (Dt 32:4; Is 30:18; Zph 3:5). God loves righteousness and justice (Ps 33:5), and reigns in justice (Ps 97:2). He also expects His people to act justly (Mc 6:8) so that He might pour out His blessings on them (Dt 16:20). Isaiah predicted that David's heir would one day rule Israel with justice (Is 1:27; 11:1-5).
27:13-23 Because Job appears to adopt his friends' view in this passage, some critics theorize that this description of the wicked is wrongly attributed to Job. Some suggest this passage is a lost third speech of Zophar, or that it should be added to Bildad's short speech (25:1-6). But, as seen elsewhere in the dialogue, Job was searching for answers and encircling his problem from different angles, so his pronouncements were not necessarily consistent with one another (see 21:7-15; 24:18-25). There is no reason to question the text as it stands.
28:1-28 Many critical scholars suggest that because the poem of chapter 28 seems to bear no relation to the surrounding discussions, it was once an independent composition that was incorporated later into the text. This view is unnecessary. Job mused concerning the nature of true wisdom that had not been adequately determined in the previous discussions (e.g., 4:21; 11:6-9; 12:12-13; 15:8; 26:3-4). Chapter 28 serves as a transitional piece, clarifying many issues relating to wisdom that have been brought up previously and laying the groundwork for Job's soliloquy in chaps. 29–31.
28:2 Critics once held that the use of iron was a late development. Mining of iron is now known to have taken place as early as the third millennium b.c. in Egypt, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia, though widespread mining operations began around 1200 b.c. Since the use of iron antedates Moses, Job could have been familiar with it.
28:28 Some critics have denied the integrity of this verse for several reasons. (1) The opening line is considered to be too short and to be a poetic line. (2) The divine name that is used, Adonai ("Lord"), occurs only here in Jb. (3) The verse is said to be inconsistent with the rest of the chapter. The critical charges do not stand, for these reasons: (1) Other poetic pieces have short introductory lines (e.g., Ps 1:1; 50:16). (2) It is gratuitous to suggest that the traditional formula concerning "the fear of the Lord" must always appear exactly the same. (3) Verse 28 provides the logical end to Job's poem. It is by fearing the Lord and submitting to him as master (Adonai) that man can acquire wisdom. There are suggestions from critics that "mankind" ('adam) should be translated to read "He said to Adam," since he would be the first recipient of God-given wisdom. But this idea is questionable at best.
29:6 The imagery spoke of Job's former luxury. "Cream" was so available to him that he could have bathed his feet in it (see Dt 33:24). Olive oil flowed over his stone olive presses. Similar images of abundance occur in the OT (e.g., Dt 32:13-14; Ps 81:16).
30:16-23 Job's characterization of God as One who had abused His power by causing Job's pain and refusing to answer Job's pleas should not be interpreted as normative theology. Job's accusations arose out of suffering and psychological trauma. The Scriptures plainly teach that God is not the author of evil (Jms 1:13) but that He is holy, just, and perfect in all that He does (Lv 11:44-45; 19:2; Dt 32:4). His grace and goodness flow out of His love to needy human beings (Ps 145:8-9). He answers those who call upon Him in their distress(Ps 22:24; 102:1-2), unless they have broken fellowship with Him (Ps 66:18). Although all must face the eventuality of death, even then God lovingly cares for His own (Ps 16:10; 23:4).
31:1-34 Suggestions that Job's ethical standards reflect a late date for the book are unfounded. Many verses reflect the principles in early law codes of the ancient Near East, the Decalogue, and the Pentateuch (e.g., Nm 15:39). Some critics have attempted to restructure the chapter so that Job's list of specific sins has a more logical grouping. Thus v. 1 would be placed together with vv. 9-12. Such attempts are unnecessary for three reasons: (1) Job's remarks do not constitute a legal brief but reflect the passionate outburst of a man who felt that he suffered as one who was innocent of wrongdoing. (2) Textual support for the transposition of verses is lacking. (3) The final editors saw no need to restructure the text.
31:1 Some critics attempt to link the "young woman" that Job mentioned with either the Ugaritic virgin Anat or the Mesopotamian Ishtar, thus suggesting the worship of fertility goddesses. But this is unfounded. The standard warnings against the lust of the eyes are sufficient to explain the verse without resorting to deeper meanings gleaned from supposed pagan precedents.
31:15 The suggestion that Job embraced the universal fatherhood of God finds no support in the context. Job pointed out that he had no inherent superiority to his servants (v. 13), for God oversaw their birth process as well as his. Although God is the universal Creator, He is Father to those who stand in covenant relation with Him (Dt 32:6; Hs 11:1-11; Jn 1:12) and to the Messiah, His Son Jesus Christ (Ps 2:7; Mt 3:17; 11:27).
31:18 Some scholars are skeptical that Job actually cared for the orphan "from [his] youth." However, such hyperbolic speech was as common then as when we now say, "I've done it all my life." Job testified to his life-long commitment to caring for the underprivileged of society (cp. 29:12).
31:40 "The words of Job are concluded" should not be construed to indicate that the subsequent chapters were added later to bring closure to the story line. Similar editorial notes are found in Ps 72:20 and Jr 51:64. The remark indicates that Job had made his case before God and would allow Him to respond.
32:1 Critics view the speeches of Elihu (chaps. 32–37) as a late interpolation into the text, and they offer the following reasons: (1) Elihu is not mentioned in the prologue or epilogue. (2) These chapters contain an unusual proportion of Aramaic words in the Hebrew text. (3) These speeches contain fewer metaphors than the preceding ones and have vocabulary differences.(4) Elihu's speeches are more philosophically/theologically reasoned than those of Job's three friends.
But these charges lack validity. First, Elihu's absence from the prologue is understandable, if he arrived after the dialogue had begun. His absence from the epilogue is no more inexplicable than that of Satan or Job's wife. Second, Elihu's speeches give allusions to all three rounds of the dialogue. Third, the presence of 12 Aramaic words is scarcely disproportionate to the 26 Aramaic words found elsewhere in the book. Arguments based on style are subjective; Elihu should be allowed his own style. Fourth, the failure of Job's friends to convince him necessitates Elihu's philosophical and theological approach. Elihu's speeches were a preparatory bridge between Job's summation of his case and God's reply.
33:13 Elihu's remarks should not be understood as indicating that God is callous, frivolous, or inconsistent in dealing with peoples' prayers. God is under no obligation to answer prayer but the Bible indicates that He does answer prayers that are in accordance with His will (Jms 5:13-18; 1 Pt 3:12). The answer may not be what the petitioner is seeking but it will be that which is best (2 Co 12:7-10). Many believers testify to God's gracious answers to prayer (Ps 34:6).
33:18 Some scholars suggest that this is a mythological allusion to passing through a river into the underworld, where all the departed enter. But this is erroneous. The Scriptures reveal a difference between the state of the saved and unsaved dead (Ps 49:10-15; Lk 16:22-23). The imagery here is a passing through "the river of death" into the grave (the "Pit").
33:23-25 Elihu's remarks form a conditional sentence. They should not be interpreted that angels hear believers' prayers or serve as mediators between the petitioner and God. There is one heavenly Mediator between God and man, and that is Christ Jesus (Jn 14:14; 1 Tm 2:5-6; Heb 7:25). Elihu's thoughts resemble the biblical teaching concerning the "Angel" of the Lord, who is often closely tied to God Himself.
34:29-37 These verses are difficult in Hebrew. The widely differing attempts by critical scholars to emend the text have no supportive manuscript evidence, so it is best to let the MT stand as the reliable source. As has sometimes been the case in the past, future archaeological discoveries may clarify the meaning of obscure terms in this passage.
35:6-8 Elihu's statement that human conduct (whether sinful or righteous) has no effect on God is misleading. Although human conduct does not affect God's essential character, God does respond to human actions. God expresses concern, sorrow, and disappointment over Israel's infidelity (Hs 11:1-11; Mal 1:6-9). Jeremiah declared that God repeatedly sought earnestly to warn His disobedient people but to no avail (e.g., Jr 7:13; 25:4-7; 32:33-35; 35:14-15; 44:4-6). Jesus lamented over Jerusalem's stubborn refusal to turn from disbelief and receive God's appointed means of reconciliation (Mt 23:37). As the believer's great High Priest, Jesus feels all the temptations that a Christian might face (Heb 4:13-16). The Holy Spirit can be grieved (Eph 4:30). God's goodness (Nah 1:7; Rm 2:4) toward man, His love for people (1 Jn 4:10), and His forgiveness all demonstrate that God cares for people (1 Pt 5:7) and has concern for their eternal destiny (2 Pt 3:9).
36:25 Elihu's observation flies in the face of those who say they have "seen" no evidence of God. The Scriptures affirm, "The heavens declare the glory of God" (Ps 19:1; cp. 8:1-4). Paul indicates that this natural revelation is sufficient to hold people accountable for knowing God and their conduct before Him (Rm 1:18-23).
36:31 Some critics suggest transposing this verse after verse 28. No textual evidence supports this view.
36:33 Despite dozens of interpretations and emendations to this verse, HCSB supports the simple meaning of the text. Even the cattle are aware of an approaching storm, which may herald the coming presence of the Judge of all the earth (Ps 96:13; 98:9; Ac 17:31).
37:9 Some critics suggest that "chamber" is an allusion either to the subterranean abode of the god El, mentioned in the texts from Ugarit (see note on 1:14-19), or the sacred chambers of the Mesopotamian god Ea. Others propose that it refers to the seven chambers of the winds of the earth. But the metaphor refers to God as the source of weather phenomena (Ps 135:7). The constellations of the southern sky are often called "chambers" (Jb 9:9, footnote).
37:18 Skeptics suggest a primitive cosmology is shown here, in which the sky is a dome made of solid bronze, fashioned like ancient mirrors. The simile, however, refers to a prolonged draught featuring a prevailing south wind. Under such conditions the sky seems like "cast metal." Similar metaphors are used of God's judgment via a draught that renders the sky like "bronze" and the earth like "iron" (Dt 28:23). Still other comparative metaphors of the expanse of the sky occur elsewhere (Ex 24:10; Ps 104:2; Is 40:22).
37:22 For information refuting the interpretation of "north" as a supposed mythological reference, see note on 26:7.
38:4-6 Some critics use this passage to assert that the Bible teaches that the earth stands on "pillars" (cp. 9:6), set on a foundation with a cornerstone, and built according to measured specifications. But throughout this chapter the imagery of creation is cast in bold metaphors designed for human understanding. The Lord's speeches should not be viewed as scientific treatises (see note on 26:7).
38:7 Some think the "morning stars" reflect ancient Near Eastern mythology in which stellar bodies were considered gods. But this interpretation ignores the obvious metaphor. For more on "the sons of God," see note on 1:6.
38:8-11 Critical attempts to relate the delineation of ocean boundaries only to Mesopotamian or Canaanite mythology overlook the varied metaphors here. Literal interpretation demands taking metaphors as metaphors.
38:19-20 This is another obvious metaphor. Light and darkness are likened to those who put in their work period and go home.
38:22-23 The storing of "snow" and "hail" in storehouses is metaphorical. Much as an army keeps its arsenal of weapons in an armory, so God's "weapons" are available to Him for use at the proper time of judgment, for "warfare and battle."
38:31-32 No reflection of Greek mythology in which Orion is chained in the sky should be read here. Uncertainty as to the identity of "the Bear and her cubs" should not obscure the fact that God controls all the constellations.
38:37 A colorful word-picture, comparing the raining clouds to "water jars of heaven," underscores the poetic quality of the book of Jb.
39:13-18 In these verses the style of the speech changes from rhetorical questions to narrative description. Some commentators, noting their omission from the Greek OT, have questioned their originality. Such stylistic variation, however, is common in poetry and is utilized in the verses that follow. The fact that God is referred to in the third person rather than the expected first person is not unusual in divine discourse (e.g., Ex 34:14; Jb 40:2; Hab 2:14, 20). The MT offers no support for dropping this passage.
39:14-16 The charge that the description of the ostrich is erroneous misses the point. The description conforms to popular perception rather than intending to be based upon scientific observation. The intention was to demonstrate Job's inability to comprehend the natural world. Nevertheless, the description contains some valid observations concerning the ostrich. She lays her eggs in the sand to be warmed by the sun(v. 14). Despite the eggs' thick shells, an extremely heavy foot might crush them (v. 15). Some females share the same nesting area so that a female may look disdainfully at the eggs (v. 16). The ostrich can run at great speeds (v. 18).
40:15-24 Although skeptics ridicule the existence of such a beast as this "Behemoth," critical scholars attempt to relate it to an ancient mythological beast. Some suggest an allusion to the "Bull of Heaven" found in the ancient Mesopotamian epic of Gilgamesh, others relate it to the monstrous, ferocious bullock that the goddess Anat defeated. Because Job is invited to consider a creature known to him (v. 15), most commentators identify Behemoth with some large, ferocious animal such as a buffalo, dinosaur, rhinoceros, or hippopotamus. Although all identifications are tenuous, the hippopotamus appears to be the most likely reference, despite the description of his short tail as being "like a cedar tree" (v. 17). Although Egyptian royalty regularly sponsored hunts for the hippopotamus, only God would metaphorically dare to face the Behemoth alone with a sword (v. 19).
41:1 For the critical view that Leviathan is drawn from Canaanite mythology, see note on 3:8. References to Leviathan are found elsewhere in the Bible, characteristically as metaphors to depict the enemies of God and Israel (e.g., Ps 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1). Although some suggest that Leviathan was a whale or a great shark, most hold that the reference was to a crocodile. Like the hippopotamus (see note on 40:15-24), the crocodile was a hunted animal in Egypt. The appearance in successive chapters of Egypt's two most hunted animals supports the prevailing view concerning Behemoth and Leviathan. As in ancient Egypt, where the crocodile could symbolize royal power, so Leviathan may stand for a hostile force that only God can subdue (41:33-34). Similarly, God is portrayed as slaying the great dragon, Satan, in the eschaton (Rv 20:7-10).
41:25 "The mighty" can be translated "the divine beings," critics suggest a mythological reference in which the gods tremble before an impending disaster or trouble. But names for divinity are often used as superlatives (e.g., Ezk 31:11; 32:21). Thus whether they are people or other animals, "the mighty" are terrified.
42:1-7 This crucial passage reveals the key to the entire book of Jb. Job finally received the answer to the question of his unjust treatment, but the answer did not come in the form of a logical argument that vindicated either his righteousness or his friends' accusations against him. Instead—thanks, in part, to Elihu's intervention—Job came to a revelation of God's overwhelming majesty and, what is more, God had spoken to him at last. Job saw that, in questioning God's justice, he had spoken out of turn; God does the questioning ("When I question you, you will inform Me," v. 4). Job had "seen" the God of whom he had formerly only "heard rumors." This revelation moved Job to repentance (vv. 5-6). He had made much of his own integrity, failing to recognize Who was really in charge of the discussion all along.
42:7-17 A widely accepted theory of critical scholarship holds that the dialogues of the book of Jb were inserted into an original story in which Job displayed his proverbial "patience" and piety, while his friends found fault with both him and God. According to this theory, the ending (and beginning) of the book come from the old story, which would explain why Job appears to behave differently here from the way he responded in the dialogues with his friends. When one considers the logical method of Israelite wisdom literature, such a theory becomes unnecessary. Looking at the book as a whole, we see that Job (and his friends as well) proposed various answers to the problem of his suffering. Job considered it unmerited and demanded an explanation from God. The friends tried to explain it, defending God's justice. Yet in the end God told them, "You have not spoken the truth about Me, as My servant Job has" (v. 7). This sounds odd, since the friends' arguments sounded completely "orthodox" in terms of the Bible's general view of God's punishment of the guilty. What they failed to do—and which Job did—was to deal directly with God about the issue instead of just talking about Him. They felt they had to defend God, while Job "dared" God to speak for Himself—because God needs no defense.