HISTORICAL PERIOD
While not required reading, this section and those after are intended to offer further context for the historical setting of this story, and give insights into the many concepts and terms utilized throughout the novel. Their goal is to provide a starting point for learning more about the rich culture from which these stories were written.
The following segment is intended to give a brief introduction to the major historical events featured in Thousand Autumns.
THE JIN DYNASTY
In 266 C.E., at the close of the tumultuous Three Kingdoms era, the central plains were finally united under Sima Yan, founder of the Jin Dynasty, also known as Western Jin. But when Sima Yan passed away in 290 C.E., his son and heir was deemed unfit to rule. Conflict broke out among members of the imperial court who vied for the throne. This became known as the War of the Eight Princes, after the eight members of the Sima royal family who were the principal players.
UPRISING OF THE FIVE BARBARIANS AND THE SIXTEEN KINGDOMS PERIOD
Over a period of fifteen years, the repeated clashes and civil wars greatly weakened the Western Jin Dynasty. During this time, most of the royal princes relied on non-Han nomadic minorities to fight for them, in particular Xiongnu and the Xianbei. The Han lumped them together with other foreign ethnicities like the Jie, Di, and Qiang, collectively designating them the Hu, sometimes translated as “barbarians.” As the Jin Dynasty’s control over these minority tribes slipped, instances of rebellion combined with local unrest to usher in the Uprising of the Five Barbarians in 304 C.E.
Although it began as a revolt spearheaded by the Hu, the Uprising of the Five Barbarians soon led to the complete collapse of Western Jin as its Han upper class fled south of the Yangtze River. This was the mass southward migration of the Jin referenced in Thousand Autumns. When the old capital of Chang’an fell, the new emperor reestablished the seat of government in Jiankang, heralding the start of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. At the same time, north of the Yangtze River, the Di, Qiang, Xiongnu, and Jie each established their own dynastic kingdoms. Thus began a time of great upheaval known as the Sixteen Kingdoms period.
During the turmoil of the Sixteen Kingdoms, regimes formed and collapsed in the blink of an eye as they warred with each other and the Eastern Jin. The strife finally abated when the Northern Wei Dynasty conquered the other northern kingdoms in 439 C.E. and unified the lands north of the Yangtze. Meanwhile in the south, Liu Yu usurped the emperor of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and founded the Liu Song Dynasty. This marked the beginning of the Northern-Southern Dynasties period, during which Thousand Autumns is set.
NORTHERN-SOUTHERN DYNASTIES
For a period of almost ninety years, Northern Wei held strong. The first half of their reign was focused on expansion, but when Tuoba Hong rose to power in 471 C.E., he championed the dominance of Buddhism and Han culture, going so far as to ban Xianbei clothing from the court and assigning one-character family names to Xianbei nobility (Tuoba Hong himself changed his family name to Yuan).
South of the Yangtze, the regime changed hands three times—from Liu Song to Southern Qi to Liang, before the Chen Dynasty that ruled during Thousand Autumns was finally established in 557 C.E.
In the north, Northern Wei held strong for almost ninety years. While the first half of their reign was focused on expansion, when Tuoba Hong rose to power in 471 C.E., he championed the dominance of Buddhism and Han culture, going so far as to ban Xianbei clothing from the court and assigning one-character family names to Xianbei nobility.
A rift slowly developed in Northern Wei between the increasingly Han-acculturated aristocracy and their own armies who adhered more to the traditional, nomadic lifestyle. A series of rebellions escalated into all-out revolt, and by 535 C.E. the kingdom had split in half. Western Wei was ruled by Yuwen Tai, and Eastern Wei by Gao Huan. In the space of a generation, they would depose the last of the old leadership and become the kingdoms of Northern Zhou and Northern Qi. In the Zhou Dynasty to the west, rule favored the Han-acculturated nobles, while in the Qi Dynasty to the east, the traditional tribes came into power.
Qi’s military superiority over both Zhou and Chen began to diminish due to corruption and incompetence in the ruling class, and particularly that of the emperor’s grandson, Gao Wei. After a politically turbulent period of regency in Zhou, Yuwen Yong took power in 572 C.E. and made a point of bolstering state administration and military affairs.
By 575 C.E., where Thousand Autumns begins, a new maelstrom is already brewing…
THE THREE SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
This section hopes to provide some basic context as to the major schools of thought that inform the background of Thousand Autumns, so that readers may explore the topic in more depth on their own. Note that with their long period of coexistence, the schools have all influenced each other deeply, and their ideals have become rooted in Chinese culture itself, even among non-practitioners.
Daoism (道)
Daoism revolves around the concept of Dao, or “Ways”: the courses things follow as they undergo change. Though there are many Dao a human can choose from, there is one primordial “great Dao” (大道), the source of the universe and origin of all things—the void of infinite potential. The course all things in the universe follow is the “heavenly Dao” (天道), the natural order.
According to Daoist principles, by imposing constraints and artifice, humanity strays from the primordial Dao and stagnates. In particular, the rigid social roles enforced by society are seen as unnatural and an example of degradation. For humans to flourish, they must revert themselves, disengaging from these tendencies in order to return to the primordial Dao. This is sometimes known as “becoming one with heaven” (天人合一). The method of disengaging is called wuwei (无为), sometimes translated as inaction or non-interference.
Expanding on this idea, Daoism has the concepts of Xiantian (先天, “Early Heaven”) and Houtian (后天, “Later Heaven”). The prenatal Xiantian state is closer to the primordial Dao, and thus is both purer than and superior to the postnatal Houtian state. The Houtian state is created at birth, along with the conscious mind that thinks and perceives and which in turn suppresses the primordial mind. This is what gives rise to sources of suffering: anger, worry, doubt, desire, and fatigue.
The goal of wuwei is to reverse the changes brought on by Houtian and return to the primordial state of Xiantian. To conflict with nature is to stray from it, and to intervene in the natural order—as society does—is to perpetuate degradation. Disengaging from all of these influences requires rejecting social conventions and detaching from the mundane world altogether, so seclusion and asceticism are common practices. Emptying oneself of all emotion and freeing oneself from all artifice is the only way to achieve union with heaven and surpass life and death itself.
When it came to politics, Daoism was often seen as a justification for small, laissez-faire governments—in fact, laissez-faire is one of the possible translations of wuwei—supporting low taxes and low intervention. The anti-authority implications of its philosophies were not lost on its followers, nor on their rulers. As a result, it wasn’t uncommon for Daoism to struggle to find its footing politically, despite its cultural pervasiveness.
Buddhism (佛/释)
Founded by Gautama Buddha in India, Buddhism only arrived in China during the Han Dynasty, well after Confucianism and Daoism. Despite early pushback and social friction, its parallels with Daoism eventually helped it gain widespread influence.
Buddhism is rooted in the concepts of reincarnation, karma, and Maya—the illusion of existence. Attachment to Maya keeps living beings rooted in the cycle of reincarnation, where they are beholden to the principle of karma that determines their future rebirths. Buddha claimed that this eternal cycle is the root of all suffering and that the only escape is through achieving Nirvana, or enlightenment. To achieve enlightenment is to fully accept that all things within existence are false. It then follows that any emotions, attachments, or thoughts that one develops while interacting with and perceiving the world are equally false. This philosophy extends to the attitude toward karma—the ideal Buddhist does good deeds and kind acts without any expectation of reward or satisfaction, material or otherwise.
Despite these selfless ideals, it also wasn’t uncommon to see Buddhist temples amass land, authority, and wealth through donations, worship, and the offerings of those seeking better futures or rebirths. Combined with the men who’d leave their homes to join these temples as monks, this sometimes made the relationship between Buddhism and rulers a tricky, precarious one.
Confucianism (儒)
Unlike Buddhism and Daoism, Confucianism focuses on the moral betterment of the individual as the foundation for the ideal society. The founder Confucius envisioned a rigidly hierarchical system wherein the lower ranks have the moral duty to obey the higher ranks, and those in superior positions likewise have the moral responsibility to care for their subordinates. This social contract is applied to everything from the family unit to the nation itself—the emperor is the father to his people, and they in turn must show him absolute obedience.
To foster such a society, Confucians extol the five constant virtues (五常): benevolence (仁), righteousness (义), propriety (礼), wisdom (智), and integrity (信). Paragons who embody all five virtues are called junzi (君子), sometimes translated as “gentlemen” or “noble men,” while their direct opposites are xiaoren, literally “petty people,” and sometimes translated as “scoundrels.”
Throughout most of history, mainstream Confucians believed in the goodness inherent in humanity, that people can better themselves through education and learning from their superiors. The ideal ruler must be the ultimate junzi himself and lead by example, thereby uplifting all of society. In the same vein, Confucius expected officials to be virtuous parental figures, held to a higher moral standard than ordinary citizens.
Due to its emphasis on social order, Confucianism was easily the most influential and politically favored of the three schools throughout history. Its social contract was so absolute that even dynastic takeovers had to be performed in a way that did not “break it.” Usurpers who acted otherwise ran the risk of being seen as illegitimate in the eyes of the people. Famously, the old emperor had to offer the new emperor his position multiple times, with the new ruler declining three times (三让) before finally accepting.
Bonus: Legalism (法)
Though not regarded as one of the “big three” and although it received far less overt support, Legalism was enormously influential for one key reason: it served as the foundation for the entire Chinese government tradition for two thousand years, regardless of dynasty.
Unlike the three schools, which are each in pursuit of an ideal, Legalism is entirely utilitarian and concerned only with efficacy. This is reflected in its Chinese name, the “house of methods.” Core to its beliefs is the idea that human nature is selfish and evil, and so people must be motivated through reward and punishment. Morality is inconsequential, the ends justify the means, and the most effective administration must minimize corruption by restricting its subordinate administrators as much as possible.
It was with these tenets that the first unified Chinese empire, the Qin Dynasty, dismantled the existing feudalist system and established in its place a centralized government overseen by the emperor. After the Qin’s collapse—brought about in part due to how harsh a fully Legalist regime was on the people—the succeeding Han Dynasty under Emperor Wu of Han made sure to suppress Legalism as a philosophy. However, they inherited the entire Legalist government structure mostly unchanged, though their policies were softened by a push toward Confucianism. This trend of furtively repackaging Legalist tendencies within the leading school of thought (usually Confucianism) continued almost uninterrupted for this period of two thousand years, and rulers continued to study Legalist texts like the Han Feizi.
OTHER IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
DAOIST CULTIVATION, THE ZHUYANG STRATEGY, AND THE POWER OF FIVE
In real life, the scholar Tao Hongjing compiled the famous, three-volume Concealed Instructions for the Ascent to Perfection (登真隱訣, translated in the novel as “Dengzhen Concealed Instructions”). For Thousand Autumns, Meng Xi Shi invented an extra associated manual, called the Strategy of Vermillion Yang (朱陽策, translated in the novel as “Zhuyang Strategy”) after the real-life Monastery of Vermillion Yang on Mount Mao where Tao Hongjing secluded himself.
The Zhuyang Strategy draws heavily from classical concepts of Daoist cultivation and pulls together many ideas from Chinese culture. Primarily, they are based on the Wuqi Chaoyuan (五气朝元, roughly “Returning the Five Qi to the Origin”). The first lines of each of the Zhuyang Strategy’s five volumes correspond exactly to the Wuqi Chaoyuan’s five principles:
The traditional Chinese worldview includes the Five Phases, the Deities of the Five Regions (also known as the Five Emperors), the five constant virtues, the Five Spirits, and the five major internal organs. The Wuqi Chaoyuan links all these ideas together, unifying them into a doctrine that explains how one can achieve immortal status or “godhood.” For those who are interested, we provide here a brief introduction to several of these concepts in hopes that readers can further appreciate the world of Thousand Autumns.
THE FIVE PHASES
The Wuxing (五行), sometimes translated as Five Agents or Five Elements, are a cornerstone of Daoist philosophy. Unlike the Four Elements proposed by Aristotle, the Five Phases—Metal (金), Wood (木), Water (水), Fire (火), and Earth (土)—are seen as dynamic, interdependent forces. Each phase can give rise to another (生), or suppress another (克). As Daoism dictates that all entities are bound by the natural order, the Five Phases can be seen as an overarching rule set that governs all aspects of nature. Most things are regarded as corresponding to a certain phase, including but not limited to planets, seasons, cardinal directions, organs, colors, and types of qi.
FIVE EMPERORS, FIVE REGIONS, FIVE COLORS
In Daoism, the Wufang Shangdi (五方上帝), or High Emperors of the Five Regions, are the fivefold manifestation of the Supreme Emperor of Heaven (天皇大帝), or simply Heaven (天). As they correspond to the Five Phases, each emperor has an associated cardinal direction, as well as a color that informs his namesake.
FIVE SPIRITS, FIVE ORGANS
The traditional Chinese conception of the spirit divides it into five separate aspects: mind (神), soul (魂), thought (意), anima (魄), and will (志). These classifications may not be a perfect match with their western definitions. For example, the will—which arises from the essence (精)—is responsible for memory, as well as discernment and judgment. A strong will is generally associated with clear-mindedness. In another example, the anima governs instincts, impulses, and reflex reactions, and is said to dissipate on death, unlike the soul.
Each of the five aspects is said to reside in one of the five major internal organs—heart, liver, pancreas (includes the spleen), lungs, and kidneys, which in turn also correspond to the Five Phases. The Wuqi Chaoyuan claims that part of ascending to immortality is learning how to “return” the true qi of each aspect to one’s Dantian, or “Origin.”
THE FOUR OCCUPATIONS
The 士农工商 classification of citizens as shi (eventually gentry scholars), nong (farmers), gong (artisans), and shang (merchants), was a cornerstone of ancient Chinese social hierarchy strongly asso- ciated with both Confucianism and Legalism.
As the upper class and decision-makers, the shi naturally ranked the highest, followed by the peasant farmers who were valued as the backbone of the nation. Merchant businessmen were seen as agents of exploitation who profited from price fluctuations, so they were placed lowest.
In practice, these hierarchical rankings shaped cultural attitudes more than they dictated political clout. Even though merchants were looked down upon, the much-needed cash flow they provided made them far more influential than the artisan and farmer classes. This created a curious situation—merchants were both sought after and derided by the shi in charge of governance. In later dynasties some merchants went so far as to purchase positions within the imperial court, making them honorary shi and granting them legal protections.
Though the shi remained firmly at the top of the social hierarchy regardless of the period, the membership of the class changed over time. Originally, the shi were warrior aristocrats not unlike western knights, but they became obsolete when the Warring States period mobilized the common folk for warfare. With the rise of philosophy, the warriors slowly gave way to scholars. Later, during the harsh Legalist regime of the Qin Dynasty, the emperor began assigning administrative responsibilities to learned scholars who showed promise and merit. To weaken the authority of the noble class, he dismantled the existing feudalist system in favor of a centralized bureaucracy of dedicated officials.
Though the Qin’s system of governance persisted well after the dynasty’s collapse, the importance of family lines meant that prominent scholar-officials effectively became the new aristocracy. Their wealth and influence almost always guaranteed their descendants the resources to land their own positions within the imperial court. Thousand Autumns includes examples of powerful clans like the Su and the Xie; one talented ancestor could elevate their entire family for generations to come. It wasn’t until the Tang Dynasty that a true merit-based system was introduced—the civil service exams—that would give capable commoners the chance to find their place in governance.