7
A story is told of a conversation between Saint Augustine and a small boy on the Mediterranean shoreline of North Africa near Carthage around the year AD 400. The great Christian theologian was in the midst of writing his famous book on the Trinity and found himself overwhelmed at the task, so he took a walk on the beach. What overwhelmed Augustine was the seeming futility of his efforts to capture the greatness of God in the pages of a book. Alister McGrath tells the surprising twist to the story:
While wandering across the sand he noticed a small boy scooping seawater into his hands, and pouring as much as his small hands could hold into a hole he had earlier hollowed in the sand. Puzzled, Augustine watched as the lad repeated his action again and again.
Eventually, his curiosity got the better of him. What, he asked the boy, did he think he was doing? The reply probably perplexed him still further. The youth was in the process of emptying the ocean into the small cavity he had scooped out in the hot sand. Augustine was dismissive: how could such a vast body of water be contained in such a small hole? The boy was equally dismissive in return: how could Augustine expect to contain the vast mystery of God in the mere words of a book?1
None of the contributors to this volume are under the delusion their chapters will exhaust all the mysteries of the final shape of salvation. Moreover, all the chapters together cannot contain God’s heaven. In fact, all the books in the world could not adequately describe the glories of the age to come.
Nevertheless, God has opened his holy mouth, spoken forth his Holy Word, and given us his Holy Spirit, and we are responsible to read his Word, contemplate it, and to the best of our ability set forth its teaching about every topic it addresses, including heaven. After teaching Christian theology professionally for thirty-three years, two things have become clear to me. First, the Bible is a storybook; it tells a true story, whose story line goes like this: creation—fall—redemption—consummation. Second, within the story the Bible is also a picture book; it paints pictures to communicate many of its truths. I will sketch five of Scripture’s most important pictures of heaven. And I will trace each picture through the four stages of the story line (creation, fall, redemption, and consummation).2
- Heaven and earth
- Sabbath rest
- The kingdom of God
- The presence of God
- The glory of God
Heaven and Earth
Creation: Heaven and Earth Made
The first picture is the most important of all, that of God’s creation of the heaven and the earth, which will culminate in the new heaven and the new earth. The Bible begins, “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth” (Gen. 1:1). Genesis was written during Israel’s wilderness wanderings before they were a nation and had their own land. Unlike the peoples they were to displace in Canaan, they were to worship the true and living creator-God.
Against the backdrop of the Redeemer’s delivering the Israelites from Egyptian bondage, they learn that their God, Yahweh, created everything. The God of Israel is the God of the universe. Moreover, God’s creation reflects its creator (Ps. 19:1).
Humankind is not the result of random biological processes. Rather, “the LORD God formed the man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living creature” (Gen. 2:7). Only humankind is created in God’s image, male and female. This image includes humankind’s task to rule over the earth and care for it on behalf of the Creator. The image of God is not solely spiritual in nature. We are a unity of body and soul, whole persons.
When no suitable helper is found among the animals, God forms one out of Adam’s rib. Adam’s helper is to be Eve. The first pair was to worship God by the caretaking of creation and creatively expressing whatever their hearts desired, resulting in the ongoing praise of his glory. There was only one limitation for their task—they were not to eat of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (v. 17).
Fall: Heaven and Earth Marred
When Adam and Eve are tempted by the Devil, they disobey God and irreparably damage the peace and beauty of God’s good creation. The blessings of creation are now tainted by the curses of the fall.
God pronounces a curse for Adam’s sin: “Cursed is the ground because of you” (3:17). The ground as created was to bring forth plentiful vegetation for humans and animals alike to eat. Now, due to Adam’s sin, the ground is subjected to an alien unfruitfulness (Rom. 8:20). All that was good and beautiful—the harmony of human beings, beasts, and ground—is disrupted by the pollution of Adam’s sin.
The most glaring reversal of blessing befalls Eve. The blessing of male and female to “multiply” (Gen. 1:28) now turns to curse: “I will surely multiply your pain in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children” (3:16). The pain extends to miscarriage, birth defects, diseases, and even the untimely death of children.
The next reversal strikes the very marriage relationship. Eve’s desire is changed from one of helping her husband to helping herself (v. 16),3 just as she “helped herself” to the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. For both husband and wife, the curse introduces opposition and self-centeredness into the marriage covenant, where there once was mutuality and self-sacrifice.
Humankind’s charge to work and keep the garden is no longer easy, because of sin. Now, instead of cooperating with Adam in perfect harmony, the ground only grudgingly produces “thorns and thistles” (v. 18), with the result that humans will live only “by the sweat of” their faces (v. 19).
Redemption: Heaven and Earth Waiting
Tsunamis, earthquakes, and tornadoes, though called “natural disasters,” are unnatural results of the brokenness of this world (Rom. 8:19–22). With the first advent of Jesus Christ, the decisive blow against the Devil was struck. But the world has not yet been purified of the corruption of the works of the Devil. Jesus’ stilling the great storm on the Sea of Galilee (Mark 4:39) is a foretaste of the Creator’s once again issuing his command, this time to all of heaven and earth, and causing all chaos to cease.
There is also much human brokenness: “We ourselves, who have the firstfruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait eagerly for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies” (Rom. 8:23). Our bodies are weak and eventually die. More deeply, we struggle “against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers over this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places” (Eph. 6:12). We struggle against our own sinful tendencies (Rom. 6:12–19), a world that hates God (John 16:33), and the schemes of Satan (2 Cor. 10:3–6).
Yet even in our struggles there is hope. The power of sin has been broken (Rom. 6:6), and we “toil, struggling with all his energy that he powerfully works within” us (Col. 1:29).
Is Christ’s work in the world progressing? In terms of the overall mission of God, yes, since more people worship Christ than ever before. God’s work of special grace abounds in Christ and in his church in the conversion of the lost. The gospel is going forth into more new places and back into places like the Middle East. Most estimates today place the number of Christians worldwide, including nominal ones, at around two billion.
Consummation: Heaven and Earth in Righteousness
Isaiah foresees the new heavens and the new earth: “For behold, I create new heavens and a new earth, and the former things shall not be remembered or come into mind” (Isa. 65:17; cf. 66:22–23). He predicts a future life that is new (65:17); joyous (v. 19); secure (vv. 20–23); peaceful (vv. 24–25); unending, universal, and worshipful (66:23). The last two chapters of the Bible pick up many of these themes.
Jesus too promises a new world, the renewal of all things: “Truly, I say to you, in the new world, when the Son of Man will sit on his glorious throne, you who have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel. And everyone who has left houses or brothers or sisters or father or mother or children or lands, for my name’s sake, will receive a hundredfold and will inherit eternal life” (Matt. 19:28–29).
Paul also longs for the new heaven and earth, the new creation:
For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God. For the creation was subjected to futility, not willingly, but because of him who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to corruption and obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of God. For we know that the whole creation has been groaning together in the pains of childbirth until now. And not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the firstfruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait eagerly for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies. (Rom. 8:19–23)
The apostle presents the redemption of believers as a microcosm of the redemption of creation. By God’s grace we will be completely redeemed. We will have great glory (vv. 18, 21) and be freed from groaning over our struggles with sin (v. 23). We await our final adoption, “the redemption of our bodies” (v. 23), resurrection from the dead.
Thinking about our resurrection helps us to understand Paul’s words about the redemption of the cosmos. Our resurrection will involve a complete renewal of our present persons—body and soul. And just as we will not be destroyed but renewed, so it is with God’s creation. We are a microcosm of the macrocosm of the creation. Even as we long for final salvation, so does the creation, personified as an expectant mother. The creation is eager to “be set free from its bondage to corruption and obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of God” (v. 21). The creation longs for the curse’s removal (vv. 20–22). This is not destruction and re-creation but great renovation of the present world. Paul’s words help us to understand Peter’s.
Peter also looks for the new heavens and earth. He emphasizes the difference between the present creation and the new one (2 Pet. 3:10–12). On the basis of his words some have argued for the extinction of the present cosmos and the creation of a totally new one:
The heavens and earth that now exist are stored up for fire. (v. 7)
The heavens will pass away with a roar, and the heavenly bodies will be burned up and dissolved. (v. 10)
The heavens will be set on fire and dissolved, and the heavenly bodies will melt as they burn! (v. 12)
Although those verses seem to teach destruction and re-creation, they do not. I say this for four reasons.
First, in the preceding verse Peter says: “The world that then existed was deluged with water and perished” (v. 6). “Perished” here does not speak of a literal destruction of the world but of its cleansing through the judgment of unbelievers in Noah’s flood. Similarly, when Peter speaks of the heaven’s and earth’s being “burned up and dissolved,” the result is not their destruction but that “the earth and the works that are done on it will be exposed” under the glare of divine judgment (vv. 7, 10). The language of burning does not mean obliteration but is metaphorical of a deep cleansing of the earth, as in Noah’s day.
Second, Peter compares the fates of the earth and of unbelievers: “The heavens and earth that now exist are stored up for fire, being kept until the day of judgment and destruction of the ungodly” (v. 7). The “destruction of the ungodly” does not entail their extinction of being. Instead, it is figurative for the loss of all that is worthwhile in human life and signifies never-ending, conscious punishment (Matt. 25:41, 46; Rev. 20:10–15).
Third, all of this fits Peter’s description of the new heaven and the new earth: “We are waiting for new heavens and a new earth in which righteousness dwells” (2 Pet. 3:13). He envisions a cleansing of sinners from the creation, resulting in righteousness rather than an obliteration of the earth. Heide is apt: “When he [Peter] describes the new heavens and new earth, it is not a place with new physical substances or new elements of creation. He describes it as a place where ‘righteousness dwells.’”4
Fourth, such a view brings Peter into contradiction with Paul in Romans 8:20–21 and John in Revelation 22:3, both of whom speak of the removal of the curse, not the extinction and re-creation of the world.
In Peter’s mind the governing model for the new creation is the complete perfection of the world, for redemption must reach as far as the damage of sin and its curse.
John in Revelation also sees the new heaven and the new earth. The passages we have surveyed point to this one: “Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and the sea was no more. . . . And he who was seated on the throne said, ‘Behold, I am making all things new’” (Rev. 21:1, 5).
In a vision John sees the new heaven and earth replace the first heaven and earth. Does the language here and in 20:11—which speaks of “earth and sky” fleeing away from the presence of the awesome Judge, so that “no place was found for them”—indicate the destruction of the present world? It does not if we understand John’s apocalyptic vision.
Revelation 21:1 must be understood in light of 20:11. This does not indicate the annihilation of the creation, placing 20:11 alongside 6:15–16, where sinners try to flee from “the wrath of the Lamb.” In 20:11 the whole created order is personified as contaminated by human sin and fleeing God’s holy presence. This fleeing is symbolic of the comprehensiveness of the final judgment.
But what does 21:1 mean when it says, “The first earth had passed away, and the sea was no more”? The words are not literal but rather describe what John sees in his vision—he sees earth and the sea disappear. The first heaven and death had departed from his sight. “He is using symbolic language familiar to his audience to emphasize the fact that the final judgment is over.”5 Similar to 2 Peter 3, John symbolically communicates that a comprehensive purging of sin has taken place. But what about the disappearance of the sea, which, like the heavens and earth, has disappeared in John’s vision? Dennis Johnson answers well:
The “sea” that no longer exists symbolizes the realm from which chaos and rebellion have emerged to ravage the first earth. . . . It was from the sea that John saw the beast emerge to receive the dragon’s devilish power and wage his devilish war against the saints (Rev. 13:1). The sea in heaven is calm and clear as glass (15:2), but the earthly sea that gave rise to the beast stormed with restless, threatening rebellion. Its absence from the new earth further dramatizes the new home’s peace and purity.6
Therefore, when God speaks in Revelation 21:5, he does not say, “I am making all things anew,” but “I am making all things new.” I conclude from this survey of the words of Isaiah, Jesus, Paul, Peter, and John in Revelation that God will not completely destroy the current earth and create a brand-new earth. Instead, he will subject the present earth to a deep cleansing so as to renew it and fit it for his presence and that of his holy people.
Sabbath Rest
Creation: Divine Rest
Moses closes the creation narrative: “So God blessed the seventh day and made it holy, because on it God rested from all his work that he had done in creation” (Gen. 2:3). The word “rested” is the Hebrew shabat, from which the concept of the Sabbath was developed. Far from the superstitions of surrounding nations, who also observed special days, Israel’s Sabbath day was a day of joy, a celebration of God, for it was his own celebration of completing his creative work (Ex. 31:14, 16; Deut. 5:12, 15).7
Why does God rest? Certainly he does not grow tired (Ps. 121:4; Isa. 40:28). Rather, God ceased from his creative activity; his work was finished. Thus the explanation of the commandment: “Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, and do all your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the LORD your God. On it you shall not do any work. . . . For in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested on the seventh day” (Ex. 20:8–11).
Genesis 2:15 hints at what is later made explicit: God’s presence brings rest. To be in God’s presence is to enjoy his rest, to be under his care. Because Adam and Eve lived in Eden, God’s resting place, they participated in his own perfect rest. Adam’s work was “restful” because it was done in perfect holiness. But it became arduous when sin disturbed the rest of Eden.
Fall: Disturbed Rest
Sin disrupts the rest experienced in Eden because it disrupts communion with God. Thus Adam and Eve hide from God’s presence (Gen. 3:8). The first disruption comes in the Lord God’s curse of the Serpent: “I will put enmity between you [the Serpent] and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel” (v. 15). Sin introduces a grand conflict, the source of all other conflicts.
God’s righteous judgment of Adam multiplies the disruption of rest: “Cursed is the ground because of you; in pain you shall eat of it all the days of your life. . . . By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread” (vv. 17–19). Farming illustrates the difficulty of work; farmers labor because the work itself is hard, and that because of the curse of sin.
Not having a place to call “home” is so difficult. And that’s what happened to Adam and Eve as a result of their sin. Eden would no longer be their home (vv. 23–24).
Redemption: Promised Rest
Joshua enjoins the people: “Remember the word that Moses the servant of the LORD commanded you, saying, ‘The LORD your God is providing you a place of rest and will give you this land’” (Josh. 1:13). As they cross over into Canaan, God reminds them he fulfilled his word to give them rest, and Joshua sets up stones commemorating the people’s reception of the land (4:19–24). In Canaan they found the rest that had eluded them for so long, including rest from their enemies (11:23; 14:15; 21:44).8
But the rest did not last long. The book of Judges presents a cycle of rebellion: Israel’s downward spiral begins with sin, which leads to subjugation, which draws the people back to God through supplication, after which God provides salvation by raising up a judge to rescue them. In between these cycles, we read, “So the land had rest” (Judg. 3:11, 30; 5:31; 8:28). But these periods of rest were only temporary lulls from trouble. Why? Because of sin in the people’s hearts, they did not yet find permanent rest.
The kingships of David and Solomon bring the first real experience of rest for several generations. God gives David “rest from all his surrounding enemies” (2 Sam. 7:1), and Israel enjoys prosperity. David desires to build a magnificent dwelling to honor his King. Through Nathan the prophet the Lord declines David’s offer and also says: “I will give you rest from all your enemies” (v. 11). David’s rest was God-given, but it was not the final rest. That would come only from his “offspring after” him, whose throne will “be established forever” (v. 16).
By the time Jesus is born, Israel has lost all traces of rest. Their kings failed them. Six hundred years earlier their nation had been carried off to captivity again because of unfaithfulness to the Lord. While they have returned and rebuilt the holy place in Jerusalem, things are simply not the same. The former glory of Israel is shrouded in Roman control. Where is the Lord’s promised rest?
Jesus answers this very question. He reveals himself to be the heir of God’s ancient promise to David in 2 Samuel 7: “Come to me, all who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me, for I am gentle and lowly in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light” (Matt. 11:28–30). Jesus’ words are astounding! He is both Lord and King. He gives everlasting rest and will administer that rest forever.
The words “weary” and “heavy laden” underscore hardships in a broken world. Jesus’ solution is not easy: “Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me, for I am gentle and lowly in heart, and you will find rest for your souls” (v. 29). How can the tired find rest by taking on another burden? The paradox is resolved in the words, “For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light” (v. 30). Because of Adam’s sin, no one has been wholly faithful to the Lord. It is, as Peter says later concerning the Jews, “a yoke on the neck . . . that neither our fathers nor we have been able to bear” (Acts 15:10). Jesus offers a different yoke, one that is easy and light. But how can that be? Because he has borne the burden no one else can bear, we can enter his rest.
Jesus is the answer—the answer to the endless warring of God’s people against their enemies, the answer to the weariness of their labor, and the place for which wandering souls have been searching since the fall.
Consummation: Perfect Rest
Through his perfect life and atoning death, Jesus opened the door for us to participate in God’s perfect rest in a way unavailable since the garden of Eden. The rest Jesus brings is a conquering of the effects of the fall—evil itself. As King and conqueror he is now restoring rest to his whole kingdom.
In a famous passage, the author of Hebrews outlines a brief theology of rest. Reflecting on the Old Testament, he explains that if Canaan had been the final rest promised by God, then God would never have spoken to David in Psalm 95 about another rest yet to be obtained. “So then, there remains a Sabbath rest for the people of God, for whoever has entered God’s rest has also rested from his works as God did from his” (Heb. 4:9–10). The comparison is this: God did all his work and then rested from it on the seventh day. Similarly, Christians, having completed all that the Lord ordained for them to do (Eph. 2:10), will cease from all their activities in this life and enter into God’s creational rest, that is, the completion of all their labor.
Now, this rest is obtained only by faith (Heb. 4:2–3). For Israel, the promise of God was the land of Canaan. For us it is the promised rest based on the finished work of our Great High Priest, “who passed through the heavens, Jesus, the Son of God” (v. 14). By faith in that finished work we are united to God and enter into his rest. That is why “there remains a Sabbath rest for the people of God” (v. 9).
The apostle John adds: “And I heard a voice from heaven saying, ‘Write this: Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord from now on.’ ‘Blessed indeed,’ says the Spirit, ‘that they may rest from their labors, for their deeds follow them!’” (Rev. 14:13). Of course, our works in and of themselves never earn God’s favor. For, in fact, our righteous deeds are possible only by the ongoing work of the Father, “who works in you, both to will and to work for his good pleasure” (Phil. 2:13). They are produced only in those who abide in the vine Jesus, without whom we can do nothing (John 15:5). They are the fruit of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23). Our good works, then, find their source and power in the holy Trinity.
In the beginning all of life was in a state of perfect harmony. Creation was at rest. And sin disturbed that rest. The remedy to our restlessness is therefore the same as the remedy for sin. And since Jesus Christ became a curse for us in his death, he redeemed us from the law’s curse (3:13). We await the full realization of Christ’s victory. John writes, “No longer will there be anything accursed, but the throne of God and of the Lamb will be in it, and his servants will worship him” (Rev. 22:3; cf. 21:3–4). Then will we truly be at rest with God, creation, and ourselves.
The ways our rest is disturbed in the West are minor compared to the suffering of many believers in persecuted lands. Those in North Korea, China, and South Sudan know disturbance of rest in terrible ways that we do not. But it will not always be so. Jesus says, “I am the root and the descendant of David, the bright morning star. . . . Surely I am coming soon” (22:16, 20). Why does Jesus include a reference to David? He does so because the promise was given to David and his heir, “Violent men shall afflict them no more, as formerly. . . . And I will give you rest from all your enemies” (2 Sam. 7:10–11). A third of the book of Revelation describes the defeat of those enemies. It is fitting, then, that Jesus refers to himself as the Davidic heir who is established upon the throne of God’s kingdom forever, the one to whom God grants perfect rest from all adversaries.
The finality of judgment makes this rest lasting. Just before the promise of rest, there is a vision of final judgment: the idolater “will drink the wine of God’s wrath, poured full strength into the cup of his anger, and he will be tormented. . . . And the smoke of their torment goes up forever and ever, and they have no rest, day or night” (Rev. 14:10–11). The wicked seemingly have more ease in this life than the righteous. Ironically, in the next life the tables will be turned. Those who struggled for righteousness will enjoy rest, while those who refused to bow their hearts to Jesus Christ will suffer unrest.
“Displacement” is when people are forced to relocate due to political or ethnic unrest. According to International Christian Concern, about 105,000 Christians are martyred annually. Their families and friends are often displaced. This is why Scripture describes us as strangers and aliens in this world (Heb. 11:13).
Jesus speaks of Christians’ having a permanent home with him and the Father: “In my Father’s house are many rooms. If it were not so, would I have told you that I go to prepare a place for you? And . . . I will come again and will take you to myself” (John 14:1–3). Jesus’ words encourage disciples who have left their homes to follow him. And he goes away to prepare their permanent home. The hope of the gospel is the hope of an everlasting home with Jesus Christ in the Father’s house, never to be disturbed or displaced again.
The Kingdom of God9
Creation: The Kingdom Inaugurated
Genesis 1 tells of God’s establishment of his created kingdom and vice-regents who rule on his behalf. It portrays a king sitting on his throne, issuing forth his sovereign decrees of creation. He alone is King.
He is also Israel’s covenant God. For God’s people, reading Genesis in the Sinai wilderness, it is a “narrative recounting how God initially establishes his kingdom and thereby justifies his kingly claim to possess and dispose of whatever is, and correspondingly, why the land [of Canaan] rightfully belongs to Israel as [the Lord’s] people”10 (Gen. 15:18; Deut. 31:16–20).
When the text declares humankind as created in his image (Gen. 1:26–28), it uses the language of kingship: “dominion” and “subdue.” As a result of being God’s image bearers, humankind is empowered as royal rulers in his place.
Fall: The Kingdom at War
God’s kingdom enjoys perfect peace until Adam and Eve rebel. The Serpent, the antagonist of the story, is in cahoots with an as-yet-unknown evil power, later revealed to be Satan (Gen. 3:1).11
In Genesis 3, Satan denies the King’s decree of 2:17 and, using brazen deception, questions the motivation and character of the King. He seduces Eve with the lures of self-exaltation and instant gratification.
God’s vice-regents fail miserably to execute their kingly duties. The human condition degrades until the flood, when “the LORD saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth” (6:5). Even after God cleanses the earth, preserving only Noah and his family, the sin of Adam and Eve continues to be manifested.
From the very first attempted coup, the Scriptures affirm the ongoing sovereignty of God. Even with the terrible effects of Adam’s sin, the Lord’s kingship remains (Ps. 103:19).
Redemption: The Kingdom Victorious
God promises victory when he curses the Serpent: “I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel” (Gen. 3:15). The Bible subsequently records many conflicts between God’s kingdom and that of the evil prince of this world.
The King accomplishes great victories for his people. He uses Abraham and ordinary men to defeat the powerful alliance of five kings and their professional armies and rescue Abraham’s nephew, Lot (Genesis 14). He uses Moses and ten devastating plagues to vanquish the great potentate Pharaoh and the gods of Egypt and liberate the Israelites (Exodus 7–14). He uses David, a shepherd boy, to defeat the Philistine champion, Goliath (1 Samuel 17). God covenants with David to establish a king forever from his offspring. Henceforth the promise of a king from David’s lineage is interwoven with the promise of a redeemer, the Messiah.
The New Testament identifies Jesus Christ as this Messiah, the heir to David’s throne, who will restore forever the kingdom to God’s people. When Jesus, the Son of God, declares, “. . . before Abraham was, I am” (John 8:58), he identifies himself with the Lord God—who is vastly greater than Abraham.
Jesus rescues his people by dying and rising for them and thus also overcomes the Devil (John 10:11; 12:31; 16:11). Paul exalts Christ’s crucifixion: “Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures” (1 Cor. 15:3). And the apostle extols Jesus’ resurrection: “But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ” (v. 57).
The Son of God became a man to die to vanquish the Evil One and deliver God’s people from the terrible bondage of sin (Heb. 2:14–15). Through the exodus, Moses led the captives of Egypt to freedom at Sinai, but he could not free them from sin. What Moses’ law was powerless to do, God did by sending his Son (Rom. 8:1–3), whose death forever broke the bonds of slavery to sin for all believers (6:10, 18, 22; Gal. 4:4–7).
Ezekiel describes the future work of Christ, the Shepherd of God’s people (Ezek. 34:23–28). Jesus begins his public ministry by declaring, “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand” (Mark 1:15). Ezekiel’s day has arrived; the Son of David, the King, will conquer all the enemies of God’s people. Day by day his ministry evidences his divine kingship in his authoritative teaching, supernatural healings, and authority over demons. The Shepherd-King has come, died, and risen, and will protect his people (Heb. 13:20–21). And when he comes again to gather his flock forever, the promise to David will be fully realized: “The Lamb in the midst of the throne will be their shepherd, and he will guide them to springs of living water, and God will wipe away every tear from their eyes” (Rev. 7:17).
Consummation: The Kingdom at Peace
The final battle in Revelation 16–20 acts as prelude to the vision of renewed creation in chapters 21–22. The new kingdom will be established only when God grants complete victory.
The climax of the book is the final outcome of the war between good and evil.12 The war is a struggle between two opposing powers, the Trinity and the counterfeit trinity.13 The throne of the Father and the Lamb battles against the throne of Satan (2:13; 13:2; 16:10). John’s visions center on God the Father, who sits on the throne (3:21; 4:2–5:1), and Jesus Christ his Son, Lord and heir of David (22:16), who sits at the Father’s right hand (3:21; 22:1, 3). They also focus on the struggle between the Trinity and “the great dragon . . . that ancient serpent, who is called the devil and Satan” (12:9).
Revelation is replete with battles.14 Regardless of whether one associates the characters in Revelation with actual political nations (e.g., Rome), this is clear: the active power behind these agents is the Devil. The conflict between good and evil intensifies as the book progresses, as the increasing scope of the plagues shows. The visions escalate in scope of destruction, beginning with a quarter of the earth in chapter 6 (the seven seals), a third in chapters 8–9 (the seven trumpets), and everything in chapters 15–16 (the seven bowls).
Revelation 16–20 variously depicts the great victory of the Lamb, the King from David’s line, who slays God’s enemies and casts them into everlasting torment (19:20; 20:10). The kingdom of God will then exist as it was intended since creation (11:15–18). The foes, the “destroyers of the earth” (v. 18), are introduced at different points throughout the book: the Dragon (12:1–17), Satan, who is also the scarlet beast (17:1–14); the Beast of the sea together with the false prophet (13:1–10); and Babylon (14:9–18). Christ’s victory over these enemies occurs in reverse order to that in which they are introduced.
The two foes depicted as proceeding from Satan remind Christians of the tactics of the Evil One in the garden, who deceived Eve and seduced her by false statements. Christ breaks this pattern, first defeating the world’s seduction and then doing away with deception altogether.
The apostle John sees the fall of Babylon in Revelation 17–18. Babylon is portrayed as a woman sitting on a scarlet beast, “arrayed in purple and scarlet, and adorned with gold and jewels and pearls” (17:4). She represents the seduction of all types of immorality—sex, power, wealth, pleasure—that oppose God’s holy people from Genesis 3 until the end. And on that day, Babylon will be judged—thrown down, never again to bewitch people with her seductions (18:21–23).
Seduction is a powerful weapon of Satan because it perverts the goodness of God’s creation. Christ’s victory over seduction means there will no longer be things to draw our hearts away from the purity of devotion to Christ (2 Cor. 11:3).
The second manifestation of Satan’s attacks occurs in Revelation 13, where the Beast of the sea and the beast of the earth—later identified as the “false prophet” (Rev. 16:13; 19:20)—create a system to lure people to worship Satan. The two beasts cooperate in performing miracles, even imitating Christ’s resurrection, to deceive “those who dwell on earth,” that is, unbelievers.15
The two beasts together, then, depict the worldly systems orchestrated by Satan to draw people away from true knowledge of God. The original readers recognized some of these patterns in their day, but John’s vision transcends any particular culture or nation.16 The Scriptures exhort believers to be of sober mind (Rom. 12:3; 1 Pet. 1:13) because the world’s systems oppose Christ’s kingdom.
Christ’s victory over deception creates tremendous hope. In the eternal kingdom Christians will enjoy amazing freedom because sin will be gone forever.
Satan, the “accuser,” will also be defeated (Rev. 12:10–11). He began this war with his accusations in Genesis 3. He empowers his servants and is the deceiver of the whole world (Rev. 13:4; 12:9). After his minions are cast into the eternal lake of fire, he too is cast there, to be tormented with them forever (19:20; 20:10).
The external foes have been conquered. What remains is to put away sin from within God’s people entirely (Eph. 4:24). John’s visions depict this in their donning white garments, the righteous deeds of the saints (Rev. 3:5; 6:11; 7:13–14; 19:6–8). The phrase “it was granted” to Christ’s bride (19:8) gives us understanding. The white garments were a gift to the saints, not earned by them. Christ conquered the enemy within us by his death and resurrection. The consummation of his victory will result in his church being “holy and without blemish” (Eph. 5:27).
Only the last enemy remains: death (1 Cor. 15:26). John sees death personified in Revelation 20:13–15 and destroyed in 21:4—“death shall be no more.” Death is unnatural and contrary to God’s design (Gen. 2:17). Even though believers are with the Lord when they die (Phil. 1:21–23), the Christian hope lies in the resurrection and new creation (1 Thess. 4:13–17).
John closes his description of the New Jerusalem with these words: “Nothing unclean will ever enter it, nor anyone who does what is detestable or false” (Rev. 21:27). Without the presence of evil, the creation will exist for the first time (since the fall) without an influence pushing it away from God. The new creation is a place where only righteousness will flourish (2 Pet. 3:13). Based on Christ’s saving work, God declares us righteous now (Rom. 4:5; 5:1) and will perfect us in righteousness in the life to come (1 John 3:2–3). Resurrected and transformed believers will be as incapable of sinning as they are of undoing Christ’s death and resurrection. That is victory indeed!
The Presence of God17
Creation: Serving in God’s Presence
Ancient Israelites reading Genesis 1–3 would have underlined the Lord’s presence in the garden of Eden. They would have understood the garden as the first dwelling place and temple of the Lord God, in which Adam and Eve served and worshiped.18
The garden is planted by God near Eden (Gen. 2:8). A feature of palace and temple complexes in Moses’ day was a royal garden for the very powerful and important people (cf. Est. 1:5). The Lord himself is such a person.
One further indication that the garden of Eden is the Lord’s royal palace is the presence of his royal guard. Kings or gods protected their dwellings. So it is with Eden. The Lord stations his guardian cherubs at the edge of Eden to protect its sanctity against the return of then impure Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:24).
Not only is the garden of Eden the first royal dwelling place of the Lord God, but it is also his temple. Geographically, the garden’s entrance is on the east (3:24), as was the entrance to the tabernacle (Ex. 27:13–16). This suggests Moses is drawing a parallel between entering Eden and entering the tabernacle. Genesis 3 suggests God himself regularly walked in the garden (v. 8). But because of our first parents’ sin, they are afraid of facing their Maker and hide.
Fall: Banished from God’s Presence
When Eve and Adam eat the forbidden fruit, they disobey God’s command (Gen. 2:16–17). And since the garden of Eden is God’s first royal dwelling place, they rob God’s temple, his palace. Of course, it is impossible for them to hide from God’s presence. The hiding serves as an opportunity for dialogue between Adam and God. The presence of the Lord exposes disobedience to him, resulting in fear, shame, and guilt.19 After setting forth punishments for their disobedience, God banishes Adam and Eve from the garden (3:24) and his presence.
Redemption: Renewed by God’s Presence
Mercifully, God banishes the first humans and their progeny from the garden so that they may not “take also of the tree of life and eat, and live forever” (3:22). Sin has introduced death (2:17). To allow Adam and Eve to live forever in their condemnation would be cruel, for it would imprison them in a life of misery. To remedy the problem that sin has created, God provides a way to once again dwell among his people without contaminating his own holy presence.
After the exodus God meets with his people on Mount Sinai, and his holy presence descends in fire, smoke, and lightning. The people are afraid when God speaks and instead ask Moses to speak to them for God (Ex. 20:18–19).
God commands Moses to take up a contribution from the people, that they may “make me a sanctuary, that I may dwell in their midst” (25:8). This is to be a portable dwelling place designed by the Lord (25:40; 27:8). God provides for his sinful people to be present with him without defiling his holiness by instituting the sacrificial system. Obedience would result in the Lord’s continued presence, protection from their enemies, and possession of the Promised Land. But disobedience would result in untold hardships and ultimately banishment into the hands of their enemies (Leviticus 26).
Later Israel obtains possession of the Promised Land, and God establishes a permanent dwelling place in Jerusalem (1 Kings 5–8). Solomon places the ark of the covenant within the temple, and the glory cloud of the Lord’s presence fills the temple (8:10–11), just as it did the tabernacle (Ex. 40:34–38). Solomon prays that the people will always be faithful to the covenant (1 Kings 8:22–61). Israel, however, goes after other gods (v. 58). And the Lord, faithful to his covenant, gives Israel into the hands of their enemy—Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon—who burns down the temple (2 Kings 25:9), symbolizing the departure of the Lord’s presence from among his rebellious people (Ezek. 10:1–22).
The apostle John records the answer to Solomon’s prayer: the return of the presence of God among his people in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:1, 14). What God’s people were powerless to perform, God himself did through his Son, Jesus Christ, who humbled himself, died, and arose to renew God’s presence among his people (Rom. 8:3; Heb. 9:23–27).
About to leave his disciples, Jesus says he will not leave them alone: “And I will ask the Father, and he will give you another Helper, to be with you forever, even the Spirit of truth. . . . You know him, for he dwells with you and will be in you” (John 14:16–17). All those indwelt by the Holy Spirit are the true temple, the true house of the living God (Eph. 2:18–22; 1 Pet. 2:5). Despite divisions among Christians, there is only one church and one true temple of the living God (1 Cor. 3:16). All are one, united by the indwelling presence of God’s Spirit.
Consummation: Blessed with God’s Presence
All along God has stated he is with his people; in Revelation God pictures his presence with them.
God promises blessing to the one who reads and those who keep “the words of” John’s “prophecy” (Rev. 1:3). For John’s original audience in Asia Minor to understand his message, they must have understood his imagery based on their knowledge at the time. And we must read Revelation as if we were their contemporaries.20
John writes, “Then I saw,” or, “And I saw,” because he is not interpreting the visions himself. John does not present the visions in the form of propositions, because they are metaphorical.
Both Testaments refer to God’s people as his bride (Isa. 61:10; Jer. 2:2; John 3:29). This predisposes readers to understand John’s references to “his Bride” as the collective worshipers of God (see Rev. 19:7–8).
The text says John “saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband” (21:2). In the Old Testament, Jerusalem was often used as a name for the people of God (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:1; 62:6). So it is here.
Revelation 21:1–27 forms a cohesive narrative unit. Consider the following verses:
And I saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband. (v. 2)
Then came one of the seven angels . . . saying, “Come, I will show you the Bride, the wife of the Lamb.” And he . . . showed me the holy city Jerusalem coming down out of heaven from God, having the glory of God.” (vv. 9–11)
There are striking parallels between the two passages. The scene in 21:9–27 is related to that of verses 1–2. What place, then, do verses 3–8 play? There John records what he heard (vv. 3, 5). John signals in verse 1 that he sees the New Jerusalem in the new heaven and new earth. As he sees this part of the vision, he twice hears a voice from the throne. John tells us about the voice before he returns to the vision of the New Jerusalem and provides more details.
The imagery of the bride communicates that God is united to his people and dwells among them (v. 3). God is both transcendent creator and loving husband!
In addition to functioning as narrative links, 21:1–2 and 9–10 function as headings for the verses that follow. Verses 3–8 are easy to understand because they are written in propositional statements. He redeems all things in perfect righteousness.
Revelation 21:11–27 is different. The text shifts to description of John’s vision. Helpfully, John links the two sections. What John hears from the voice on the throne in 21:3–8 he sees pictured in verses 11–27. Thus the whole of Revelation 21 describes the same heavenly reality, “the dwelling place of God . . . with man” (v. 3).
Should we understand the New Jerusalem as a future, physical city? John does not intend to suggest that a near 1,380-mile21 cube will descend one day and land upon modern Jerusalem. The key is: how does this description of the New Jerusalem differ from the Jerusalem familiar to the original readers?
The city’s description is partially derived from Isaiah 52:1. The imagery of the bride and the description of a place where “nothing unclean will ever enter” (Rev. 21:27) portray this new, sin-free state. Moreover, the city’s “gates will never be shut by day—and there will be no night there” (v. 25). To avoid danger the gates of ancient cities were closed at sundown. In the new city there is no more danger, for sin and death have passed away (vv. 1, 4–5).
This temple dramatically differs from previous ones—Herod’s temple in the first century and Solomon’s in the Old Testament. While smaller objects within the tabernacle and temple were made of pure gold, larger elements were only overlaid with gold (Ex. 25:11–13, 24–28; 26:29, 37). In Revelation 21, however, the city and its streets, gates, and wall are gold or precious jewels through and through (vv. 11, 18–21). The city in which God dwells is the picture of glorious perfection.
What, then, does the scene of New Jerusalem depict? How would the original audience have understood it?
First, John intentionally focuses the reader’s attention on the shape of the city more than its measurement: “The city lies foursquare, its length the same as its width. And he measured the city with his rod, 12,000 stadia. Its length and width and height are equal” (v. 16). To first-century readers the measurement of 12,000 stadia would be astonishingly enormous. John describes the city as a cube. There is only one cubical structure recorded in the Old Testament—the Most Holy Place (1 Kings 6:20). Thus the New Jerusalem functions as a Most Holy Place, where the presence of God dwells, but on a vastly grander scale.
Second, the climax of the story reads, “And I saw no temple in the city, for its temple is the Lord God the Almighty and the Lamb” (Rev. 21:22). The Old Testament temple was modeled largely upon the tabernacle, which was built according to “the pattern” shown to Moses (Ex. 25:9, 40). The tabernacle and temple were representations of the true tabernacle, the true Most Holy Place (Heb. 8:1–2). Revelation 21 portrays this true dwelling place of God. There is no more structure to separate the holy presence of God from the sinfulness of his people because there is no sin in the holy city. The fullness of God’s holy presence extends unabated throughout the new creation.
The image of the church as the bride of the Lamb pictures the intimate union between God and his people. The picture of the city-temple of God, the New Jerusalem, portrays the people of God as experiencing the fullness of the Lord’s presence in a way once only possible in the Most Holy Place. Each picture communicates the intimate, personal presence of God with his people. Taken together, they portray a scene that astonished believers’ minds in the first century—and does the same to ours today.
The Glory of God22
Creation: Crowned with Glory
When God created men and women, he gave them his own glory. “Then God said, ‘Let us make man in our image, after our likeness’ ” (Gen. 1:26). The image of God in the Old Testament—apart from two figurative uses—always has physical form in view.23 Our bodies bear the marks of their creator.
Humankind’s dominion is also tied to this image. “When the author of Genesis 1 claimed that man was made as the image of God, he meant that man was to be God’s representative on earth, ruling, or having dominion, on God’s behalf, like a king.”24 In contrast to the dominant mind-set of the time, it is not only the king who bears God’s image but all, including men and women. This dominion, unique to humanity, is a royal stewardship over creation derived from the sovereign dominion of God over all things (Dan. 4:35). God has, as David says, “put all things under [our] feet,” that we might exercise “dominion over the works of [God’s] hands” (Ps. 8:6). God has crowned human beings “with glory and honor” (v. 5). Bearing God’s image is man’s and woman’s coronation in glory, their ruling as stewards of all creation.
The most basic of all human glories is the glory of being created (Gen. 1:27). God created because it was his good pleasure. And every person is valuable to God simply because he or she exists. The story of creation impresses upon us a glorious thought: since I am a unique human among all humans, I must be personally, individually special in the Creator’s eyes.
Genesis 1:27 has glorious implications for individuals and for the whole people of God, for the responsibility of dominion falls on the shoulders of men and women as fellow image bearers (vv. 26–28). We collectively glorify God in a way otherwise impossible if only one gender existed.
It is not that people must be married to reflect God’s glory. Jesus, the image of God, was unmarried. Rather, humankind was created in and for community, even as God himself exists in community: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
Fall: Exchange of Glory
Jeremiah describes the folly of self-glorification:
Has a nation changed its gods,
even though they are no gods?
But my people have changed their glory
for that which does not profit.
Be appalled, O heavens, at this;
be shocked, be utterly desolate,
declares the LORD,
for my people have committed two evils:
they have forsaken me,
the fountain of living waters,
and hewed out cisterns for themselves,
broken cisterns that can hold no water. (Jer. 2:11–13)
We forsake the Creator and run to the creation, which by its very nature is no god at all (Hab. 2:16–20). As Paul says, each of us has “exchanged the truth about God for a lie” (Rom. 1:25).
Not only do all individuals fall short of God’s glory (Rom. 3:23), but so do the people of God as a whole. The first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Ex. 20:3), enjoins each of us personally and God’s people communally. And yet in just a few days the entire camp of Israel abandoned that commandment and exchanged the glory of God for a golden image in the shape of a calf (32:1–6). The results of Israel’s long love affair with idols are its two captivities. But God is merciful. Indeed, despite humanity’s unfaithfulness, God remembers his covenant and brings glory from dust.
Redemption: Transformed in Glory
Since God’s glory is embedded in our very creation as men and women in the image of God, there is still hope for human glory (Col. 1:27). Though thoroughly corrupted, the image of God is not annihilated by Adam’s sin (Gen. 9:6; James 3:9). The problem of the fall is a problem not with God’s glory but with our inability to live according to our created purpose. We need to “put on the new self” and to be “renewed in knowledge after the image of [our] creator” (Col. 3:10). We need someone to cleanse the pollution of our hearts and restore the shine to our tarnished lives. We need a glory redeemer.
Who alone can restore our lost glory? Our restorer of glory must be both God and man. Only one meets those qualifications (1:15, 18; Heb. 1:2–3). The eternal Son of God became incarnate as the true image of God and radiance of his glory to rescue us.
The author of Hebrews portrays this glory redeemer, Jesus Christ, the Son of God (2:5–10). To humanity was given original glory and dominion upon earth (vv. 6–8). But because of our sin, the earth is not yet in subjection to us (v. 8). To restore our glory Jesus had to become human so that he might defeat the power of sin (v. 9). At his ascension he was crowned with everlasting glory and honor. Christ’s death and resurrection have irreversibly set in motion the final events of this age that will bring every believer into the redemptive fullness of his or her glory (v. 10).
This personal restoration of glory has a common purpose for all Christians: to unite us under one Father in one Spirit by one Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ (Eph. 4:4–5). As we gaze upon Christ, we gaze upon the image of God the Father himself (John 14:9; Col. 1:15), and as we do so, we are transformed into his image with ever-increasing glory (2 Cor. 3:18). The glory given to our first parents at creation is being increased in us as we become more like Christ. Because he has been glorified, we also will be (1 Cor. 15:51–53; 1 John 3:2).
Consummation: Brilliance in Glory
Our future is not a simple restoration of creational glory; it involves a greater glory than even that of Eden.
The destruction of our bodies is all around us: frailty, genetic defects, cancer, and so on. Yet God’s Word encourages us: “So we do not lose heart. Though our outer self is wasting away, our inner self is being renewed day by day. For this light momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison” (2 Cor. 4:16–18). A glorious life and inheritance are ours now, guaranteed by the Spirit who indwells us (Eph. 1:13–14). And one day, when Christ comes to abolish sin and death forever, every disease will be healed and every evil abated forever (Rev. 21:4).
The resurrection of Jesus Christ is the chief source of hope for Christians (1 Cor. 15:3–8, 12–22). Christ’s atoning death, life-giving resurrection, and ascension (Rom. 5:10) announce him as both King and Savior of all humankind (Acts 2:36). When he returns we will participate in his resurrection (1 Cor. 15:20–23). But not only is Christ the means by which we are resurrected; he is also the model for our future resurrected bodies (Rom. 6:5; Phil. 3:21; Col. 3:4) because the same Spirit who raised Jesus from the dead also dwells in us (Rom. 8:9–11).25
What does it mean that we shall “be like him” in the resurrection? Jesus mentions brightness: “The righteous will shine like the sun” (Matt. 13:43, quoting Dan. 12:2). The book of Revelation does too: “And the city [the New Jerusalem] has no need of sun or moon to shine on it, for the glory of God gives it light, and its lamp is the Lamb” (Rev. 21:23, echoing Isa. 60:19).
Whereas our bodies are now characterized by this sin-cursed world, our resurrection bodies will be characterized by the glorious world to come (1 Cor. 15:36–39). Paul says our bodies now are the seed that in the resurrection will grow into a flourishing plant. Though our bodies now are weak because of sin (Matt. 26:41), in the resurrection they will be powerful (1 Cor. 15:43). In that day our bodies will be empowered for perfect service to Christ.
Note that we will be resurrected in our own bodies. Scripture teaches that our individuality continues in the resurrection. This is what Paul promises: “If the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will also give life to your mortal bodies through his Spirit who dwells in you” (Rom. 8:11). And it is an error to conclude from Jesus’ words, “For in the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven” (Matt. 22:30), that in the resurrection humans will be neither male nor female but asexual: though some of our needs will be different then, we will be male and female as at present and will enjoy gendered relationships forever.
God is faithful and will sanctify us completely when Jesus returns (1 Thess. 5:22–23), equipping us for life on “a new earth in which righteousness dwells” (2 Pet. 3:13). The apostle John agrees: “Beloved, we are God’s children now, and what we will be has not yet appeared; but we know that when he appears we shall be like him, because we shall see him as he is” (1 John 3:2). When Jesus comes again, God will enable us to see the glorified Christ, and we will be changed by that seeing. We will be transformed and as a result will share his moral likeness. Our hearts, minds, and bodies will be made perfect.
Some Christians think that unless they attain a certain level of faithfulness, they will experience regret and loss at the coming of Christ. It is true that we all will stand before Christ and be examined (Rev. 1:14). But when Christ our advocate confesses us before his Father, we will come away approved, overflowing with divine love and joy (Matt. 10:32; Jude 24).
“There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus” (Rom. 8:1). Christ’s propitiation on the cross has brought us near to God by his own blood (3:25). And we will never be disappointed, because “hope does not put us to shame, because God’s love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit who has been given to us” (5:5). Our acceptance before God is based on God’s freely given salvation, and therefore it can never be lost: “For I am sure that neither death nor life, nor angels nor rulers, nor things present nor things to come, nor powers, nor height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord” (8:38–39).
Thus Scripture assures all believers they will one day enter eternally into the Father’s joy and love. This produces overflowing joy because of the glory that divine love has conferred upon us. The master in the parable of the talents, God himself, says to both good servants: “Well done, good and faithful servant. You have been faithful over a little; I will set you over much. Enter into the joy of your master” (Matt. 25:21, 23). The Lord of the universe cares much about what his servants have done. Here is complete fulfillment—to be praised by God at the end of the age.
When Jesus returns to make all things right, he will share his glorious inheritance—imperishable, undefiled, and unfading—with us (1 Pet. 1:3–4). The great prospect of sharing God’s glory for all eternity affects our lives now. It enables us to love him in worship, work, and play. It enables us to love one another and invite others to love him. Praise the Lord!
1 Alister E. McGrath, A Brief History of Heaven (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2003), 3.
2 For a fuller treatment of these five pictures, see Dan C. Barber and Robert A. Peterson, Life Everlasting: The Unfolding Story of Heaven, Explorations in Biblical Theology (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2012), 17–50. I received much help from this book.
3 This is a modification of the interpretation that the woman’s desire is to “domineer” over the man. See Susan T. Foh, “What Is the Woman’s Desire?” WTJ 37/3 (1975): 376–83.
4 Gale Z. Heide, “What Is New about the New Heaven and the New Earth? A Theology of Creation from Revelation 21 and 2 Peter 3,” JETS 40 (March 1997): 54.
5 Ibid., 43.
6 Dennis E. Johnson, Triumph of the Lamb: A Commentary on Revelation (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2001), 303–4.
7 See Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 1–15, vol. 1, WBC (Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 35.
8 On the moral questions surrounding the conquest of Canaan, see C. S. Cowles et al., Show Them No Mercy: Four Views on God and Canaanite Genocide, Counterpoints, ed. Stanley N. Gundry (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2003).
9 See also The Kingdom of God, Theology in Community, ed. Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2012).
10 Bruce R. Reichenbach, “Genesis 1 as a Theological-Political Narrative of Kingdom Establishment,” BBR 13/1 (2003): 56, emphasis original.
11 G. K. Beale, The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text, NIGTC (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 655–56.
12 Though Satan is stronger than we, he is subject to the will of the Lord (Job 1:6–12; Dan. 4:35).
13 The counterfeit trinity includes the Dragon (like the Father, Rev. 12:3), the Beast of the sea with a “mortal wound [that] was healed” (like the Son, 13:1–3), and the false prophet (or beast of the earth, like the Spirit, 13:11–17).
14 Scholars disagree on the millennium of Revelation 20, and I will avoid debates and focus on the eternal kingdom in the new creation. For millennial views, see Darrell L. Bock et al., Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1999).
15 Beale, Book of Revelation, 290; Leon Morris, The Revelation of St. John, TNTC (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987), 166.
16 Beale, Book of Revelation, 685–86.
17 See also Lanier Burns, The Nearness of God, Explorations in Biblical Theology, ed. Robert A. Peterson (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2009).
18 G. K. Beale, The Temple and the Church's Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God, NSBT (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2004), 66. Beale’s treatment provides a framework for the rest of this subsection.
19 C. John Collins, Genesis 1–4: A Linguistic, Literary, and Theological Commentary (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2005), 174.
20 So Beale, Book of Revelation, 1077.
21 This assumes a stadion measures about 607 ft./185 m.
22 See also The Glory of God, Theology in Community, ed. Christopher W. Morgan and Robert A. Peterson (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2010).
23 Bruce K Waltke, An Old Testament Theology: An Exegetical, Canonical, and Thematic Approach (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007), 215.
24 Ian Hart, “Genesis 1:1–2:3 as a Prologue to the Book of Genesis,” TynBul 46/2 (1995): 319–20.
25 N. T. Wright, Surprised by Hope: Rethinking Heaven, the Resurrection, and the Mission of the Church, 1st ed. (New York: HarperOne, 2008), 149.